=GMm|--— | @ aopmd 5 ‘The negativesign in the first line of this equation arises because the (attractive) force and the infinitesimal radial vector dF point inopposite directions. Equation shows that, when, >r, (a in figure), the work W,, is negative, as we expect. Applying equation (AU =—W,,), we can find the change in the potential energy ofthe system as moves between points a and b , = Gam {+ +) AU=U,= A particle ofmass M exerts a gravitational force F on a particle of massm that moves froma to b. Ifm moves outward from ato b, the change in potential energy is positive (U,> U,). Thatis, ifthe particle passes through point a with a certain kinetic energy K,, as it travels o bits gravitational potential energy increasesas its kinetic energy decreases (K, R andr, > Rand (b) r,< Rand r, Rand r, R and20 _ GM RF (a) r,>Randr,>R T, (GMirj) forr (b) r, ()r,> Rand r,~ = g acceleration duc to gravity atthe orbit), we obiain, => v,-Ver ii) ‘When it orbits atan altitude h, putting r=(R+h) {GM | Me RO+R/R) ~ V(+h/RY Angular speed The angluar speed o= Putting v, = sweobiain |GM GM o- |& - |, Vr \(R+hy Angular momentum The angular momentum ofan earth satellite or a planet is given as L=mvr Time period of Revolution The period of evolution24 Energy consideration in planetary and satellite motion GMm r Where ris the radius of the circular orbit. The kinetic energy of the system is uc The total mechanical energy is GMm = GMm _GMm. E-K+U ® or) ‘Thisenergy is constant and negative. The kinetic energy can neverbe negative, but from equation we see that it Note : (1) Graph of kinetic energy K, potential energy U, and total energy E=K + U of abody in circularplanetary motion. Eners A planetwith total energy E, <0 will remain in a orbit. The greater the distance from the Sun, the greater (thatis, less negative) its total energy E. (2) Gravitational bindingenergy 1 GMm We have seen that if'a particle of mass m placed on the earth is given an energy mu" =~) ot more, it finally escapes from earth. The minimum energy needed to take the particle infinitely away from the earthis called the binding energy of the earth-particle system. Thus, the binding energy of the earth- particle system is R25 A satellite which appears to be stationary when seen from earth is called a Geostationary satellite. Fora satellite to be geostationary. (i) Its orbit must be circular (i) must rotate about the same axis as earth, ie. it must move in the equatorial* plane, (ii) It mustrevolve form west tocast (iv) Its time period must be 24 hours. GMm (R+h)? 5 mo’ (R+h (2n) GM (Tr) (R+hy ay g( 7) insn)efon(2) | where T= 24 * 3600 sec. Solving h=36000km (approx) * Any satellite must rotate about the center of earth. 5 ont , pot posible m possible omit = Ie Mustration : Sol. Estimate the mass of the sun, assuming the orbit of the earth round the sun to be a circle. The distance between the sun and earth is 1.49 * 10! m and G = 6.66%10" Nmi/ke?, Here the revolving speed of earth can be given as [om 1 [Orbital speed] Where M is the mass of sun and r is the orbit radius of earth. We know time period of earth around sun is T = 365 days, thus we have 2nr or or 4x (3.14) x(1.49x 1011) = SE = 1.972410" kg (365 x 24x 3600) x(6.66x 10 "")26 Mustration : If the earth be one-half of its present distance from the sun, how many days will be in one year ? Sol. If orbit of earth's radius is R, in previous example we've discussed that time period is given as ve [eer “Gm \GM @ I'radius changes to r' = ~, new time period become (ii) or Mustration : An artificial satellite is describing an equatorial orbit at 1600 km above the surface of the earth Calculate its orbital speed and the period of revolution. If the satellite is travelling in the same direction as the rotation of the earth (i.e, from west to east), caleulate the interval between two successive times at which it will appear vertically overhead to an observer ata fixed point on the equator: Radius of earth = 6400 km. Sol, We know that the period of the satellite is Qn 2x VGM Jer Where 1 = 6400 + 1600 = 8000 10' m, g = 9.8 m/sec? and R= 6400 * 10! m Substituting values we get (s000x10°)) PH 2*3.14 1 9 8. (6400x107 = 7096 x Futher, orbital speed, [ow - (2s— or ¥* \ (000% 10" = 7083.5 mis }x(6400%10°)27 Let tbe the time interval between two successive moments at which the satellite is overhead to an observer at fixed position on the equator: As both satellite and earth are moving in same direction can write the time of separation as with angular speed «, and «, respectively, Here s~ 7006 86400 864007096 86400-7096 = 77318 Thus we have t Escape Velocity Definition: Ifa particle of mass m, kept in an attractive gravitational field is given sufficient kinetic energy, it may escape the gravitational pull due to the field, The particle will escape to infinity depending on whether its path allows it to do so. For example, a particle of mass m kept on the surface of the carth requires a minimum velocity ,,. so that it moves to infinity. Where Mis the mass of the earth and R is its radius, [2GM Note : The escape speed does not depend on the direction in which the projectile is fired. The Earth's rotation which we have not considered in this calculation does play a role, however. Firing eastward has an advantage in that the Earth's tangential surface speed, which is 0.46 km/sat Cape Canaveral, provides part of the kinetic energy needed for escape, and thus less thrust from the rocket engines would be required to escape the Earth's gravity. Mlustration : The minimum velocity of projection of a body to send it to infinity from the surface of a planet is 1 1 times that is required from the surface of the earth. The radius of the planet is 36 times the radius of the earth. The planet is surrounded by an atmosphere which contains monoatomic innert gas (y = 5/3) of constant density up to a height hth << radius of the planet), Find the velocity of sound on the surface of the planet. Sol. Escape velocity from the surface of the planet28 [ex 5 g RB6 > 9 = 6g, Pressure exerted by the atmospheric column of height h on the surface of the planet P = pg, h Using equation of state P= ~~ Hence speed of the sound v = Practice Exercise Q.1 Twosatellites Aand B ofthe same mass are orbiting the earth at altitudes R and 3R respectively, where Ris the radius ofthe earth, Taking their orbits to be circular, obtain the ratios of their kinetic and potential energies, Q.2__ Asatellite isto revolve round the earth in a circle of radius 8000 km. With whatspeed should this satellite be projected into orbit ? What will be the time period ? Take g al thesurface= 9.8 m/s? and radius of the earth= 6400 km. Q3_ Asatellite ofmass 2x 10° kghasto be shifted from an orbit ofradius 2R to another of radius 3R, where Ris the radius of the earth, Calculate the minimum energy required. Answers Qi 1 Q.2 7.08kmis. 118 minutes Q.3 1.04% 105 Kepler Laws The empirical basis for understanding the motions ofthe planets is there laws deduced by Kepler (1571 - 1630, well before Newton) from studies ofthe motion of the planet Mars. 1 The law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits having the Sun at one focus. Newton was the first realize that there is a direct mathematical relationship between inverse-square (1/r*) force and elliptical orbits. Figure shows atypical elliptical orbit. 429 Applanetof massm moving in a elliptical orbitaround the Sun, The Sun, ofmass M, is at one focus of the clipse. F' marks the other or "empty" focus. The semimajor axis aof the ellipse, the perihelion distance R,, and the aphelion distance R, arealso shown, The distance ae locates the focal points, e being the eccentricity of the orbit other planets in the solarsystem, the eccentricities are small and the orbits are nearly circular, ‘The maximum distance R, ofthe orbiting body fiom the central bodys indicated by the prefix apo -(orsometimes ap-),as in aphelion (the maximum distance from the Sun) or apogee ( the maximum distance from Earth), Similarly, the cloest distance R, is indicated by the prefix peri-. as in perihelion or perigee. As youcan see from figure R,=a (1 +e) and R, =a (1 —e). For circular orbits. R, =R, =a The Law of Areas : A line joining any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal area in equal times. Figure illustrates this law : in effect it says that the orbiting body moves more rapidly when it is close to the central body than it does when it is faraways. We now show that the law of areas is identical with the Jaw of conservation of angular momentum. Consider the small area increament AA coveredin atime interval At, as shown in figure. The area of this approximately triangular wedge in one-halfits base, r 0, times its height r, Therate at which this area is swept out is AA / At= > (rA0) (1) / At. Inthe instantaneous limit this becomes dA AA = = Lim = Lim at ay = EDD Assuming we can regard the more massive body Mas at rest, the angular momentum of the orbiting body mrelative (b) (a) The equal shaded areas are covered in equal times by a line connecting the planet to the Sun, demonstratingthe law of areas. (b) Thearea AA iscovered in a time At, during which the line sweeps through an angle AO. tothe origin atthe central body is to the plane of the orbit). Thus dA _ iL, dt ~ 2m Ifthe system of M and mis isolated, meaing that here is no net external torque on the system, the Lis a constant; therefore dA /dtisalso constant. That is in every interval dtin the orbit, the line connecting m and M sweeps out equal areas dA, which verifies kepler’s second law. The speeding up of comet as it passes close to the Sun is an example of this effect and is thus a direct consequence of the law of conservation of angular momentum, according to equation L, =1@=mre (choosing the zaxis perpendicular30 The law of Periods : The square of the period of any planet about the Sun is proportional to the cube of seminajor axis of the . Let us prove this result for circular orbits, The gravitational force provides the necessary centripetal acceleration for circular motion. wxis of the path ofplanet then according to 4) a be the semi-major riod of revolution It'T'is the kepler's III Law, we have Taw For circular orbits, itis a special case of ellipse when its major and minor axisare equal. Ifa planet is in acircular orbit of radius R around the sun then its revolution speed must be givenas [om v= Ver Where M, isthe mass of sun. There you can recall that this speed is independent from the mass of plane. Here the time period of revolution can be given as Ts pe 2 A or Jom, (A) Ver Squaring equation no. (A) we get (B) r GM, Equation (B) verifiesthe statement of Kepler's third law for circular orbits. Similarly we can also verify it from elliptical orbits, For this we stat from the relation we've derived earlier for rate sweeping area by the position vector of planet with respect to sun which is given as dA_ OL dt 2m Where Lis the total angular momentum of planetduring its motion consider the path of planet shown in figure isan elliptical path with sun on focus (-ae, 0)at Herer, and r, are the shortest and farthest distance of planet from sua duringiits motion, which are given as © 4 =a(1-e) and r=a(l+e) Where eis the centricity. From geometry we know that the relation in semi major axis and semiminor axisbe is given as b=avl-e’ Ifv, and v, are the planet speeds at perihelion and aphelion points then from conservation of momentum wehave L=my,r,=my,r, From energy conservation we have [2GMy VG +n From equation (vi) and (vii) we have 3 or Now from equation (v) we have the total area of ellipse traced by the planet is given as L =5-T 2m 2m or ToT 2mrajav or T= of [O(2 Joao Ie) a 2] a or GM, Mlustration : A satellite is launched tangentially from a height h above earth & surface as shown. 1 Find v,,,,80 that it just touches the earth surface I. Ifh= Rand satelite is amnched tangentially with speed = 32M. = Rand satellite is launched tangentially with speed = ~~ — gong wie’ V sR Jind the mximum distance of satellite from earth ¥ center32 Sol. (1) Satellite just Grazes from surface of earth when 2a=2R+h GMm GMm Total energy (E) =- 5 =~ ORI Ly GMm ___GMm 20" R+h— R+h Vg = 26M — ! " R+h 2R+h 2GMR 2GMR r(R+r) jy(2R + hy) Yomn = Vink) where r (U) To find maximum distance from center. CMm 1 GMn 2a 2 2R E= 1, 3GM_GMm "2° SR OR33 For a body being projected tangentially from above earth’s surface, say ata distance r from earth’s center, the trajectory would depend on the velocity of projection v. Af ni r R Velocity Orbit 2R ) { \r+R) [om [Gm/ 2k 1. velocity, Body returnsto earth following ellipitical Path. 2 Vorts ts RI Body acquires an elliptical orbit withearth as the far-focus wt. the point of projection. 