Role of the liver :

- assimilation of amino acids (combining amino acids together to form polypeptide

chains, and then proteins)
- De amination - breakdown of the nitrogen containing parts of the amino acids,
which results in the formation of urea, the excretory product of humans

The two excretory products of the human body : urea and carbon dioxide.

The urinary system

- Urea is excreted as urine. Urine is basically a soultion of urea and mineral
salts dissolved in excess water.

- the urinary system consists of ywo kidneys, the renal artery, renal vein,
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
- from the liver, excess proteins are broken down to form urea, and the urea
obtained passes throught the blood into the kidneys, and the urea then passes
through the ureters on either side,in the ureters urine had already been made as in
dissolves in water, and it is collected at the urinary bladder and eventually
passes out the urethra.
- The concentration & volume depends on two factors
----- Temperature and exercise
------------ Hot temperatures (summer season, dry conditions), lead to increased
dehydration, less water intake, and therefore less volume and more concentrated
urine
-------------Cold temperatures (rainy season) not much water is lost from the body,
therefore there is a higher volume of urine and it is more concentrated.
-----Water Intake
------------ Higher hydration means there is more volume of urine and it is much
less concentrated
------------Lower hydration levels result in a lower volume and more concentrated
urine
-The amount of urine produced is controlled by the ADH or the Antidiuretic hormone,
which is produced in the pituitary gland. It causes the kidneys to release less
water, resulting in low volumes of concentrated urine. A high ADH level causes low
volumes of urine and a low ADH level leads to greater volumes of urine being
produced

Structure of a kidney
-Main parts : renal pyramid, cortex, medulla, nephron( kidney tubule )
outer portion - cortex
middle portion - medulla
structure of a nephron/kidney tubule:
- most important part : glomerulus
- afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, glomerulus (inside the glomerulus,
capillary loops, bowman's space), PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT, Collecting Duct
- The glomerulus is the filtration device
--How does the glomerulus filter the blood??
---- It basically allows only certain molecules out of it. It contains small holes,
and molecules that are too big to pass through them stay inside. Smaller molecules
such as urea, pass through into bowman's space. Too big molecules such as RBCs,
Proteins, WBCs. etc get filtered out.
----- The filtered bloods passes through PCT, loop of henle, DCT, and as it passes
through, some of the minerals and water get reabsorbed back into our body.
----- ultra filtration, small particles at high pressures get forcefully released
----- urea does nOT get reabsorped, urea stays in, and reaches the collecting duct,
ureters, urinary bladder, urethra and it eventually passes out of the urethra as
urin
Dialysis - method of removing one or more components from a solution using
diffusion

-The solution is seperated from the dialysis fluid via a partially permeable
membrane
-For the laws of diffusion to work, the solution/ the person's blood must contain a
higher concentration of urea than the dialysis fluid. To make sure other useful
components aren't filtered out of the person's blood, the dialysis fluid must
contain concentrations of glucose, salts, and minerals and other useful substances
that are supposed to remain in the blood, in levels that are normally found in a
healthy person's blood.
-And for urea to be filtered out, the dialysis fluid must contain very small
amounts of urea, (diffusion needs a concentration gradient)
-The dialysis fluid will contain no proteins as protein molecules will be too big
to pass through

Dialysis is applied in kidney machines, that are used by people with kidney
problems or kidney failure

In kidney machines, a tube is connected to the vein, and the blood passes through
and gets pumped into the main unit, where the dialysis takes place, and the
filtered blood passes back into the body

Kidnet transplants vs dialysis

Benefits of kidney transplants:

-patient can return to a normal lifestyle ( people using kidney machines have to
have frequent hospital visits )
-dialysis machines are expensive to buy and maintain
-the machine will be availabe for others to use

Disadvantages of kidney transplants:

-Suitable donor required (can be hard to find)
-Risk of tissue rejection
-Operation itself is expensive
-Not accepted by some religions
SYLLABUS 14

The nervous system - 14.1 Nervous control in humans

The nervos system is comprised of two parts - the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that connect the brain to the rest
of the body.

If you get a small cut, There sensors on your skin that respond to a certain
stimuli, in this case touch. Your skin acts as a sense organ.
A sense organ is a group of receptor cells that respond to specific stimuli, ie,
light, sound, touch, temperature, chemicals
And the neurons send impulses from the sense organ to the brain via the CNS, and in
the central nervous system, there's another set of neurons that send impulses from
the CNS (brain) to the effector.
Effector : muscles or glands which respond when they receive impulses from motor
neurons.
In this scenario, your brain tells your arm or finger muscles to scrunch up the
paper and throw it in the bin.
what we note : there is a set of neurons that specifically send impulses fROM the
sense organs to the brain, and we have another set of neurons that deliver impulses
from the CNS to the effectors.
The neurons in the muscles and sense organs are all part of the peripheral nervous
system, that connects everything to the brain.

So we have two kinds of neurons -- sensory neurons, and motor neurons

Sensory neurons are the ones that carry impulses from the receptors in the sense
organs to the CNS, the brain
and Motor neurons are the ones that deliver impulses from the CNS (brain) to the
effectors.

The structure and direction of travel of impulses is different for sensory neurons
and motor neurons.

Sensory neurons : sensory receptors, dendron, myelin sheath, cell body, dendrites

Motor neurons : dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, nerve endings

The direction of travel of impulses is left to right (sensory receptors -

dendrites) in a sensory neuron and right to left (dendrites - nerve endings) in a
motor neuron.
The position and shape of the cell body is different as well. In a sensory neuron,
the cell body is kind of at the middle of the neuron, while in the case of a motor
neuron, the cell body is at the beginning, surrounded by dendrites.
The tube that transmits impulses have different names. It is called a dendron for
sensory neurons and an axon for motor neurons. sensory nerons have sensory
receptors while motor neurons end in nerve endings.

The myelin sheath helps insulate the neuron for faster transmission, and it also
helps keep the impulses in the neuron.

How do reflex actions work?

The Simple Reflex Arc

The simple reflex arc is what causes reflex actions.

It consists of : sensory neurons, synapse, relay neuron, motor neuron, and the
effector muscles

This is put into action in dangerous situations where there is no time for the
brain to receive an impulse, process the information, and give out instructions to
the effector muscles.
Relying on the brain will take too much time and cause more damage.

Using the simple reflex arc, the senory neurons carry the impulses from the sense
organs and instead of passing it to the spinal cord and brain, it is directly
relayed to a motor neuron, connected by a relay neuron, and the motor neuron
results in the movement of the effector muscles.

Obviously, at some point the information will reach the brain (when after pulling
your hand away from a hot pan you realise you were going to get burned), but the
action is carried out before the brain even processes it. An action is taken
without orders from the brain.

yesss ikr it looks kind of bleh to me when its alll over

ohhh
mhmmm
those are nice
mhmmm its wholesome
ppl who get barcodes on their necks though? uMM

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