University of the Philippines Visayas

Miagao 5023, Iloilo Philippines College of Arts and Sciences

Division of Social Sciences Political Science Cluster

Ethics 1 – Ethics and Moral Reasoning in Everyday Life

Asynchronous Learning Materials
Prepared by: Mark Paul Inayan

Module 4: Asian and Indigenous Ethical Frameworks

In the preceding modules, you learned about different normative ethical

frameworks as a reference guide to approach practicl and later on applied
ethical discussions.

As such, you have also learned that different cultures are governed by
numerous value systems, and that they too have different standpoints on
the question of ethics and morality. This module endeavors to explore
different ethical frameworks that operate in Asian contexts such as Daoism,
Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christian Ethics, and Islamic Ethics.
While these frameworks appear to be seemingly disparate, they can be
classified with respect to their conceptions of ethics, namely: (1) ethics as a
quest for spiritual liberation, (2) ethics as a way of life, and (3) religious
conceptions of ethics.

As you go through this module, you will soon realize how Hinduism and
Buddhism demonstrates Ethics as a quest for spiritual liberation, how
Daoism and Confucianism views Ethics as a way of life, and how Christian
and Islamic Ethics underpin and highlight the religious conceptions of Ethics.

Module 5 opens with a discussion of the ethical frameworks in terms of

religious-metaphysical conundrum and the moral eschatology that orients
and regulates human effort to live an ethical and virtuous life. This is
followed by a discussion in terms of the fundamental concepts of the ethical
frameworks, and then concludes with a presentation and application of the
 proposed moral principle by these frameworks as a response to the practical
question on how one ought to live and act.

Objectives of the course:

The Objectives of the module:

1. Discuss the different sources of moral reasoning of the six

Asian ethical frameworks and religious conceptions;

2. Compare and contrast the ethical concepts and principles

articulated in these six frameworks;

3. Apply these frameworks in analyzing or evaluating situations

and moral dilemma; and

4. Critically reflect on the relevance of these frameworks to your

own context.

DIRECTIONS:

(1) Make sure that the your answers for the activities found in this material are
computerized and are highlighted in red.

(2) ☐Put a check or a mark on boxes once you have finished the reading
parts. You may leave a mark such as this example: X☐

(3) Once you are done with reading and answering the activities in this module,
make sure that you save the file as PDF using this file name: Module 5 Part 1
– Surname. Attach the file to an email to be sent to your instructor’s email
using this file name: SECTION (_), SURNAME, FIRSTNAME, MODULE _
Part _.

(4) Please note that this course pack is intended only for your use as a student
currently enrolled in Ethics 1. You are NOT ALLOWED to share, reproduce or
distribute it to anyone else. Should you need to use the course pack for any other
purpose than class, you should seek permission from the Author/Editor.

ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
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value of honor and excellence.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments/examinations will be

reported to the appropriate office and if established, will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with University rules, policies and procedures. I may work with others only
to the extent allowed by the Instructor.

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 Week 8-9. Asian and Indigenous Ethical Frameworks
(Continuation)
Study Schedule:
Nature of Ethics and moral reasoning
April 26 1.Asian Ethics 1. Discuss ethics as spiritual
liberation, way of life and as an
institution
April 29 2.Indigenous Ethics 2. Expand appreciation of ethics
from local knowledge systems &
disciplines
May 3 Cont.

May 6 3.Socio-cultural variables 3. Introduce socio-culturally

specific ethical perspectives

◼4.1 Ethics as a Quest for Spiritual Liberation

☐ 4.1.1 Hinduism (1/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world. The canonical texts of
Hinduism are the Vedas and the Upanishads, but the Indian epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata prove to be equally rich resources in understanding the
meaning of one of Hinduism’s most fundamental ethical concepts —
Dharma. For example, the Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord) which is part of
the Mahabharata is one of the most famous and oft quoted texts in the
discussion of Hindu ethics particularly in so far as the question and meaning
of ‘moral duty’ is concerned. Apart from being a religion, Hinduism is also
considered a philosophy.

Top Countries with the Largest Hindu Populations

1. India 8. Malaysia
2. Nepal 9. United Kingdom
3. Bangladesh 10. Myanmar
4. Pakistan
5. Indonesia
6. Sri Lanka
7. United States

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☐ Sat-Cit-Ananda (Absolute Being-Consciousness-Bliss) (2/4)
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The Hindu mythological rendering of the origin of the universe begins with
the story of the One-Self wrapped in nothingness. There was only void.
“There was then neither non-entity nor entity; there was neither atmosphere
nor sky above. Death was not then, nor immortality; there was no distinction
of day or night.” There was only darkness and “all was undistinguishable
water.”

But then Desire arose in this void. The One-Self looked and realized that it
was alone. This caused it loneliness and desire for a companion. It then
divided itself into two, and the master and the mistress came into being. Then
it wanted to be unified again. Unifying and dividing in various forms, it brought
the rest of creation into being.

Brahman is the name of this Absolute Being that poured forth all of reality.
The Alpha and Omega of reality. The corporeal self is just a sheath covering
of this true supreme self or reality, for Brahman is itself creation. But when
Hinduism refers to Brahman as the supreme self, it uses the term Atman—
inner self, inmost soul, or breath of life. Atman is Brahman— the inner self is
also the absolute being and principle of reality.

For those who realize this, life becomes simply a transitory stage in the quest
of the spirit’s realization of the divinity permeating all of reality. This
realization is possible only through the consciousness that the phenomenal
world is just an illusion (maya) and that the goal of life is to be released from
this illusory prism through the conscientious carrying out of one’s duty
(dharma). This ultimate release from ignorance and attachment to the
splintered phenomena and the fruits of action (karma) shall be a blissful
liberation.

☐ Sat-Cit-Ananda (Absolute Being-Consciousness-Bliss) (3/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Knowledge of this world is considered positive knowledge insofar as it is

actual knowledge of phenomena. But it is the wrong kind of knowledge
because it veils the true reality. It is our entrapment in this world of illusion
that tempts us to cling to it. This is what explains human beings’ obsession
with the fruits of Karma or action.

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In Hinduism, there are three kinds of acts: obligatory, prohibited, and
optional. An obligatory act is something that one must always perform
precisely because it is one’s obligation to perform it. In the same sense, one
must refrain from performing a prohibited act precisely because it is
prohibited. Finally, one is always free to perform or not to perform an optional
act precisely because it is an optional act. In neither of the three cases does
one gain a reward for one’s action. Acts are performed or not performed
according to the nature of the acts: performed if obligatory, avoided if
prohibited, and may be performed or not if it is optional.

The question of what one gains in following this ethical code is articulated in
terms not of reward but of punishment. This means that if one performs a
prohibited act, and does not perform an obligatory act, one gains ‘karmic’
particles. In Hinduism, karmic particles stand for the ‘fruits of Karma’ or the
fruits of action. These karmic particles serve as weights or chains that bind
the spirit to the world of phenomena. The more one gains karmic particles,
the longer one is to be bound to the cycle of transmigration.

The goal of life and action in Hinduism is detachment from these fruits or
consequences of actions. Acts must be performed/not performed purely for
their own sake and not for some reward. This is called Niskamakarma or no
(nis) pleasure (kama) action (karma). It is the only way one can gradually be
released from the chains of Karma.

This narrative is the Hindu explanation for the cycle of birth-rebirth referred
to as Samsara or transmigration. The process of transmigration is the
eschatological catharsis of the human spirit towards realizing its true nature,
or the overcoming of Maya (illusion) and Avidya (ignorance), and the
obsession with the fruits of Karma (action) in the world of phenomena.
Moving from one form and level of existence to another, the spirit must learn
spiritual detachment from the fruits of action, so it may give way to the
realization of the self’s divinity, which is also the obliteration of the ego.

