Computer Modeling

For Improved Production of Mechanical Excavators

By:

Mehmet Cigla and Levent Ozdemir

1
Excavation Engineering & Earth Mechanics Institute
Department of Mining Engineering
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colorado, USA
 1
ABSTRACT many advantages over the conventional drill & blast
technique in long term. These include:
This paper presents and discusses some of the
computer models developed and currently used at the • High productivity/Advance rates
Earth Mechanics Institute (EMI) of the Colorado School • Improved safety
of Mines (CSM). These include the performance models • Minimal ground disturbance
for full and partial face machines. Examples of input and • Reduced support requirement
output of these models will be illustrated for typical • Elimination of blast vibrations
mining operations by using machines such as Tunnel • Reduced ventilation requirements
Boring Machines (TBM), Continuous Miners (CM),
• The uniform muck size, which allows for the
Marietta borer miners and longwall drum shearers. The
conveyor belts
general approach to modeling and the available models
• It is highly conducive to remote control or full
are discussed and some examples of these models are
automation
presented. The comparison between the estimated and
achieved performance, as well as the degree of
All these advantages resulted in mechanical
improvement in the performance due to balancing and
excavation taking a greater share of the rock excavation
modification in cutterhead design are also discussed.
market for the construction of tunnels, drifts, raises,
shafts, any other type of underground openings for both
INTRODUCTION
mining and civil engineering purposes. Especially with
recent development of versatile machines capable of
Mechanical excavators are specialized machines
effectively coping with different ground conditions, the
that are capital intensive and site specific. To maximize
mechanical excavation industry is destined to play a much
the benefits of the mechanical excavators (i.e. higher
bigger role in future construction projects. Further, the
production and lower costs, automation, consistent
mining industry is beginning to show a greater interest in
product size, and safer working environment) to any
mechanical excavation technology as efforts to develop
operation, performance of these machines under specific
hard rock mobile miners are beginning to show great
conditions must be understood. For this purpose, several
promise.
models have been developed over the years to evaluate
the design parameters and their impact on machine
PARAMETERS INFLUCING MACHINE
performance and also to estimate the production and
PERFORMANCE
advance rate of different mechanical excavators. These
models are used not only to predict the performance of a
The parameters influencing mechanical
given machine in an identified geology, but also to
excavation performance can be divided into six groups:
optimize cutter head designs and specify mechanical
requirements to achieve production requirements.
• Intact Rock Properties
These computer models have been developed by • Rock Mass Properties
using data from rock mechanics testing (UCS, tensile • Cutter Type
strength, and e.t.c.) and full-scale cutting tests (Linear • Cutting Geometry
Cutting Test), and calibrated with field performance data. • Machine Specifications
They have been proven to offer reliable performance • Operational Parameters
estimates, and produce information for improvement of
the cutterhead design and layout. Cutterhead design and Proper application of the mechanical excavators to
simulation through computer modeling is the key for any mining or tunneling operation depends on the detailed
designing any mechanical excavator in terms of understanding of the parameters described above.
optimization and production improvement. This method
provides for simulating different rock properties, machine Intact Rock Properties:
conditions, and operational parameters of the mine.
It is well known and established that uniaxial
In the mining industry there is a growing demand compressive strength (UCS) provides the best single
for rapid and often large-scale excavation in order to indication of rock boreability. Yet, mechanical cutting
develop new orebodies in a faster manner. This generates predictions relying only on the compressive strength may
a cost saving by allowing ore production sooner. The provide widely inaccurate results. Several other intact
majority of large civil engineering tunneling projects is rock physical property tests may be performed to greatly
now carried out by mechanical excavation rather than drill increase the accuracy of performance predictions for
& blast methods. However, drill & blast is also a mechanical excavations.
developed technology, and the choice of method is a
matter of economy. Despite of the cost effectiveness of UCS should be measured in accordance with the
drill & blast in short term, mechanical excavation has procedures in ASTM D2938, usually with NX, or 54-mm
 2
(2.125-in) diameter, core samples. The samples should rock sample may not be the real indication of the rock
then be prepared to satisfy the requirements of ASTM brittleness. One of the tests which helps to define the
D4543, When rock volume is limited, EX size core (21- brittleness of the rock in the laboratory is the Punch
mm) can be used if the material is not too coarse-grained, Penetration test. In this test, a standard indentor is pressed
and diameter must be greater than ten times average grain into a rock sample that has been cast in a confining ring
size. A minimum of five UCS determinations is (Figure 2). The load and displacement of the indentor are
recommended for statistical significance of the resulting recorded with a computer system. The slope of the force-
average for the performance prediction and computer penetration curve indicates the excavatibility of the rock,
modeling of any mechanical excavators. i.e., the energy required for efficient chipping.

