FSC 201 SILVICULTURE OF ECONOMIC SPECIES (2+1)

Theory

Geographic distribution – Description, growth characteristics – Requirement of

soil and climatic factors – Phenology – Silvicultural characteristics – Nursery technology
– Planting technique – Tending – Rotation – Yield – Economic importance of the
following species: Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana,
Curpressus torulosa and P. roxburghii – Broad leaved: Acacias (Acacia nilotica, A.
planifrons, A. leucophloea, A. catechu, A. auriculiformis, A. mearnsii, A. dealbata, A.
decurrens) –Shorea robusta, Vateria indica, Hopea parviflora and Dipterocarpus spp. -
Dalbergia latifolia and D. sissoo - Santalum album and Juglans regia - Ceiba pentandra
and Tectona grandis - A ilanthus excelsa a n d Gmelina arborea - Adina cordifolia,
Lagerstroemia spp. - Holoptelia integrifolia and Hardwickia binata - Quercus spp. and
Boswellia serrata - Pterocarpus marsupium and Pterocarpus santalinus - Anogesisus
latifolia, Populus spp., Terminalia arjuna, T. bellirica, T. paniculata and T. procera -
Eucalyptus tereticornis and E. camaldulensis - E. grandis and E. globulus - Casuarina
equisetifolia and Leucaena leucocephala - Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus
- Bassia longifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum and Simarouba glauca - Tamarindus indica
and Zizyphus mauritiana - Albizia spp., Inga dulce and Syzygium cuminii.

Practical

Identification and description of quality planting stock in Acacias - Santalum

album, Dalbergia latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus marsupium
and Pterocarpus santalinus - Holoptelia integrifolia, Hardwickia binata, Gmelina arborea,
Ceiba pentandra, Ailanthus excelsa, Lagerstroemia spp. - Eucalyptus Spp, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Bamboo spp. - Pongamia pinnata, Azadirachta
indica, Bassia longifolia, Simarouba glauca, Tamarinuds indica – field layout and planting
techniques for Sandal, Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Leucaena, Acacia’s, Neem, Pungam,
Simaruba, Illupai, Bamboos, Teak, Dalbergia spp., Pterocarpus spp., Ailanthus,
Hardwickia, Holoptelia, Gmelina arborea, Albizia lebbeck – Lagerstroemia lanceolata,
Kapok, Tamarind - Practicing post planting operation – Casuality estimation – Thinning
methods in teak and Bamboo.

Lecture Schedule

Geographic distribution, Description, growth characteristics, Requirement of soil

and climatic factors, Phenology, Silvicultural characteristics, Nursery technology, Planting
technique, Tending, Rotation, Yield and Economic importance of the following species:

1. Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana

2. Cedrus deodara
3. Pinus wallichiana, P. roxburghii
4. Curpressus torulosa
5. Acacia nilotica, A. planifrons, A.leucophloea
6. A.catechu and A. auriculiformis,
7. A. mearnsii, A. dealbata, A. decurrens
8. Prosopis juliflora
9. Shorea robusta, Vateria indica, Hopea parviflora
10. Dipterocarpus spp.
11. Dalbergia latifolia and D. sissoo
12. Santalum album and Juglans regia
13. Ceiba pentandra and Tectona grandis
14. Ailanthus excelsa and Gmelina arborea
15. Adina cordifolia
16. Lagerstroemia spp
17. Mid Semester Examination
18. Holoptelia integrifolia and Hardwickia binata
19. Quercus spp and Boswellia serrata
20. Pterocarpus marsupium and Pterocarpus santalinus
21. Anogesisus latifolia
22. Populus spp
23. Terminalia arjuna, T. bellirica
24. Terminalia chebula, T. catappa
25. Terminalia paniculata, T. procera
26. Casuarina equisetifolia
27. Eucalyptus tereticornis and E. camaldulensis
28. E. grandis and E. globules
29. Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus
30. Leucaena leucocephala, Azadirachta indica
31. Bassia latifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum and Simarouba glauca
32. Tamarindus indica and Zizyphus mauritiana
33. Albizia spp.
34. Inga dulce and Syzygium cuminii

Practical Schedule

1. Identification and description of quality planting stock in Acacia's

2. Identification and description of quality planting stock of Santalum album,
Dalbergia latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis, Pterocarpus marsupium
and Pterocarpus santalinus.
3. Identification and description of quality planting stock of Holoptelia integrifolia,
Hardwickia binata, Gmelina arborea, Ceiba pentandra, Ailanthus excelsa,
Lagerstroemia spp.
4. Identification and description of quality planting stock of Eucalyptus Spp,
Casuarina equisetifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Bamboo spp.
5. Identification and description of quality planting stock of Pongamia pinnata,
Azadirachta indica, Bassia longifolia, Simarouba glauca, Tamarindus indica.
6. Planting techniques for sandal with host
7. Field layout and planting techniques for Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Leucaena
leucocephala
8. Field layout and planting techniques for Acacia's.
9. Field layout and planting techniques for Neem, Pungam, Simaruba and Illupai
10. Field layout and planting techniques for Bamboos and Teak
11. Field layout and planting techniques for Dalbergia spp., Pterocarpus spp.,
Ailanthus, Hardwickia, Holoptelia, Gmelina arborea, Albizzia lebbeck a n d
Lagerstroemia lanceolata
12. Field layout and planting techniques for Kapok and Tamarind.
13. Practicing post planting operations (Basin forming, Mulching, Weeding, soil
working, etc.)
14. Casualty estimation and replacement
15. Practicing different thinning methods in teak
16. Practicing thinning in bamboo
17. Final Practical Examination