☐ Purusharthas (The Four Ends of Life) (4/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

a. Artha (Material Wealth)

As entities entombed in a body, we naturally have material needs. This end
is called in Hinduism as Artha or material wealth.

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 b. Kama (Pleasure)
At the same time, we also naturally desire pleasure and happiness. This is
referred to as Kama. In its general sense, Kama points to the gratification of
the senses. But it may also refer to general well-being or a sense of
contentment

c. Dharma (Moral End/Duty/Nature)

The third end of life is Dharma. Dharma is plurisignificative: it can be
understood as (a) a moral end, (b) duty, (c) law, as well as (d) nature, but
its underlying sense is “that which supports”. It comes from the root word
dhri which means to support, hold up, or bear. Dharma points to the idea
that every entity that exists has a role to play, a duty to perform. This role or
duty springs from one’s very nature and its conscientious carrying out is the
measure of morality. In understanding this better, the story of the Sadhu
(holy man) and the scorpion comes as a poignant example.

A sage, seated beside the Ganges, notices a scorpion that has fallen into
the water. He reaches down and rescues it, only to be stung. Some time
later he looks down and sees the scorpion thrashing about in the water
again. Once more he reaches down to rescue it, and once more he is
stung. A bystander, observing all this, exclaims, “Holy one, why do
you keep doing that? Don’t you see that the wretched creature will
only sting you in return?” “Of course,” the sage replied. “It is the
dharma of a scorpion to sting. But it is the dharma of a human being to
save.” (Eastwaran 31)

This story reminds us that our moral duty is attached to our nature. At the
same time, we must perform it irrespective of our base inclinations. For the
Sadhu, as long as the scorpion does not give up on its nature, why should
he give up his and stop trying to save it?

d. Moksha (Blissful Spiritual Liberation)

The final aim of spiritual liberation in Hinduism is Moksha. It is in part the
liberation of the soul from the cycle of transmigration of birth-death-rebirth.
But it is also the release from the power of Maya and the enlightenment of
the mind to reach true knowledge or Vidya. Moksha is also the self’s
realization of its absolute divine nature. Finally, Moksha is at the same time
the blissful end of all pain and suffering. Moksha is the ultimate end
towards which all our actions must be directed.

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Deatiled case reading on Moksha

Dharma as “that which supports”

The notion of Dharma is intimately connected to the Hindu commitment to

the Chaturvarna or the four castes. The caste system consists of the Brahmin
(priests and gurus), Kshatriya (rulers, administrators, warriors, landowners),
Vaishya (produces, farmers, merchants), and Shudra (servants) classes.
Each class has corresponding roles and tasks that are equally fundamental
in sustaining society.

The notion of Dharma is attached to one’s social appellation. But what is

striking in the Hindu conception of duty is its divine origin and divine end. In
the Laws of Manu, it is recounted how all of the castes sprang from Brahman
— i.e. from his head (Brahmin), his arms (Kshatriya), his thighs (Vaishya),
his feet (Shudra) — each with a corresponding nature and responsibility to
carry out. This wide conception of duty as anchored in the necessity to
uphold the entire socio-political fabric is supplemented by the idea of
interdependence among members of the community. In this socio-political
framework, one must be as committed as possible to one’s responsibilities
for if one component of the social structure fails to perform its duties, all the
individual Dharma of the members of the society are affected. The disruption
of the interdependent social Dharma makes it impossible for individuals to
perform their own obligations and reach the other ends of life. Dharma in this
sense is thus not just an obligation one must perform, but also a commitment
that makes possible the pursuit of the other ends. Dharma thus means to
sustain, uphold, and nourish the society in order to nourish oneself.
Understanding this meaning also creates the sense of Dharma being the law
that maintains order in things or that which keeps them in their rightful place.

The importance of the moral end Dharma is beautifully illustrated in the

dialogue between the god of war Krishna and the warrior Arjuna in the
Bhagavad Gita. Arjuna belonging to the Kshatriya class, is tasked to protect
and fight for his people. But he was rent with grief when he learned that the
opposing camp in the war he was about to fight is composed of his kindred:

O Krishna, I see my own relations here anxious to fight, and my

limbs grow weak; my mouth is dry, my body shakes, and my hair
is standing on end. My skin burns, and the bow Gandiva has
slipped from my hand. I am unable to stand; my mind seems to be
whirling. These signs bode evil for us. I do not see that any good
can come from killing our relations in battle. O Krishna, I have no

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 desire for victory, or for a kingdom or pleasures. Of what use is a
kingdom or pleasure or even life, if those for whose sake we desire
these things—teachers, fathers, sons, grandfathers, uncles, in-
laws, grandsons, and others with family ties – are engaging in this
battle, renouncing their wealth and their lives? Even if they were to
kill me, I would not want to kill them, not even to become ruler of
the three worlds. How much less for the earth alone? (Bhagavad
Gita Ch. I: 28-35)

Arjuna adds: “It is said that those whose family dharma has been destroyed
dwell in hell. This is a great sin!” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. I: 44-45) Seeing Arjuna
in this state, Krishna remarked:

You speak sincerely, but your sorrow has no cause. Th e

wise grieve neither for the living nor for the dead. There has never
been a time when you and I and the kings gathered here have not
existed, norwill there be a time when we will cease to exist. As the
same person inhabits the body through childhood, youth, and old
age, so too at the time of death he attains another body. The wise
are not deluded by these changes. (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 11-13)

O mighty Arjuna, even if you believe the Self to be subject

to birth and death, you should not grieve. Death is inevitable for
the living; birth is inevitable for the dead. Since these are
unavoidable, you should not sorrow. Every creature is
unmanifested at first and then attains manifestation. When its
end has come, it once again becomes unmanifested. What is
there to lament in this? (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 26-28)

Deatiled case reading on Moksha (continued)

Dharma as “that

Having explained that the Self is neither born nor is destroyed, Krishna
reiterated the Dharma of Arjuna as a warrior:

Considering your dharma, you should not vacillate. For a warrior,

nothing is higher than a war against evil. The warrior confronted
with such a war should be pleased, Arjuna, for it comes as an
open gate to heaven. But if you do not participate in this battle
against evil, you will incur sin, violating your dharma and your
honor. (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 31-33)

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In the succeeding chapter, Krishna asserts how it is impossible to escape
one’s moral obligation for it springs from one’s own nature. “One who shirks
action does not attain freedom; no one can gain perfection by abstaining
from work. Indeed, there is no one who rests for even an instant; all creatures
are driven to action by their own nature.” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. III: 4-5) The
Laws of Manu further forewarns: “Dharma being violated, destroys; Dharma
being preserved, preserves; Dharma should not be violated, lest violated
Dharma destroy us.” (The Laws of Manu VIII: 15)

This account of Dharma highlights how the nourishment of a society is

dependent on the participation of all its members. At the same time, this
sense of interdependence is divinely inspired in that everything else flows
from and ends with the divine nature of Brahman. In the final analysis, the
self realizes that there is no ‘I’, that the ‘ego’ is a product of illusion, and it is
this illusion which the self must be liberated from in its quest for selflessness
and unification with the Absolute Being characterized as Consciousness and
Bliss. Krishna remarks: “They are forever free who renounce all selfish
desires and break away from the ego cage of “I,” “me,” and “mine” to be
united with the Lord. This is the supreme state. Attain to this, and pass from
death to immortality.” (Bhagavad Gita Ch. II: 71-72)

☐ 4.1.2 Buddhism
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical tradition that originated in India,

like Hinduism. It developed from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, or
the Buddha — the Awakened One. Two of the main practices of Buddhism
are compassion towards others and meditation leading to enlightenment.
The canonical texts of Buddhism are the Tripitaka or Three Baskets: Vinaya
Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

☐ Anatta-Anicca-Dukkha (Nothingness-Becoming-Suffering) (1/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

Both Buddhism and Hinduism take off from the belief that the different
entities, life forms, and levels of existences are the products of Samsara. But
in contrast to Hinduism, Buddhism asserts that the ultimate end of life is the
realization not of one’s absolute divinity, but rather the realization of one’s
absolute nothingness.