Tensile strength is another common rock

property, which is commonly used in making boreability
predictions along with the uniaxial compressive strength
of the rock. This parameter is measured using NX-sized
core samples cut to a 0.5 length:diameter ratio, and
following the procedures of ASTM D3967. Brazilian
Tensile Strength (BTS) is generally intended to provide
an indication of rock toughness from a viewpoint of crack
propagation between adjacent cutter paths.

Also, rock abrasivity plays a major role in the

cuttability evaluation. For measuring abrasivity, Cerchar
Abrasivity Index (CAI) has proven to be fairly accurate
and is commonly used for cutter life estimation. A series
of sharp 90° hardened pins of heat-treated alloy steel are Figure 2. Program Output for Punch Penetration Index
pulled across a freshly broken surface of the rock, as
shown in Figure 1. The average dimensions of the The velocities of compressive and shear ultrasonic
resultant wear flats are related directly to cutter life in waves through the core sample are measured and used to
field operation. The geometry of the planned excavation provide an inexpensive way to estimate the elastic
then allows calculation of the expected cutter costs per modulus and Possion’s ratio. Factors such as anisotropy
unit volume of material. and porosity affect the results, and a minimum of five
measurements is recommended in relatively homogenous
rock. This mesurement is performed in accordance with
the procedures recommended by ASTM D2845, usually
on core samples prepared for UCS testing. Figure 3
illustrates the components used in this test.

Figure 1. Cerchar Test Equipment

Perhaps one of the most crucial rock properties Figure 3. Acoustic Pulse Velocity
which affects boreability by mechanical means is the
brittleness or the plasticity which the rock exhibits when
Rock Mass Properties:
subjected to the mechanical forces generated by the
cutting action of an excavator. In general, rock cutting Geological conditions to be encountered such as
efficiency of any mechanical tool improves with joints, faults, and groundwater can have a major impact
increasing brittleness exhibited by the rock formation. on the machine selection, application, operation and the
Thus, brittleness is a highly desirable feature of the rock production rate. These parameters must be accounted for
from a boreability standpoint. But tensile strength of the when estimating the machine utilization as well as
 3
instantaneous rate of penetration. Joints and fractures will
effect the performance of a mechanical excavator
depending on their orientation, frequency, and type.
Obviously, opening stability and the support requirements
are also affected by the presence of joints and fractures.

Cutter Type:

A crucial aspect of any mechanical excavation

system is the cutting tool, which performs the actual rock
penetration under certain amount of thrust and torque
provided by the mechanical excavator. Cutter types may
be classified in two general categories: Rolling cutters and
drag bits.

Single disc cutters are the most commonly used Figure 5. Button Cutters (Robbins)
roller cutters for hard rock Tunnel Boring Machines
(TBMs). They are the most efficient types of rolling The two main types of drag cutters in the mining
cutters since the entire capacity of the bearing is industry are radial and conical bits. Radial cutters are
concentrated into a single, small edge. limited to the excavation of softest and least abrasive
materials. Continuous miners, longwall shearers and borer
miners are the typical mechanical excavators, where
radial cutters can be used to cut the softer material such as
coal, trona, and salt. While new radial cutters are the most
efficient cutters, they are very susceptible to wear. The
slightest visible wear on the tip of a radial cutter can
increase normal force requirements by 2-3 times. Figure 6
shows example of different radial cutters.

Figure 4. Single Disc Cutters (Robbins)

The second type of roller cutters are the button or

strawberry cutters. Button cutters are used on raise boring
and shaft drilling applications for various reasons. First,
they last longer in terms of footage bored, meaning less
often cutter change operations. This is a highly beneficial
feature for raise or shaft boring to minimize the cutter
changes. In raise or shaft drilling operations, all cutter
thrust and power has to be transferred through a drill pipe,
severely restricting the amount of load which can be
placed on individual cutters on the head. Further, the
stiffness of a TBM cutterhead cannot be developed in a Figure 6. Cutting by Radial Cutters (Sandvik)
raise or shaft bit, unless grippers are provided down hole.
The second type of drag cutters are conical bits,
which are typically used on continuos miners and
longwall sheares to cut the harder rock compared to radial
bits, as well as roadheaders. They are more durable than
radial cutters and have a self-sharpening property, which
is an advantage for longer cutter life compared to radial
bits. As a rule of thumb, conical bits are not considered
economical for excavation of rocks having compressive
strength more than ~80 MPa (~12,000 psi), due to
occurrence of extensive bit wear or premature structural
failure, compared to rolling cutters. Higher strength rocks
 4
may be excavated by conical bits, if the rock mass is
significantly weakened by the presence of joints,
fractures, bedding or foliation.