3. Velocityis equalto the critical velocity Circular orbit with radiusr [GM of the orbit, v= |——* Vr 4. Velocityis between the critical and escape Body acquires an elliptical orbit withearth as velocity of the orbit the near focus wrt. the point of projection. (26M, |g My Vor Ye Body just escapes earth’s gravity, along a parabolic path, Body escape earth’s gravity alonga hyperbolic path, Practice Exercise 2 A planetofmassM moves around the sun along an ellipse so thatits minimum distance from the sun is, equal to rand the maximum distance to R. Making use of Kepler's law, find the its period of revolution around the sun Q.2_ What shouldbe the orbitradius of a communication satellite so that itcan cover 75% of the surface area of earth during its revolution. Practice Exercise f@+Ry Ql (20M, Q2. LISR,34 Broadcasting Region of a Satellite : Now as we know the height of a geostationary satellite we can easily find the area of earth exposed on the satellite orarea of theregion in which the communication an be mode using this satelline. Figure shows earth and its exposed area to a geostationary satellite. Here theangle @ canbe given as 5] 0-008 | Roh Axis of rotation of earth Earth Geostationary satellite Now wecan find the solid angle Q which the exposed area subtend on earth! Q=2n(1-cos 0) (, __2ah =2n| R.+h} Roth Thus the area of earth's surface to geost nary satellite is 2nhR? S= OR! RehSolved Example Ql Sol. satellite is revoling round the earth in a circular orbit a ra ssa with velocity v,, A particle is projected from the satellite in forward direction with relative velocity v= (V574 —1)\,. Calculate, during subsequent motion of the particle its minimum and maximum distance from earth's centre. The corresponding situation is shownin figure Initial velocity of satellite When particle is thrown with the velocity v relative to satellite, the resultant velocity of particle will become Ka Vet V | V4 As the particle velocity is greater than the velocity requried for ciruclar orbit, hence the particle path deviates from circular path to elliptical path. At positions of minimum and maximum distance velocity vector are perpendicularto instantaneous radius vector. In this elliptical path the minimum distance of particle from earth's centre isa and maximum speed in the path isv, and let the maximum distance and minimum speed in the path is rand v, respectively. Now as angular momentum and total energy remain conserved. Applying the law of conservation of angular momentum, we have my, =m(v,+va [m =mass of particle] (vatv)a or yee Applying the law of conservation of ener; 1. GMm_1 »_GMm sm? => m(v, tv) r 2 a36 Q2 Sol Q3 Sol n( S0Me) Mm. GMm or \4 T a or Sa or re aor > Thus minimum disatnce of the particle=a Sa And maximum distance of the particle =~ A satellite is revolving around a planet ofmass M in an elliptic orbit of semimajoraxis a. Show that the orbital speed thesatellite when itis ata distance r from the focus willbe given by eon] As in case of elliptic orbit with semi major axis a, ofa satellite total mechanical energy remains constant, at any position of satellite inthe orbit, given as GMm E a KE+PE GMm or B+ PE=- (i) Now, ifat postion r, vis the orbital speed of satellite, we have Ls ___ GMm KE = mv’ and P! i) 2 r so from equation (i) and (ii), we have Mm {2 1 = v=GM|=- r ra Aplanetof massm moves alongan ellipse around the sun so thatits maximum and minimum distance from thesunare equal tor, and r, respectively, Find the angular momentum of this plane relative to the centre of the sun, Ifv, and v, are the velocity or planet at its apogee and perigee respectively then according to conservation of angular momentum, we have my,r,=my, 1, or Vit, . Appogee37 As the total energy of the planet is also constant, we have GMm,1l.,_ GMm_1, +