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 In addition, in Buddhism it is not being or permanence that characterizes
and constitutes reality but contingency and becoming. The transience of
reality, the fact that everything eventually fades and vanishes in the end, is
what causes the noble truth of life in Buddhism: the noble truth of suffering.
From the Buddhist perspective, what motivates and drives man to live the
moral virtuous life is not the desire for bliss, but the cessation of suffering.

☐ The Middle Way (2/2)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The cessation of suffering is possible only through the Middle Way, which
consists of understanding the Four Noble Truths and the practice of the
Eight-fold Path. This is what the Buddha refers to as the way to
Enlightenment or the Great Awakening.

A. Four Noble Truths

These are the following:

1. Dukkha (Noble truth of suffering) – “Birth, old age, sickness, and

death are suffering. Sadness, anger, jealousy, worry, anxiety, fear,
and despair are suffering. Separation from loved ones is suffering.
Association with those you hate is suffering. Desire, attachment, and
clinging to the five aggregates are suffering.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

2. Dukkha Samudaya (Noble truth of the origin of suffering) –

“Because of ignorance, people cannot see the truth about life, and they
become caught in the flames of desire, anger, jealousy, grief, worry,
fear, and despair.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

3. Dukkha Nirodha (Noble truth of the cessation of suffering) –

“Understanding the truth of life brings about the cessation of every
grief and sorrow and gives rise to peace and joy.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

4. Dukkha Nirodhagaminipratipat (Noble truth of the path) – “The path

which leads to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.
The Noble Eightfold Path is nourished by living mindfully. Mindfulness
leads to concentration and understanding which liberates you from
every pain and sorrow and leads to peace and joy.” (Hanh Ch. 22)

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B. Eight-fold Path

This consists of the following:

1. Sammaditthi (Right view) – Buddhism reminds that we must be cautious

and discriminating about what we allow to grow in our garden of thoughts.
The Buddha refers to 15 defilements that take root in the mind and cause
suffering: greed, ill-will, hostility, degeneration, dominance, envy, jealousy,
hypocrisy, fraud, obstinacy, presumption, conceit, arrogance, vanity, and
negligence. These defilements cause suffering and they must be weeded out
by six methods: (a) restrain from what pleases the senses that may cause
attachment; (b) use all that is in our power to cultivate peace in our heart; (c)
tolerate difference without abandoning our garden of thoughts to the wild; (d)
avoid all that is impure and those that will soil the mind; (e) destroy that which
causes defilement right from the root; and (f) develop skill and cultivating
peace. One must keep in mind the four noble truths.

2. Sammasankappo (Right intention) – One must know what to seek and

understand the path one intends to follow. This includes knowing the root
causes of suffering, and the correct methods of overcoming it as well as how
to achieve enlightenment and the need for it.

3. Sammavaca (Right speech) – Just like our actions, speech can also cause
harm to others and even ourselves. Buddhism thus nurtures the value of
being careful with our words. The Buddha proposes four methods of speech
that bring peace to ourselves and the people around us: (a) words of
honesty, for it is in truth that man finds enlightenment; (b) words of kindness
harmonizes the heart, allowing people to live together in peace; (c) words
that nurture are comforting rather than harming to the heart of others, and
they bring lasting peace; and (d) words that are worthy of saying at the
moment, as well as refraining from gossip, untruth, and selfishness.

4. Sammakamanto (Right action) – The ultimate moral command in

Buddhism is “to do no harm”. Actions must instead be infused with
compassion. As the world is a world of suffering, the least we can do is not
to worsen or be the cause of others’ suffering.

5. Samma-Ajivo (Right livelihood) – Buddhism enjoins us to refrain from

pursuing a livelihood that could harm lives. It is important that our livelihood
is geared instead towards the preservation and improvement of life.

6. Sammavayamo (Right effort) – Buddhism recognizes that what makes

liberation from suffering so difficult is the fact that the world of Maya or the

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life of Samsara is filled with attractive and desirable things that satisfy the
senses. In the midst of this therefore, the right effort to pursue liberation from
the magnetic power of the sensory world is required. This must be anchored
in the proper understanding that only by withdrawing from the pleasures of
the senses can one be freed from suffering.

7. Sammasati (Right mindfulness) – One can only fully follow the eight-fold
path if one also has a sense of mindfulness or awareness of one’s deeds,
thoughts, words, and the way one lives as a whole. It is through this that one
can keep oneself in check against indulging in the five hindrances of (a)
sensual desire; (b) ill-will; (c) laziness; (d) anxiety; and (e) doubt about our
state of mind.

8. Sammasamadhi (Right concentration) – In the path towards spiritual

liberation, one must have the right concentration in pursuing only this path
so as not to waver from it. One must always practice meditation so one may
concentrate on that which is important and true above all

The first two paths — right view and right intention — are focused on arriving
at the wisdom needed to direct one’s life. The succeeding three — right
speech, right action, and right livelihood — are concerned with cultivating
virtue. They constitute the ethical way of life. They are the expressions of
one’s wisdom. The last three paths — right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration — are geared towards meditation, the goal of which is to find
one’s inner peace in order for one’s mind to be free from distractions that will
cause it to misunderstand the truths of life and pursue the wrong things. In
the eight-fold path, the aim is to achieve wisdom, virtue, and peace.

◼4.2 Ethics as a Way of Life

Daoism and Confucianism are two philosophical traditions that originated in

China. In contrast to the more transcendent (other-worldly) orientation of
Indian Ethics, Chinese Ethics in the Daoist and Confucian sense are more
immanent (this-worldly) in orientation. For these two traditions, ethics is
anchored on a certain understanding of the fundamental role human beings
must play in the cosmos. In the case of Daoism, the concern is how one
ought to live with and as part of Nature. In the case of Confucianism, the
focus is on how one can be in harmony with one’s fellowmen. In both
instances, ethics is a question of the art of living.

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☐ 4.2.1 Daoism
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The “School of the Way” or the school that teaches the Dao is rendered in
Chinese as Dao Jia. The teachings of this school, which are both
philosophical and practical, constitute what is referred to in the West as
Daoism. This is to be contrasted with Dao Jio, which refers to the religious
tradition that practices the Way.

Daoism both as a philosophical and religious tradition owes much of its

development to the interpretation of the Dao De Jing translated as the Book
(Jing) of the Way (Dao) and Virtue (De) or the Classic of the Way and Virtue.
The book composed of 81 poems — the first 37 comprise the Dao Jing (1-
37) and the succeeding poems constitute the De Jing (38-81) — is believed
to have been written by the ancient sage Lao Zi (master Lao), who is
sometimes thought to be a mythical figure due to the lack of historical records
that can prove his existence. The Dao De Jing is one of the most translated
texts next to the Bible.

☐ Dao (1/4)
(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

There Daoism begins with the assumption of the paradoxical nature of

reality. In every poetic erudition in the Dao De Jing, the reader is confronted

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by the seeming absurdity of contradictory statements turning out to be
meaningful. The first poem describes the indescribable nature of the Dao:

The Dao that can be described in language is not the constant Dao;
the name that can be given it is not its constant name.
Nameless, it is the origin of the myriad things;
named, it is the mother of the myriad things.
Therefore, always be without desire so as to see their subtlety.
And always have desire so as to see their ends.
These two emerge together but have different names.
Together, we refer to them as mystery: the mystery upon mystery
and gateway of all subtleties. (Lao Zi Ch. 1)

The central concept of ancient Chinese thought, Dao, exhibits

plurisignification in the terse yet poetic descriptions of it by Lao Zi. These
multilayers of meaning begin with the identification of the Dao as the
Absolute Dao. The Dao in this sense is a metaphysical notion. It refers to the
governing force that permeates everything that exists and does not exist
(both existence and nonexistence). It represents the Truth, the all-pervading
Reality.