Figure 8. Chip Formation by Disc Cutter

Soft rock Medium hard rock Hard rock

The basic cutting and geometrical variables

associated with the operation of button or carbide insert
cutters are illustrated in Figure 9. The parameters related
to cutter geometry include cutter diameter, button size,
row spacing and pitch of buttons on the cutter. The rock
fragmentation by button cutters is similar to disc cutting,
but much smaller particles of broken rock are generated.

Full Assembly

Figure 7. Conical Bits (Kennametal)

Cutting Geometry:

Cutting tools provide the transmission of the

energy by the machine to the rock in order to fragment it.
As a result, the geometry and wear characteristics of the
cutting tool have a significant effect on the energy
transferred to the rock and attainable rate of penetration.
The two main factors of cutting geometry, independent of
cutter type, are spacing and penetration. Their
relationship, along with cutter type and rock properties,
controls the efficiency of the cutting process. Also, each
of the types of cutters have geometry concerns, which
affect the efficiency of cutting.
Figure 9. Variables of Button Cutters
Cutting geometry of the single disc cutters is
defined by its diameter and edge profile. The cut spacing
The design of the radial bit can be described with a
and the depth of the cutter into the rock per cutterhead
few features, which determine how it will cut the
revolution define the efficiency of the cutting by disc
material. Figure 10 shows the cutting action, and the
cutters (Figure 8).
related nomenclature for radial bits.
Efficient excavation by disc cutter correlates
with the formation of large chips between disc cutter
paths. A crushed zone develops beneath the cutter as it is
forced into the rock. As stresses continue to build up in
the crushed zone, radial cracks begin to form and
propagate into the rock. When one or more of these
cracks meet those developed from adjacent cut, chips are
released.

Figure 10. Cutting Geometry of Radial Cutters

 5
The tip of the tool is generally flat with relief angles
on the side. The reason for this is to minimize the friction
and resistance to tool through the material to be cut. Low
friction and resistance will reduce cutting forces, power
consumption, vibration, and dust levels.

The rake angle describes the angle between the front

of the tip and the shank. A positive rake will ensure a
more aggressive cut but will also normally make the tip
weaker. A positive rake of 5-10 degrees can be used to cut
soft formations at higher rates. A zero rake angle is the
most common for various conditions. A negative rake
angle will normally keep the tip in compression during
cut and thus will have a reduced risk of fracturing. This
design may have a tendency to cut slower but last longer.

The clearance angle is the angle between the front of

the tip and the edge of the tip. This angle ensures that the
tip will not be in contact with the material to be cut all the Figure 11. Cutting Geometry of Conical Cutters
time, which would lead to loss of energy, excessive heat,
In softer rocks, the depth of penetration is
and reduced life of the tool.
typically higher and therefore, the resultant of the normal
In addition to the angles, the dimensions and the and cutting/drag force is lower than that experienced in
shape of the carbide are important factors to consider. The harder rock. This means that the attack angle should be
reduced in softer rock. The lower cone angles of the
front face of the radial bit is normally a chevron (V shape)
smaller conical tools allow for lower attack angles (450 -
and has either two flat surfaces or curved surfaces. The
curved surfaces have the advantage of making the insert 480) while maintaining a clearance angle between the
stronger. This curved tip is used in harder cutting back of the tool and the rock. In harder rock the opposite
conditions. is true and lower cutting forces lead to the use of higher
attack angles (up to 520). This is also consistent with
bigger tip angles used on heavy-duty conical bits.
The basic styles of point attack picks were shown in
Figure 7. They have circular shanks and are mounted in a
circular holder to allow for rotation and thus theoretically The effect of variation of spacing (S) and
experience even wear during use. The conical carbide tip penetration (P), and S/P ratio, their impact on the cutting
penetrates the material being cut during a linear or efficiency has been studied extensively in the past. It has
rotational motion. The tool is held in place at certain skew been observed that depending on the rock type and cutter
type, there is an optimum S/P ratio that can produce the
angle to force rotation for the self sharpening effect.
most efficient cutting in terms of minimum specific
The efficiency and the cutting forces on these bits energy requirements. This optimum ratio can best found
depend on the shape of the carbide tip. The geometric by full scale testing, such as Linear Cutting Machine
parameters of the tip include the size of the carbide, (LCM). Extensive past research and field data analysis
have shown that to achieve optimal cutting efficiency
which are the diameter of the insert or the cap, the cone
with single disc cutters, this ratio should be maintained
angle and the shape of the body. The larger the carbide,
the harder the rock it can cut. The tip angle of the carbide between 10 to 20; with lower ratios used for tougher rocks
has a major impact on the cutting ability and efficiency. and approaching to 20 for more hard and brittle rock
Smaller carbides with sharp tips (600 - 700) are used in (Figure 12). The optimum S/P ratio for drag cutters ranges
soft rock applications such as gypsum, trona, coal, and 1 to 5.
salt. Larger tip angles (700 – 750) should be used for
harder rock conditions, such as sandstone, limestone, and
siltstone. The attack angle of the conical bits plays a
major role in the cutting efficiency and tool life. The best
attack angle for the conical bit should be along the
resultant of normal force (FN) and cutting/drag force (FC).
In other words, when the resultant force is along the axis
of the tool, the tip is always compressed against the body
and the body against the holder (Figure 11). This
minimizes the bending moments and tension along the
tool, thus increasing cutter life.
Figure 12. Typical optimum S/P ratio curve
 6
Machine Specifications:

The machine specifications, such as thrust,

torque and power are the key to providing sufficient
amount of forces and torque to support the excavation
operation. Machine thrust should provide the enough
force to penetrate the tools into the rock surface. Also, the
cutterhead torque and power requirements to rotate the
head at the required penetration rate and overcome the
rolling force (or drag force) resistance of the cutters has to
be determined and installed on the head.

Machine specifications must ensure that the

requirements are supplied to the cutterhead. In other
words, mechanical and operational losses must be
accounted for. Mechanical losses are typically provided
by manufacturers of gearboxes and other power transfer
components. Operational losses for TBMs include towing
load and skin friction. For CMs, operational losses
include boom stiffness and track spillage.

Operational Parameters:

In every mechanical mining operation, there are Figure 13. Flow Chart for Modeling Steps
some operational constraints such as the haulage capacity,
ground support requirements, water-handling, etc. that The LCM (Figure 14) features a large stiff
limit the productivity of the machine. In addition, other reaction frame on which the cutter is mounted. A triaxial
factors such as tunnel grade and curves impact machine load cell, between the cutter and the frame, monitors
utilization and consequently productivity. All these forces and a linear variable displacement transducer
factors must be taken into account when application of (LVDT) monitors travel of the rock sample. The rock
mechanical excavator to a particular operation is sample is cast in concrete within a heavy steel box to
considered. provide the necessary confinement during testing.

MODELING LOGIC FOR MECHANICAL

EXCAVATORS

Figure 13 illustrates the typical steps taken in the

modeling and analysis of mechanical excavators. The first
step always involves characterization of the rock and the
geologic conditions. This is provided by the intact rock
and rock mass properties mentioned earlier. The next step
is to select the proper cutting tool and cutting geometry.
With this done, the forces acting on the cutters may be
estimated or measured.

In order to estimate the cutting forces, a semi-

theoretical model is used. Rock properties and cutter
geometry are used as input. The base algorithms are based
on extensive full scale testing performed over the two
decades. If a higher confidence level is required, cutting
forces can be measured through full scale testing on the
LCM.

Figure 14. LCM (A) Machine (B) Cutting Forces (C)