As the Absolute Dao is reality itself but also the beginning and end of reality,
it also signifies that which moves and orients all things. It is in this sense that
the Dao is identified as the Way. It is the process, nature, and movement of
reality — a moving permanence. The Dao as the Way means it is the Way
of the Absolute.

If it is the Way of things, in the sense of process, movement, and nature of

the Absolute, the Dao is also the Path towards the Absolute. It is the Path
towards embodying the Way of the Dao. The Dao is the way of life a person
must take. And it consists of magnanimity, spontaneity, effortlessness. It is
the law of morality.

The central concept of ancient Chinese thought, Dao, exhibits

plurisignification in the terse yet poetic descriptions of it by Lao Zi. These
multilayers of meaning begin with the identification of the Dao as the
Absolute Dao. The Dao in this sense is a metaphysical notion. It refers to the
governing force that permeates everything that exists and does not exist

16
(both existence and nonexistence). It represents the Truth, the all-pervading
Reality.

As the Absolute Dao is reality itself but also the beginning and end of reality,
it also signifies that which moves and orients all things. It is in this sense that
the Dao is identified as the Way. It is the process, nature, and movement of
reality — a moving permanence. The Dao as the Way means it is the Way
of the Absolute.

If it is the Way of things, in the sense of process, movement, and nature of

the Absolute, the Dao is also the Path towards the Absolute. It is the Path
towards embodying the Way of the Dao. The Dao is the way of life a person
must take. And it consists of magnanimity, spontaneity, effortlessness. It is
the law of morality.

The poem below describes the different senses of the Dao:

There is something, amorphous and complete, that was born before

Heaven and Earth.
Obscure, oh, and, immaterial, oh, it stands alone, unchanged.
It operates everywhere but stays free from danger, thus we may
consider it the mother of all under Heaven.
We do not know its name
So style it "Dao" [Way].
Forced to give it a name, we call it "great."
"Great" refers to the way it goes forth.
"Goes forth" describes how it is far-reaching, and "far-reaching"
describes its reflexivity.
Thus the Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and the king is
also great.
Within the realm of existence there are the four greats,
And the king has title to one of these.
Man takes his models from Earth;
Earth takes its models from Heaven;
Heaven takes its models from the Dao;
and the Dao takes its models from the Natural. (Lao Zi Ch. 25)

De (Virtue) (2/4)

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To reach the Dao as truth and reality, arrive at knowledge of the movement
and nature of reality, and find the path one must follow in life, one must
cultivate one’s De. De is literally translated as virtue, moral character, inner
power, or integrity. Daoism enjoins human beings to be beings of De. This
points to the kind of virtuous persons human beings must become in living a
life of Dao. De is the manifestation of the Dao in the human individual. Its
complex ideogram is composed of three characters that literally mean:
“going-straight-to-one’s-heart.” De refers to the ethical wisdom of being able
to determine with spontaneity and effortlessness what is the natural course
of human relations and human life.

A person of superior virtue is not virtuous, and this is why he has virtue.
A person of inferior virtue never loses virtue, and this is why he lacks
virtue.
A person of superior virtue takes no conscious action and so acts out of
nothing.
A person of inferior virtue takes conscious action and so acts out of
something.
When a person of superior benevolence takes action, he acts out of
nothing.
When a person of superior righteousness takes action, he acts out of
something.
When a person of superior propriety takes action and no one responds, he
pushes up his sleeves and leads them to it.
Therefore, one resorts to virtue only after losing the Dao, resorts to
benevolence only after losing virtue, resorts to righteousness only after
losing benevolence, and resorts to propriety only after losing
righteousness.
Propriety consists of the superficial aspects of loyalty and trust and is thus
the beginning of disorder.
Foresight consists of the flower of the Dao and is thus the origin of
duplicity.
This is why the really great man involves himself with its substance and
not with its superficial aspects.
He involves himself with its fruit and not with its flower.
Therefore, he rejects the one and takes the other. (Lao Zi Ch. 38)

Yin-Yang (The Positive and Negative Aspects of Reality) (3/4)

Another fundamental metaphysical notion of Chinese thought is the principle

of Yin and Yang. Yin signifies yielding and it is considered as the “negative”

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aspect of reality. It signifies something earthly, dark, feminine, passive. On
the other hand, Yang means unyielding and it is considered the “positive”
aspect of reality. It connotes something heavenly, bright, masculine, active.
Together, Yin and Yang highlights the paradoxical nature of reality. “The Dao
begets the One; the One begets two; two beget three; and three beget the
myriad things. The myriad things, bearing yin and embracing yang, form a
unified harmony through the fusing of these vital forces.” (Lao Zi Ch. 42)

The eternal interaction between the two aspects of reality is symbolized in

Chinese thought by the image of a circle divided equally and fluidly into white
and black (see Figure 1). Both divisions contain a smaller version of the circle
that are further equally divided into two and that both contain a smaller
version of the equally divided circle, ad infinitum. This symbolism is meant to
illustrate how the positive and negative elements of reality are constitutive of
one another in infinite dialectical relation. The S-like division represents the
fluidity and dynamism of reality as well as its perceived dichotomies.

Reversion is the action of the Dao.

Softness is the function of the Dao.
The myriad things under Heaven achieve life in existence. Existence
arises from nothingness. (Lao Zi Ch. 40)

A palpable understanding of Dao as governed by the principle of Yin-Yang allows

one to be reconciled with the contradictions of existence. The person of De (i.e.,
the virtuous person) is thus someone who understands this principle of justice
pervading all of reality, and who at the same time embodies and practices it.

Wei-Wu-Wei (Action-by-non-action) (4/4)

If Dao is the plurisignificative Absolute-Way-Path, and Yin-Yang is the nature

of its moving-calmness, the person of De embodying the unperturbed
spontaneity of nature, practices the Wei-Wu-Wei — the Daoist principle of
action. Wei literally signifies action, and Wu literally signifies something

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negative. Taken together they mean action-by-non-action. As nature in itself
is governed by paradoxical co-constitutive elements, the end of action is to
imitate the natural flow of nature by not overdoing one’s tasks and finding
balance in and among things. “The Dao in its constancy engages in no
conscious action, yet nothing remains undone.” (Lao Zi Ch. 37)

A life well lived in the Daoist sense is characterized by reconciliation with the
seeming contradiction that governs reality. The end is to be at one with it.
This is the ultimate goal of the Daoist project — to find peace and tranquility
by finding the Dao within oneself and being like the Dao as one is part of the
Dao. This is the point of Poem 27 of Dao De Jing.

One good at traveling leaves no tracks or prints.

One good at words says nothing flawed or blameworthy.
One good at reckoning does not use bamboo tallies.
One good at locking up has no lock yet what is locked cannot be opened.
One good at tying up has no cord yet what is tied cannot be untied.
This is how the sage is always good at saving people, so no one is
discarded,
Always good at saving things, and so nothing is discarded.
This is what is known as maintaining the light.
Thus, the good man is the teacher of men who are not good.
Men who are not good are material for the good man.
But if they do not value their teacher, and he does not cherish his material,
no matter how wise, one will become greatly lost.
This is called the "profoundly subtle." (Lao Zi Ch. 27)

The life of Dao is void of strife and is instead characterized by serenity. It is only
by going against the Dao that one loses one’s peace and tranquility. It is by
misunderstanding the nature of reality that one suffers and is thrown off balance.