Cutting Geometry
 7
The normal force requirements are used to CSM-EMI MODELING CONCEPT
calculate necessary effective mass and thrust required of
the machine. This is important to ensure that the machine The principal concept used in the EMI models is
is able to provide the necessary thrust, so the cutters can to program each cutter individually. The position of the
effectively penetrate into the rock. The rolling/drag force cutters on the cutterhead is defined by geometrical
is directly related to the torque requirement of an parameters such as spacing, distance from the center and
excavator, and is used to calculate the specific energy the angular position. The cutterhead geometry is defined
requirement. Specific energy is defined as the amount of by a polar coordinate system for Tunnel Boring
energy required to excavate a unit volume of rock. Using Machines. For partial face machines, which represent a
the specific energy (hp-hr/yd3), achievable production 3D problem, a cylindrical coordinate system is utilized.
rates are calculated for a machine with a known The models will then calculate the penetration per
horsepower available on the cutterhead. Lower specific revolution for each cutter and estimate the cutting forces
energy means that a given machine will produce more required to penetrate the rock. These forces in turn are
material, or that a smaller/less expensive machine may be used to calculate cutterhead thrust, torque and power
used to produce the required amount of material. The requirements. This concept allows modeling any
side force may be used along with normal force and cutterhead layout, pattern, or configuration for design or
rolling force to balance the cutterhead design. performance analysis. Another advantage of the computer
models for cutterhead optimization is, to balance the
After the selection of cutter type, cutting cutterhead to minimize the vibrations, thus reducing cutter
geometry and determining the cutting forces, one should wear and machine downtime for maintenance.
consider the cutterhead design and cutter lacing on the
head. Among the parameters influencing the performance Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM):
of a mechanical excavator, the easiest parameter to
control is the cutterhead design. Input data for cutterhead The most commonly used full-face machines are
design and simulation comes from the previous step, Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM), Raise Borers, and Shaft
which are the cutter type, cutting geometry and cutting Drilling machines. CSM computer models are currently
forces at certain cutting geometry in order to achieve the available for design optimization and balancing of the
desired rate of penetration and the minimum specific cutterhead of these machines. The CSM/EMI computer
energy. After establishing the input data, computer model for hard rock TBMs is based on the cutterhead
simulation can be performed in order to see whether the profile and intact rock properties. The model utilizes
new design cutterhead will achieve the desired rate of semi-theoretical formulas developed at EMI over the last
penetration and will evaluate balance in terms of 25 years to estimate the cutting forces. The output of
minimum vibration during the excavation in a given rock these models consists of the cutterhead geometry and
conditions and cutting geometry. profile, individual cutting forces, thrust, torque, and
power requirement, eccentric forces, moments, and finally
Simulation of the new cutterhead can calculate variation of cutting forces as the cutterhead rotates.
the machine parameters such as thrust and torque based Design modifications can be performed in the models to
on the cutting forces from LCM or theoretical models. In balance the cutterhead and minimize the eccentric forces
case of an existing machine, required machine parameters and force variations. This is very important in increasing
are first calculated and then evaluated to determine if the the production rate, cutter and main bearing life, and
machine is able to sustain the estimated or desired rate of utilization. Figure 15 shows an example of the input sheet
penetration. for the program. The information required for the
program are project information (project name, location,
If the rate of penetration and machine parameters tunnel diameter, etc.), machine information (cutterhead
are known, back up and mucking systems of the diameter, geometry of the disc cutters, machine
mechanical excavator can be designed to match the tunnel specifications, cutterhead profile if available, etc,), and
advance. rock information (UCS, tensile, e.t.c.).

The last step in modeling of any mechanical

excavator is the scheduling and cost analysis. There are
three important numbers in modeling and costing of a
mechanical excavator job. Those are rate of penetration,
which is estimated from rock and machine properties that
the machine can achieve, machine utilization, which the
net boring time as a percentage of the total working time,
and abrasiveness of the rock relating to cutter wear.
 8
EARTH MECHANICS INSTITUTE XYZ PROJECT
9.00 16,000
COLORADO SCHOOL OF MINES
TBM PERFORMANCE PREDICTION 8.00 14,000

7.00
Tunnel and Machine Input Data 12,000

Thrust (kN) / Power (kW)

6.00 ROP (m/hr)
Unit System for Calculations?: 2 1 - English System 10,000
Thrust (kN)

ROP (m/hr)
2 - Metric System 5.00 Power (kW)
8,000
PROJECT AND TUNNEL INFORMATION
4.00
Project Name: XYZ Tunnel Diameter: 7.06 m
6,000
Location: A Total Length: 3,000 m 3.00

Contractor: B Area: 39 m2 4,000

2.00
Owner: C

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS 1.00 2,000

Machine Type: Open Beam Total Installed Thrust: 15,570 kN

0.00 0
Cutterhead Diameter : 7.06 m Thrust Efficiency : 90% 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Cutterhead Radius : 3.53 m Net Cutterhead Thrust: 14,013 kN UCS (MPa)
No. of Cutters: 50 Max. Cutterhead Torque: 3,625 kNm

Cutterhead RPM: 8.3 rpm Drive Efficiency: 90%

Cutter Type: DISC Net Cutterhead Torque : 3,263 kNm

Figure 17. Relationship between UCS and Machine
Cutter Diameter: 482.6 mm Total Installed Power: 3,150 kW Thrust, Torque, Power.
Cutter Tip Width: 19.05 mm Net Cutterhead. Power: 2,835 kW

Maximum Cutter Load: 311 kN ROP Limit : 7.62 m/hr

Max. Linear Speed: 152.4 m/min Cutter Wear Effect: 25%

Continuous Miners and Longwall Drum Shearers:
DO YOU HAVE CUTTERHEAD PROFILE? 1 1 - YES