The softest things under Heaven gallop through the hardest things.
That which has no physical existence can squeeze through where there is
no space, so from this I know how advantageous it is to act without
conscious purpose.
The teaching that is not expressed in words, the advantage that is had by
acting without conscious purpose, rare is it that anyone under Heaven ever
reaches them. (Poem 43)
Act by not acting;
do by not doing;
find flavor in that which has no flavor.
Deal with the small as if it were the great, and deal with the few as if it
were the many, but respond to resentment in terms of virtue.
Plan for the difficult while it is still easy;
work on the great while it is still small.

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 Every difficult matter under Heaven surely originates in something easy,
and every great matter under Heaven surely originates in something small.
Therefore, it is because the sage never tries to be great that he fulfills his
greatness.
Assent lightly given surely inspires little trust.
Regarding many things as easy is sure to result in many difficulties.
Therefore, the sage still regards them as difficulties.
Thus, he never has difficulties. (Lao Zi Ch. 63)

☐ 4.2.2 Confucianism
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In the School of Literati (Ru Jia), known in the West as Confucianism, it is

emphasized that the goal of human life and human society is to achieve
harmony. In contrast to the more metaphysical eruditions of Daoism about
the harmony that must manifest both in nature and the human individual,
Confucianism’s emphasis on harmony is political and anthropocentric. Its
great vision is the possibility of a socially and politically harmonious life. The
name Confucianism is taken from the name of the Chinese sage master
Confucius (Kong Qiu, or sometimes referred to as master Kong or Kong Zi).
Confucianism now generally refers to the school inspired by the teachings of
Kong Zi, but during its establishment Ru Jia refers to a class of specialists
concerned with transmitting and preserving the traditional rituals and texts of
the Zhou dynasty. (Slingerland 241)

Tian-Di-Ren (Heaven-Earth-Man) (1/3)

To Have you ever heard of the Chinese expression: “all under heaven”?
Heaven or Sky in the Chinese language is translated as Tian. It represents
the Supreme Ancestor but one that is impersonal. “All under heaven”
expresses the vision for an egalitarian society characterized by equality, and
democracy. Heaven as the impersonal overseer serves as a transcendent
guide for the people. But this imposes a high demand on human individuals.
Human beings must be of such moral rectitude that they would reflect in their
decisions and actions the mandate of Heaven. In fact, the phrase “Mandate
of Heaven” is used to refer to the rightful assumption of a king as ruler of the
people. For the Confucian scholar Meng Zi, the voice of the people is what
reflects the voice of Heaven in a benevolent government.

The special role of Heaven in the moral cultivation of humanity is further

amplified in the challenge of another Confucian scholar, Xun Zi. For him,
human beings strive for moral perfection. Xun Zi asks: “Heaven (Tian) has

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its seasons, Earth (Di) has its wealth, what about Man (ren)?” (Xun Zi Bk.
XVII) For Xun Zi, what human beings have is morality. Human beings can
equal the ways of Heaven and Earth through humaneness and
righteousness.

The scholar Yao Xinzhong remarks in his An Introduction to Confucianism:

“Heaven-Earth-Man (Tian-Di-Ren)…three modes of the same Way: the Way
of Heaven is called the yin and yang, the Way of Earth is called the yielding
and the firm, and the Way of Humans is called humaneness and
righteousness.” (Yao 139)

The Five Virtues (2/3)

There are five intimately connected core moral virtues in Confucianism. In

the Analects, the person who is the paragon of virtue is referred to as the
gentleman: “The gentleman takes rightness as his substance, puts it into
practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty, and
perfects it by being trustworthy. Now that is a gentleman!” (Kong Zi Bk. 15
Pt. 8)

a. Ren (Consciousness-of-human-other)

The first core moral virtue is Ren, literally translated as consciousness-of-

human-others. Sometimes it is also referred to as benevolence,
humaneness, goodness, compassion, and virtue of virtues. Ren as
consciousness-of-human-others is a human being’s first moral awakening
(Co 107). It is this moral realization that gives us a solicitous disposition
towards others. It is based on the recognition of the fact that one is not alone
and it is with others that one is called into becoming moral and ethical human
beings. The person of virtue is referred to as the person of Ren. In the
conversation below, Kong Zi is presented to be talking about what constitutes
the man of Ren.

Zizhang asked Confucius, “What must a person be like before he can be

employed in government service?”

The Master replied, “He must respect the five virtues, and get rid of the
four vices. Then he can be employed in government service.”

Zizhang asked, “What are the five virtues?”

The Master replied, “The gentleman is benevolent without being

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 wasteful, imposes labor upon the people without incurring their
resentment, desires without being covetous, is grand without being
arrogant, and is awe-inspiring without being severe.”

Zizhang asked, “What does it mean to be benevolent but not

wasteful?”

The Master replied, “Benefiting the people based on an understanding

of what is truly beneficial to them — is this not ‘benevolent without
being wasteful’? Imposing labor upon the people only at the rights
times and on the right projects — who will resent it? Desiring
Goodness and attaining it — what is there left to covet? Whether he is
dealing with a few or with many, with the great or with the humble, the
gentleman does not dare to be casual — is this not ‘grand without
being arrogant’? The gentleman straightens his robe and cap, adopts a
respectful gaze, and is so dignified in appearance that people look upon
him with awe — is this not ‘awe-inspiring without being severe?”

Zizhang asked, “What are the four vices?”

The Master replied, “Executing the people without having instructed

them — this is cruelty. Expecting perfection without having warned
people when they are about to make a mistake — this is oppressive.
Demanding punctuality without having yourself issued proclamations
in a timely fashion — this is to be a pest. Being consistently stingy
when it comes to disbursing funds and rewarding people — this is
officious.” (Kong Zi Bk. 20 Pt. 2)
b. Yi (Consciousness of one’s moral imperative)

Yi signifies the moral duty one must fulfill. It is best understood through
another Confucian moral code, Zheng Ming or Rectification of Names. One’s
moral obligation is attached to one’s social appellation or role in the five-
relationships — Ruler-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Senior Brother-
Junior Brother, and Senior Friend-Junior Friend. It is stressed in Confucian
teaching that a society where names, titles, or positions are not assumed or
followed will be reduced to anarchy. Only when a ruler is a true ruler,
ministers, true ministers, fathers, true fathers, and sons, true sons (Kong Zi
Bk. 12 Pt. 11) is the harmonious society possible for it is only then that all
members of the society knows their proper role and place.

c. Li (Propriety)

While it might seem that Ren as moral awakening and Yi as moral obligation
are enough to determine morality and ethics, the teachings of Kong Zi require
much more. Ren and Yi must be accompanied by proper decorum — i.e. the

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moral virtue Li. Li refers to propriety. It is also sometimes translated as rites,
ceremony, ritual, civility, politeness, and good manners. It refers to the
refined external expression of a morally cultivated individual. If Yi is internal,
Li is external. One’s moral character is not only determined through the
fulfillment of one’s duties or the benevolence of one’s heart towards others,
but also through one’s behavior and comportment both in public and in
private. The practice of Li is one of the signs of a moral gentleman. The
following passage refers to the need for propriety in one’s action (Li is
translated here as ritual): “If you are respectful but lack ritual you will become
exasperating; if you are careful but lack ritual you will become timid; if you
are courageous but lack ritual you will become unruly; and if you are upright
but lack ritual you will become inflexible.” (Kong Zi Bk. 8 Pt. 2). Li consists of
the use of proper language, proper dressing, compliance to rules,
observance of tradition, and the exercise of art. The moral gentleman does
all these not in obedience to law (Fa) but rather as expressions of virtue.

d. Zhi (Spoken wisdom)

The moral virtue that results in knowing the right thing to do is Zhi. This
generally refers to the “act of knowing”. But Zhi refers specifically to spoken
wisdom or communicable wisdom or transmitted knowledge, rather than to
just any kind of knowledge. Unlike the Greeks who have two terms for
spoken wisdom, logos and sophia, Chinese thought has only one term for it
which emphasizes the constitutive relation of thought and word. Wisdom
must be transmittable, and it must be made communicable. Furthermore, Zhi
is specifically identified
with morality. It is knowledge of morals and it is the consciousness of the
moral value of actions. Part of this wisdom is the ability to be circumspect
about one’s situation, i.e.
knowing when to speak. The passage from the Analects illustrates this:

The Master said, “If someone is open to what you have to say, but you
do not speak to them, this is letting the person go to waste; if, however,
someone is not open to what you have to say, but you speak to them
anyway, this is letting your words go to waste. The wise person does
not let people go to waste, but he also does not waste his
words.” (Kong Zi Bk. 15 Pt. 8)

e. Xin (Faithfulness to one’s word)

The virtuous person is not only conscious of his fellow human beings (Ren),
nor is he simply carrying out his moral responsibilities (Yi) and acting well
(Li) with full knowledge of what he must do (Zhi). The person of virtue must
also strive to be someone respectable in words and deeds. The Confucian

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paragon of a virtuous person must be consistent in thought, word, and deed:
as one thinks so should one speak; as one speaks, so should one act. Xin is
the Confucian virtue that signifies this sense of moral consistency. It calls
forth a commitment to one’s spoken word. It is akin to the Spanish phrase
palabra de honor. The following passage reflects this: “People in ancient
times were not eager to speak, because they would be ashamed if their
actions did not measure up to their words.” (Kong Zi Bk. 4 Pt. 22)

The Principle of Zhong and Shu (Principle of Measuring Square or Golden

Rule)

Zhong and Shu are the two aspects of the measuring square for action.
These two are referred to by Kong Zi as the summary of his teachings:

The Master said, “Master Zeng! All that I teach can be strung together
on a single thread.”

“Yes, sir.” Master Zeng responded.

After the Master left, the disciples asked, “What did he mean by that?”

Master Zeng said, “All that the Master teaches amounts to nothing
more than dutifulness (zhong) tempered by understanding
(shu).” (Kong Zi Bk. 4 Pt. 15)

Zhong represents the positive aspect of the practice of Ren, namely, doing
unto others what you want others do unto you: “If you really care for them,
can you then fail to put them to work? If you are really dutiful to him, can you
then fail to instruct him?” (Kong Zi Bk. 14 Pt. 7) Shu represents the prohibitive
aspect of the practice of Ren: “Do not impose upon others what you yourself
do not desire.” (Kong Zi Bk. 15 Pt. 24)

The twin aspects of the Golden Rule known as the principle of the measuring
square is the human guide to action. Thus, Confucianism contains the
highest articulation of an
anthropocentric ethics where goodness, virtuousness, righteousness, or
humaneness is within the immediate reach of the human individual. The
moral obligation does not come from some transcendent beyond. Instead,
one must look within oneself to know what one must do. As one of the
sayings of Kong Zi asserts: “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply desire
Goodness, I will find that it is already here.” (Kong Zi Bk. 7 Pt. 30)

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Human Moral Character as Good or Evil (3/3)

In deciphering the sayings of Kong Zi, the question of whether Kong Zi

problematized the question of the nature of human beings’ moral character
has been posed. The Confucian scholars Meng Zi and Xun Zi gave different
responses.

For Meng Zi, human moral character is good. We have in us seeds of

goodness that only need to be cultivated. Meng Zi stresses that the sense of
compassion (Ren), sense of right and wrong (Yi), sense of good and evil (Li),
and sense of truth and falsity (Zhi) are found in us at birth. For him, “The
feeling of commiseration belongs to all men; so does that of shame and
dislike; and that of reverence and respect; and that of approving and
disapproving.” (Meng Zi Bk. VI Pt. 1 Ch. 6.7) We are morally ‘perfectable’
because we already have the seeds of goodness in us. The full blossoming
of these seeds is the goal of moral cultivation. When one sees a child about
to fall into a well, one’s natural human response is to save the child. This for
Meng Zi proves that we are naturally good, and we only need to follow this
natural disposition to be the person of Ren. This however does not guarantee
morality. For Meng Zi, we need to consistently nurture these seeds of
goodness. It is through negligence and a bad environment that they are lost
to us.

In contrast, Xun Zi stressed that human moral character is evil. He asserts that
“The nature of man is evil; his goodness is only acquired training.” (Xun Zi Bk.
XXIII) Xun Zi describes the selfishness of human beings thus:

The original nature of man today is to seek gain. If this desire is

followed, strife and rapacity result, and courtesy dies. Man originally is
envious and naturally hates others. If these tendencies are followed,
injury and destruction follow; loyalty and faithfulness are destroyed.
Man, originally possesses the desire of the ear and eye; he likes praise
and is lustful. If these are followed, impurity and disorder result, and
the rules of Li (proper conduct) and Yi (righteousness and justice) and
etiquette are destroyed. (Xun Zi Bk. XXIII)

For Xun Zi, the existence of teachings, laws, schools, rites, and etiquette
prove that we need to tame our natural dispositions. They exist to restrain
our natural inclinations which, if left on their own, will lead to strife and the
destruction of human society as well as of oneself. Human moral character
is naturally evil, which is why we must not waver in our moral cultivation. It is
only through overcoming our nature that human beings can equal Heaven
and Earth.

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◼4.3 Religious Conceptions of Ethics

Both Christian and Islamic Ethics are ethical frameworks that are derived
directly from the moral teachings of the monotheistic Christian and Islamic
religions. The kind of life endorsed in these religions is inspired by and
patterned after that of Christ (the son of God) in Christianity and
Muhammad (the last prophet and messenger of God) in Islam; their lives
and teachings are considered the paragon of virtue. In both the Christian
and Islamic religious ethical framework, the general discipline that governs
the life of an individual is faith in God, whose words are recorded in the
Bible and the Qur’an, respectively.

☐ 4.3.1 Christian Ethics

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Christian Ethics is a system of values based on Christian scriptures and the

teachings and character of the Christian prophets and Jesus Christ as they
are narrated in the Bible. In Christianity, the books comprising the Bible are
believed to be inspired by God. They are the works of Divine Revelation,
making the Bible the major source of knowledge about what is right and
wrong. Christian Ethics is derived by interpreting the moral significance of
the behaviors of individuals in the biblical stories, over and above the Bible
stating directly what counts as ethical in the form of moral codes. Overall,
Christian Ethics is concerned fundamentally with “spiritual formation”.

☐ Christ and the New Testament (1/2)

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Christianity is derived from the name of Jesus Christ who is believed to be

the Son of God and the savior of humankind. Christ’s significance in the
Christian religion is marked by a shift in the way God is perceived. In the Old
Testament, God is perceived as a God of justice. In the New Testament, God
is perceived as a God of love. The surest sign of this love is Christ being
God’s gift to humanity. As stated in John 3:16: “For God so loved the world,
that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not
perish but may have eternal life.” Christ’s teachings are reflected in the way

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he lived his life and the way he interacted with people. He reflected on the
traditions of his time and interpreted them in new and original ways that
revolved around the virtues of faith, love, and charity.

In contrast to the traditional doctrinal affirmations of God’s word in the Old

Testament, the teachings of Christ are reflected in the New Testament in the
form of parables, pithy sayings, and actions that reflect everyday
experiences but which are also designed to startle so that those who hear
and witness them might reexamine their belief systems and relationships
with others. The scholar Ronald Preston remarks that in Christ’s teachings,
“God’s rule is seen not in the punishment of wrongdoers but in bearing the
consequences of their wrongdoing.” (94-95). He describes the ethical
teachings of Christ as “radicalizing common morality”. He writes:
For instance, there is to be no limit to the forgiveness for injuries
(Matt. 18: 21ff), not on the grounds that it will win over the offender
but because it corresponds to God’s forgiveness of us. Similarly love of
enemies is enjoined (Matt. 6: 14ff) not because it will win over the
enemy (although of course it might) but because God loves his
enemies. There is to be no restriction on neighbor love (Luke 10: 29ff).
Anxiety is the surest sign of lack of trust in God (Matt. 6: 19-34),
especially anxiety over possessions. Jesus was a man of faith (trust).
(95)

These ethical gestures are all recorded in the synoptic Gospels of Matthew,
Mark, and Luke as part of the life and teachings of Christ.