2 - NO Due to the similarity of the cutting mode for

IF NO, WHAT IS THE FACE CUTTER SPACING? 86.36 mm
continuous miners and drum shearers, the same computer
program structure can be used to estimate rate of
Figure 15. Input Data for TBM Model penetration, thrust, torque, and power requirement for the
machine or simulation of the cutterhead for each machine.
Next step in the model is to calculate the cutting Also the model can simulate different modes of cutting
forces and required machine parameters to achieve the and allow for various depth of sump into the face,
desired rate of penetration (ROP, ft/hr or m/hr). This different positions while rotating, cutting with part of the
program calculates the above parameters for different cutterhead as opposed to the whole length, cutting partly
rock zones defined by the user, and gives the results in a in the roof or floor, and at different penetration rates.
table form, including project, tunnel, and machine
specifications. An example output for one of the geologic The information generated from the computer
zones is presented in Figure 16. It also includes a plot, model includes individual cutter positions, penetration,
which describes the capability of the given machine at and forces, overall thrust, torque, and power requirements
different rock strength (Figure 17). of the cutterhead in the given position, variation of the
EARTH MECHANICS INSTITUTE
forces as the head rotates, and finally boom speed and
COLORADO SCHOOL OF MINES production rate.
TBM PERFORMANCE PREDICTION

TBM PERFORMANCE PREDICTION Figure 18 shows an example of the input sheet

for the cutterhead simulation program of continuous
Machine Specifications : Input Data for Geologic Zone # 1
Machine Type: Open Beam Rock Type : Granite miners or drum shearers. The information required for the
Cutterhead Diameter : 7.06 m Rock Origin: 3 Igneous
No. of Cutters: 50 UCS : 138 MPa program are project information, machine information,
Cutterhead RPM: 8.3 rpm BTS: 14 MPa
Cutter Type: DISC Density: 2.5 gr/cm3 cutter specification, and cutterhead position for the cutting
Cutter Diameter: 482.6 mm Grain Size: 1.0 mm
Cutter Tip Width: 19.05 mm Porosity: 1.0 % mode and rock data.
Maximum Cutter Load : 311 kN CAI : 4.5
Total Installed Thrust: 15,570 kN Cost of Hub: $3,700
Thrust Efficiency : 90% Cost of Ring: $350
Net Cutterhead Thrust: 14,013 kN Cutter Diameter: 482.6 mm
Max. Cutterhead Torque: 3,625 kNm Cutter Tip Width: 19.050 mm
Drive Efficiency: 90% Face Cutter Spacing: 86.36 mm
Net Cutterhead Torque : 3,263 kNm Correction for Rock Origin: 1.000
Total Installed Power: 3150 kW Correction for Grain Size: 1.000
Net CH. Power: 2835 kW Correction for Prosity: 6.115
ROP Limit : 8 m/hr
Machine Performance Evaluation :
Machine Thrust : O.K. 90.01% of machine thrust used
Machine Torque : O.K. 90.00% of machine torque used
Machine Power : O.K. 100.00% of machine power used
Cutter Load Capacity: O.K. 95.61% of maximum cutter load used
ROP Limit: O.K. 58.44% of ROP Limit used

ROP: 8.94 mm/rev

4.5 m/hr
100.00%
Maximum ROP controlled by Machine Power

Figure 16. Model Calculation

 9

Earth Mechanics Institute C irc u m feren tial s p ac in g lay o u t

Colorado School of Mines 360

330

C irc u m feren tial s p ec in g (d eg )

Cutterhead optimizationof Continuous Miner 300
Pro ject In fo rm atio n : 270
Project : XYZ 240
Lo c atio n : G olde n, C O
210
O wner: NA
180
C o n trac to r: NA
150
Mac h in e Inform ation:
Ty p e: C o n tin o u s Min er 120
Man u fac tu rer: Jo y 12C M12 90
Weig h t (to n ): NA 60
Dru m Diam eter (m m /in ): 1122 44.00 30
Dru m Len g th (m m /in ): 3520 138.04
0
500 Active
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Sh earin g Fo rc e (to n): 20
Su m p in g F (to n ): 40 Head Su m p in g len g th (m m )
Max. Torq u e (ft-lb , kN-m ): 34900 26846.15385
RPM: 60 A
Po wer (h p /kW): 400 300
Head Ser. Num ber: C &A Th ru s t:
# o f Bits Per Head : 67
Shearing: 9686
Des ign Sy m m etry : y (y /n)
C u tter Sp ec ific atio n s : To rq u e:
C u tter Ty pe: Minidis c Po wer:
Diam eter (m m /in ): 225 9
Tip Wid th (m m /in ): 7 0.28
Vel. Lim it (m /m in , ft/m in ): 162 530
C u tter Vel. (m /m in , ft/m in ): 211 693
Mac h in e o veral Mech . Eff. 85% Ψ=
C u tterh ead Po s itio n :
Ad v an c e Per Rev o lu tio n : 80 3.2
Seam Heig ht (m m /in): 1700 68.0
Dep th o f C u t in Ro o f (m m /in ): 0 0.0
Dep th o f C u t in Flo o r (m m /in ) 0 0.0
C u ttin g Mo d e:

MO DE: 1 Su m p in g Su m p in g = 1
Shearin g = 2
C o n tac t Area An gle (d eg/rad ): 168 2.92
Relativ e Po s n . Angle (deg/rad): 360 0.06
Trailin g Heig h t (m m /in ): 1700 68.0
Sump Pos ition Immidiate Roof Se ries 2 Se ries 1

Figure 18. Input data Sheet for CM computer simulation B

600
The approach used for modeling of the cutting
400
drum of a continuous miner is to program each bit
200
individually and analyzes the cutting forces acting on the
0
bits. In this computer program, a cylindrical coordinate 1000
0.00 500 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
system is used to define the drum geometry and bit-lacing
pattern. Position of each cutter on the drum is defined by
its radius from the axis rotation, and the position angle or C
azimuth. Figure 19 shows the schematic drawing of a Figure 19. Cutterhead input data for simulation (A) Cutter
cutterhead and parameters used to define the bit position Allocation on the head, (B) Cutting Mode, (C) Cutterhead
on the drum. Profile

The program allows the user to monitor the

variation and graphically represents these variations as the
head rotates. Figure 21 illustrates a typical summary of
information for a full rotation and variation of thrust, and
power for a certain cutterhead design and lacing pattern
for sumping mode.
 10
Sumping Force Variation
mm
1500
Head: C &A Mod e:Sumping Dep th of Su m p:500 mm Pen etratio n: 80
80000

70000 1000

60000
500

50000
Ψ=
Th ru s t (lb s )

0
40000

30000 -500

20000
-1000

10000

-1500
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 C utters Cont. Are a Position Roof Line Floor Line

Po s itio n An g le (Deg )

Figure 21. Schematic of rotors by the model.

Power Variation

Head: C &A Mod e: Sumping Dep th of Su m p: 500 mm Pen etratio n: 80 mm

400.0
The sheet for the cob cutter contains all of the
350.0 pertinent design parameters. The module excludes the
300.0
material cut by the rotor path and includes over cut that
cob might be performed beyond the rotors. The calculated
250.0
number of bits in contact with the cutting face is
Po wer (h p )

200.0
incorporated along with the bit force estimations to
150.0 determine the torque/power needed to rotate the cob cutter
100.0
for the given geometry and setting of the cut. Figure 22
shows the bit placement on the cob cutter in the model.
50.0

0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 360
Po s itio n An g le (Deg )
330

300

270
An g u lar Po s itio n (d eg )

Figure 20. Sample output of the CM modeling program 240

for a full rotation 210

180
150
Marietta Borers:
120

90
The model for Marietta borer miners accounts 60
for the actual cutterhead design and allocation of the bits 30

on the different components of the machine. As such, it 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
has three separate modules to include the rotors, trim C o b C u tteer len g th (mm )
chain, and/or the cob cutters. Design parameters of each
component are input to the program as the variables in the Figure 22. Cob Cutter Bit Allocation
form of spacing and pattern of bit placement on the head.
The last sheet accounts for the trim chain. This
The model starts with the geometric location of module includes the design parameter of the chain and the
each bit and its position relative to the cutting face. geometry of its path. Similar to cob cutters, it excludes
Individual sheets (or modules) allow for cutting into the bits behind the rotor at any given moment and allows
separate material at the roof and floor. As with all of the for chain rotation with the rotation of the rotor. The
models, cutting force may be estimated from the rock cutting forces acting on the chain are estimated and
physical properties or measured from the full scale testing summed up along with the torque needed to run the chain
on the LCM. at certain speed. Figure 23 shows the geometry of the
chain in the model.
Figure 21 shows the geometry of the rotors as
programmed into the model. The cutting forces as well as
the moments working on each rotor and the machine from 400

the action of the rotors are provided by the model. 200

-200

-400
-2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Rotors Cutte rs Cont. Are a Pos ition Floor Line

Figure 23. Schematic of chain by model.