☐ The Commandment to Love One Another (2/2)

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The core teaching of Christ is to love God and one another. In the synoptic
Gospels, one finds the repetition of Christ’s two great commandments which
serve as a summary of all his teachings: “You shall love the Lord your God
with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with
all your mind; and your neighbor as yourself.” (Lk. 10: 27) This love of God
and one’s neighbor is inspired by the belief that God has loved humanity first,
and this is most significantly expressed through Jesus Christ His Son who
died for the sins of the world. Thus, it is humanity’s duty to express this same

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gesture of love towards God and one another. The Christian life is therefore
a response to God’s prior graciousness. Preston notes:

Love of neighbor in the Christian sense means being responsible for

our fellow human beings, not because of their idiosyncratic qualities
but because of their humanity as made in the image of God (Gen. 1:
22). It does not depend on natural affection in the one who loves nor
natural attractiveness in the one loved. It does not imply identical
treatment, but putting oneself in the neighbor’s shoes. (98)

This ethical virtue of unconditional love towards one another is a duty that
God has imposed upon humanity through Christ. It comes from the
admonition to love one another as God has loved humanity, despite human
misgivings and wrongdoings. Being a Christian in the strict sense of the term
is thus to be a symbol and embodiment of love for all. This love in Greek is
Agape, which means loving God and your neighbor as yourself. This is the
only way to salvation in the Christian sense.

The book of Genesis narrates the story of Adam and Eve being banished
from the Garden of Eden because of pride is narrated. Tempted by the
serpent to eat the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, Adam and
Eve committed what is referred to in Christianity as the original sin. The fruit
gave Adam and Eve knowledge of Good and Evil and took away their pure
innocence. Everyone inherits this original sin at birth, and it is washed away
in Baptism. However, life is filled with the temptation to sin. The only way
humanity can be saved from sin and the wages of sin is by following the
moral teachings of Christ as he lived them. This includes showing mercy and
compassion to every living creature, even to one’s enemies. It also involves
a certain level of introspection — i.e. that one should not be quick to judge
others and should focus instead on one’s own moral cultivation.

☐ 4.3.2 Islamic Ethics

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Islamic Ethics comes from the youngest monotheistic religion of the world,
Islam. The term Islam means peace, security, submission. Islam asserts that
a life of peace is made possible only through the submission of one’s life to
Allah.

The two primary sources of Islamic ethics are the Qur’an and the Sunnah or
Life of the Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an is believed to have been given
by Allah (God) for human beings to refer to with regard to human conduct. It
is the Islamic counterpart of the Christian Bible. The Sunnah of the Prophet

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Muhammad, believed to be the last messenger of Allah, consists of the
historical projection of a divinely inspired and guided human life. The life of
Muhammad serves as the model for human conduct. These two sources
ground the Islamic moral code in divine will, providing Islam with a clearly
defined sense of moral authority.

☐ Ilm Al-Akhlaq (Science of the Human Soul) (1/4)

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Islamic ethics is referred to as ilm al-akhlaq or the science of the human soul.
Islamic religion believes that human beings are composed of two aspects: a
material aspect or the khalq, and a spiritual aspect or the khuluq or akhlaq.
It asserts that human actions are the outward manifestation of the inward
self, and that actions are anchored in the human soul. Islamic ethics as the
science of the human soul focuses in defining the characteristics and
qualities of the soul as well as the methods for controlling and moderating
them. Ilm al-akhlaq is the way to acquire the well-being of the soul and to
guard it against vices. It is geared towards the achievement of a good
character, for akhlaq also connotes nature, character, and disposition.

Islamic ethics deals with the relationship between human beings and Allah,
human beings and their fellow human beings, human beings and other
creatures of the universe, and human beings with their innermost selves.
This refers to the close relation between the (a) Creator (Khaliq) and creature
(Makhluq), and (b) the creature (Makhluq) with himself.

The basis for human action and decision in Islamic ethics consists of (a) the
word of Allah; (b) the human projection of a life inspired by Allah — the life
of Muhammad; and (c) human reasoning, which serves as a tool in
understanding these two. Determining and understanding the word of Allah
which is contained in the calls for the application of human reasoning. In this
sense, rational awareness serves as a response to revelation. Rationality is
the faculty used to discern God’s will.

☐ Taqwa (Consciousness of Allah) (2/4)

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In Islamic ethics, the key to a virtuous life is a strong relationship with Allah.
This requires the cultivation of one’s inward character by directing one’s mind
to the commandments of Allah. It is assumed in this ethical framework that
a good character begets good action, whereas its perversion begets bad

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actions. In the Islamic moral code, one must always be mindful of the
different kinds of action: obligatory, recommended, permitted, discouraged,
reprehensible, and forbidden. Wrong action leads one further away from
Allah and his moral teachings.

The human quality that encompasses the concept of the ideal ethical value
in the Qur’an is summed up in the term taqwa, which refers to the sustained
consciousness of the presence of Allah in one’s life. The word taqwa is
derived from the root word waqaya, which means ‘to safeguard’ or ‘to
abstain’. In Islamic terminology, it is defined as the action of restraining
oneself from disobeying the commands of Allah.
Taqwa represents, on the one hand, the moral grounding that underlies
human action, while on the other, it signifies the ethical conscience that
makes human beings aware of their responsibilities to Allah and society.
Applied in a wider sense or in the social context, taqwa becomes the mark
of a truly moral community. In the Qur’an one reads the following verse:

O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made
you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the
most honourable of you with Allah is that (believer) who has At-Taqwa
[i.e. one of the Muttaqun (pious - see V.2:2)]. Verily, Allah is All-
Knowing, All-Aware. (The Noble Quran 49: 13)

In Islam, it is stressed that even if we are supposed to be one community,

we are made different by Allah to test us, and it is our moral responsibility to
overcome our differences and find ways through which we can establish
forms of unity. This involves the practice of humility and piety instead of
arrogance and clamor for power and fame. At the same time, it requires
complete submission to Allah, and the abandonment of the worship of other
gods. Islam upholds that everyone will be ultimately judged by Allah, and
only a moral life with Allah at its center can lead us to deliverance.

☐ Jihad (Striving by peaceful means) (3/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

The term jihad has often erroneously been translated as ‘holy war’. But jihad
carries a far wider connotation that includes striving by peaceful means, like
preaching, education, and the purification of oneself, which is the greater
jihad. The goal of an ethical life in Islam is to achieve happiness through
taqwa but also through the attainment of balance within oneself.
Emphasizing individual equilibrium, the Islamic code of ethics promotes the

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sense of balance between the two aspects of human life, the khalq or
material aspect, and the khuluq or akhlaq or spiritual aspect.

Islamic ethics recognizes that people might tend to give more importance to
material gain and external recognition. This impairs reflection and clouds
human rationality, which is supposed to assist us in deliberating upon the will
of Allah. Thus, prophets have been sent by Allah to remind people of what is
right and just and virtuous. But if this is not enough, it is the moral
responsibility of the community to challenge those who oppose submission
to Allah and those who directly disobey his commands. This is the lesser
jihad and it is this which gave jihad the connotation of being a justly executed
war characterized by armed defense. It must be noted, however, that the
Qur’an has very specific conditions for war and peace, as well as for the
treatment of captives and the resolution of conflict. Ultimately, what it
emphasizes is that the purpose of Allah’s word is to invite and guide people
to ‘the ways of peace’. Its aim is to establish both individual and social
equilibrium. The ummah or community of Allah must be a community of the
middle way.

☐ Zakat (Giving) (4/4)

(Put a mark on the box once you have finished this section)

One fundamental truth in the Islamic tradition is the truth of injustice in the
world. This imposes upon the members of the ummah the responsibility to
redress different kinds of injustices both in individual and social life. The
prophet Muhammad enjoins the community to practice compassion and
nurture genuine care for people who are in need. This is made possible
through the duty of zakat. Zakat is a term connoting ‘giving’, ‘virtue’,
‘increase’, and ‘purification’. Zakat is a form of alms-giving that has evolved
into a religious obligation. It serves as the outward manifestation of
communitarian concern and compassion, and it is one of the pillars of faith,
together with prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage.

◼Conclusion of Module 4 Part 1

☐ Summary

As stated in the introduction to this module, the different Asian ethical

frameworks and religious conceptions are responses to different human
predicaments. Below is a summary of the fundamental concepts that point
to the different human predicaments they respond to (indicated in the second

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row) and the core ethical virtues that they prescribe (indicated in the third
row).

Hinduism Buddhism Daoism Confucianism Islamic Christian

Ethics Ethics
Samasara Dukkha Dao Tian-Di-Ren Ilm-Al-Akhlaq
(The Cycle of (Suffering) (Absolute- (Heaven-Earth- (Science of the Sin
Transmigration) Way-Path) Man) Human Soul)
Dharma Dukkha Wei-Wu- Zhong and Shu Taqwa Agape
(End-Duty- Nirodhagamini- Wei (Principle of (Consciousness (Love of
Nature) pratipat (Acting- Measuring of Allah) God and
(Eight-fold- by-not- Square) Neighbor as
Path) acting) Oneself)

Guider Criteria for evaluating activities/responses and assesments

Rating Criteria
A = Excellent • Focused, Succinct Thesis
• Organized from the beginning to end to Support Thesis
• Effective, Germane Use of Textual Support
• Originality of Ideas
• Clear, Well Formulated Sentences
• Correct Citation Form, Well Documented
• Precise and Effective Language
• Fluid Transitions
B = Good • Focused, Succinct Thesis
• Adequately Organized to Support Thesis
• Some Originality of Ideas
• Textual Support not always Effective, Germane
• Mechanical Problems that do not Interfere with Readability
• Clear, Well Formulated Sentences
• Correct Citation Form, Well Documented
C = Fair • Unfocused, Weak Thesis
• Partially Organized to Support Thesis
• Paucity of Original Ideas
• Ineffective Textual Support
• Incomplete, Poorly Formulated Sentences
• Informal, inappropriate Language
• Careless Editing, Incorrect Citation Form
• Mechanical Errors that do not Interfere with Readability
D = Poor • No Thesis
• Lack of Organization
• No Original Ideas
• Little Textual Support, Irrelevant Appeal to Text
• Mechanical Errors that Interfere with Readability
• Lack of Editing, Incorrect/Missing Citation
• Inadequate Length, Underdevelopment of Ideas
U = Unacceptable • Plagiarism
• Inappropriateness
• Unintelligibility

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 • No Thesis
• No Organization/Structure
• Failure to Submit

Supplementary Readings:

Hinduism
Co, Alfredo. “A Divine Social Plan of a Chaturvarna: Traversing the life of Samsara”.
In Across the Ancient Philosophical World: Essays in Comparative Philosophy.
Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing House, 2015. 141-156.

Buddhism
Dharmasiri, G. Fundamentals of Buddhist Ethics. Antioch, CA: Golden Leaves, 1989.
Kalupahana, D. Ethics in Early Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995.
Robinson, R. H., and W. L. Johnson. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction,
4th ed.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997.

Daoism
Co, Alfredo. “Lao Zi”. In The Blooming of a Hundred Years: Philosophy of Ancient
China.
Manila: UST Publishing House, 2005. 128-165.
Co, Alfredo. “Hermeneutics of the Genius of the Absurd: Interpreting the Dao.” In
Across the Ancient Philosophical World. Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing
House, 2015.
168-185.
Koller, John M. and Patricia Joyve Koller. “Chapter 21: Confucianism.” In Asian
Philosophies. 3rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998. 252-265.

Confucianism
Chan, Wing-Tsit. A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy Princeton. NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1963.
Co, Alfredo. “Kong Zi”, “Meng Zi”, and “Xun Zi”. In The Blooming of a Hundred
Years: Philosophy of Ancient China. Manila: UST Publishing House, 2005.
104-127; 303-325; 340-380.
Co, Alfredo. “Tian Xia Da Dong: Harmony Under Heaven.” In Across the Ancient
Philosophical World. Manila, Philippines: UST Publishing House, 2015. 168-
185.
Hall, D. L., and R. T. Ames. Thinking Through Confucius. New York: State
University of New York Press, 1987.

Christian Ethics

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 The Love Commandments: Essays in Christian Ethics and Moral Philosophy.
Edited by Edmund Santurri and William Werpehowski. Washington, D.C.:
Georgetown University Press, 1995.
Etienne Gilson. “What is Christian philosophy?” In A Gilson Reader: Selected Writings
of Etienne Gilson. Edited by Anton Charles Pegis. Garden City, NY: Image
Books, 1957.
Islamic Ethics
Al-Hasan Al-Aidaros, Faridahwati Mohd and Kamil Md. Idris. “Ethics and Ethical
Theories from an Islamic Perspective.” International Journal of Islamic Thought.
Vol. 4. (December 2013)
Al-Qaradawi, Y. The Iman (Faith) and Life. Doha: Arabia Publication, 1985.
Retrieved October 15, 2009, from www.daawa-info.net.
Al-Qaradawi, Y. The Priorities of Understanding. Beirut: Darul Al-Ressalh
Publication, 1994. Retrieved October 15, 2009, from www.fiseb.com.
Hovanniasian, R.G. Ethics in Islam. California: Undena Publications, 1983.
Rahim, Adibah Binti Abdul. “Understanding Islamic Ethics and Its Significance on the
Character Building.” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity.
Vol. 3, No. 6. (November 2013).

Works Cited
Hi(Trans.) Buhler, Georg. The Laws of Manu. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886.
Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʿīl. Ṣaḥiḥ al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the
Meanings of Ṣaḥiḥ al-Bukhārī (Arabic and English). 9 Vols. Translated by M.
M. Khan. 3d rev. ed. Chicago, 1979. https://www.sahih-
bukhari.com/Pages/Bukhari_1_02.php
Co, Alfredo. The Blooming of a Hundred Years: Philosophy of Ancient China. Manila:
UST Publishing House, 2005.
(Trans.) Dubs, Homer H. The Works of Hsuntze. Taipei: Ch’eng-Wen Publishing Co.,
1973. (Trans.) Eastwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita. Canada: Nilgiri Press, 2007.
Hanh, Thich Nhat. Old Path White Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha.
Berkeley, California: Parallax Press, 1991. Translated by Mobi Ho.
(Trans.) Al-Hilali, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din and Muhammad Muhsin Khan. The
Noble Quran. https://www.noblequran.com/translation/
(Trans.) John, Lynn Richard. The Classic of the Way and Virtue: A New Translation of
the Tao Te Ching of Lao Zi as Interpreted by Wang Bi. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1999. https://terebess.hu/english/tao/Lynn.html
(Trans.) Legge, James. The Chinese Classics: The Works of Mencius. Vol. 2. Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960.
Preston, Ronald. “Christian Ethics”. In A Companion to Ethics. Edited by Peter Singer.
USA/ UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1991.
(Ed.) Ridling, Zaine. The Bible. New Revised Standard Version. USA: Division of
Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ, 1989.

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(Trans.) Slingerland, Edward. Confucius: Analects (with selections from traditional
commentaries). Indianapolis / Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.,
2003.
Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University P

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