 11
The main sheet in the model combines all the FIELD VERIFICATION FOR COMPUER MODELS
related parameters to determine total thrust force
(tramming force), total power and side forces for the The computer models are checked continuously
machine while operating. Figure 24 shows the drawing of with the field performance of the machines to validate the
the combined elements of machine cutting head. The engineering approaches taken, calibrate the models and to
rotational position of the rotor can be changed to simulate update the database on which the algorithms are based.
the rotation of the rotors. The cob and chain cutter sheets This is accomplished by comparing the results of the
are linked to the main sheet to allow for the rotation of performance predictions with the field performance data.
these components as the rotor moves. The rotation of In addition, measurement of cutting forces and power
these components are set in such a manner to be consumption are made on some machines and compared
synchronized with the rotor. Overall the effect of different the respective estimates given by the models.
bit positions depth of cut and differential penetration per
revolution for given elapsed time is taken into account in CONCLUSIONS
the program.
Mechanical excavators are specialized machines
that are capital intensive and site specific. To maximize
the benefits of the mechanical excavators (i.e. higher
To tal:
production and lower costs, automation, more consistent
Thru s t: 39314 product size, and safer working environment) to any
Torq u e: 12306 operation, performance of these machines under specific
0

Po wer: 438
conditions must be understood. This can be accomplished
Sid e: 865
by computer modeling and simulation of the cutterhead
design. These models provide a cost effective means to
evaluate the parameters influencing the production rates
and costs and maximize the efficiency of the operation
without the need for costly field trials.

Cutters Cont. Area Pos ition Roof Line Cob Floor Line Chain
REFERENCES

Figure 24. Schematic of all components 1. Rostami, J. 1997, “Development of a Force

Estimation Model for Rock Fragmentation with
The analysis of the combined cutterhead Disc Cutters Through Theoretical Modeling and
modules is also performed. In this case, forces and power Physical Measurement of Crushed Zone Pressure”.
requirements from different components are added PhD. Thesis Dissertation, Department of Mining
together to determine the total machine thrust, torque, and Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, May 1997
power requirement. The eccentricity of the summed
forces may also be evaluated by this model, as well as the 2. Bilgin, N., Yazici, S., and Eskikaya, S., 1996, “A
other models. Figure 25 shows the eccentricity of the model to predict the performance of roadheaders
summed forces. By utilizing designs that minimize the and impact hammers in tunnel drivages,” Int.
eccentric forces, cutter wear may be reduced and also Eurock ’96 Symp., 2-5 Sep., Torino
utilization down time caused by excess vibrations.
3. Copur, H., Rostami, J., Ozdemir, L., and Bilgin,
N., 1997, “Studies on Performance Prediction of
Eccentric Force Variations of The Cutterhead
8000 Roadheaders Based on Field Data in Mining and
Tunneling Projects,” Int. 4th Mine Mechanization
6000 Ec cen tric ity
Fo rce and Automation Symp., Brisbane, Australia, pp.
4000 4A1-4A7
Ecc en tric Fo rc e (lb s )

2000

4. Neil, D. M., Rostami, J., Ozdemir, L., and

0
Gertsch, R., 1994, “Construction and estimating
-2000 Y Force techniques for underground development and
production using roadheaders,” SME Annual
-4000
Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona
X Force
-6000

-8000
5. Ozdemir, L, Rostami, J., and Neil, D. M., 1995,
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780 840 “Roadheader Development for Hard Rock Mining,”
Po s itio n Ang le (Deg )
SME Annual Meeting, March 6-9, Denver,
Colorado
Figure 25. Eccentric Forces
 12
6. Rostami, J. Ozdemir, L. 1996, “Computer
Modeling of Mechanical Excavators Cutterhead”,
Proceedings of the World Rock boring Association
1996 Conference, “Mechanical Excavation’s
Future Role in Mining”, Sep.17-19, Laurentian
University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.

7. Rostami, J. Ozdemir, L., Neil, D., “Performance

Prediction, the Key Issue in Mechanical
Excavation”. Mining Engineering. Vol. #, No. #
Nov. 1994.

8. Mining Magazine, 1997, “Voest Alpine in new

record”, Coal Product & Process News, Vol. 177,
No. 6, pp. 367. December, 1997

9. Andersson J. M., Rostami, J., 1998, “Criteria foe

Selection and Application of Rock Cutting Tools for
Soft Rock Mining” SME Annual Meeting, Orlando,
Florida.