Assignment

Plantation management for higher productivity in Eucalyptus, Casuarina, Teak,

Sal, Acacia’s, Prosopis, Kapok, Neem, Simarouba, etc.

References

Champion, H.G. and A.L. Griffith. 1989. Manual for General Silviculture for India
Dwivedi, A.P. 1993..A Text Book of Silviculture, International Book Distributors,
Dehradun.
Ralph D. Nyland.1996.Silviculture concepts and applications.McGraw-Hill,NewYork
Troup, K.S. 1984. The Silviculture of Indian Trees- Volume I, II & III. Controller of
Publications, New Delhi
 Abies pindrow (Silver fir)

1) Habit – Very tall, evergreen, dense, crown conical when young and
cylindrical later, dark foliage. Branches horizontal in upper part and dropping lower.
Branchlets stiff and horizontal. Leaves narrow linear with two silvery streaks on lower
surface. Spirally arranged. Bark light grey with deep vertical fissures. Long and narrow
scales.
2) Uses – White smooth wood, mostly used for packing cases. Also for railway
sleepers if treated. Can be used for matchwood and paper pulp.

Large dimensions recorded

Mundali 1) 206 ft. ht. 18’ – 9” girth
2) 202 ft. ht. 26’ girth
Under normal conditions 180’ height is very common.
3) Distribution and habitat – Afghanistan to Nepal from 7500’ to 11000’
mostly mixed with spruce, kail and even deodar. Pure patches in cool and moist
locations common where Q. semecarpifolia, Q. dilata, Acer sp., Aesculus indica, Juglans
regia, Ulmus wallichiana, Prunus padas, Corylus sp., etc are found mixed. Does not
come upon dry and shallow soils. Undergrowth practically nil when full density.
Otherwise Rubus, Rosa, Viburnum, Salix, Strebilauthes, Senecie, Dipsacus, Brackan,
Poligonum, Arundinasia, etc. from dense undergrowth. A species associated with heavy
snow fall and accumulation. Rain including snow 45 to 100 inches but does not extend
in dry inner valleys.
4) Phenology – a) Needles persist 3 – 6 years, rarely more and fall in May –
June. New appear April – May typically yellow.
b) Male flowers – On previous years shoot in leaf axil. 3” – 5” x 2” – 3”. Length
increasing to 0.5” – 0.8” after pollen shedding. Pollen shed and April and beginning of
May.
c) Female flowers – Appear on upper part of tree on horizontal branches. Erect
stock appears bearing cone 1.5” – 2.0” x 4.0” – 5.0”. Cylindrical, dark purple. After
pollination scales close and rapid growth commences. 4” – 5” x 1.75” by June in wam
locations. Mature 4” – 7” x 2 – 2.5”. Seed 1 – 1.3” with wing and 0.5” – 0.6” without
wing 0.5” – 0.8” wide. Ripen October or early November when scales fall off leaving
central axis.
d) Seeding – 3’ – 7’ girth trees best as bigger ones have dry and inactive top.
Collection of cones and September or so. Good seed year once in 3 – 4 years. 470
seeds to an aunce. Fertility about 70%.
5) Germination and the seedling – Epigeous 5 – 7 cotyledones develop in
May with melting of snow. Hypocotyle 1.0 – 2.2”, root 1.5” – 3.0” lateral roots appear.
Third year shoot 0.8 to 1.5”, roots continues to grow more laterally. Thus total height
about 3” – 5” only. Slow growth – about 3” height in 10 years. Most fresh soil needed
for best development. Shade tolerated, sensitive to drought and frost. Best growth in
open over head light and side shade. Browsed by goats easily.

6) Silvicultural characters
a) Light – Shade bearer but very poor growth in shade, for which complete
overhead light best. Side shade useful to clean the bole branches persist to
ground level in open poles
b) Wind – Root system superficial, spreading and not massive. Grows in sheltered
situations; but in exposed places blown over
c) Frost – Seedlings are sometimes affected
d) Snow – Practically no snow bracks because of short branches. On very steep
slopes a little now bend is caused
e) Browsing – Young plants have tender new shoots which are browsed. Trampling
damage considerable. Grazing is helpful the heavy seeds and deep humus
f) Fire – Extremely tender, no natural fire usually
g) Fungi – Heartwood liable to decay in old trees

7) Natural reproduction
Seed capable of germination in fairly heavy shade, most of the crops are over
mature. Seed limiation – seed bed very poor humus debris weeds. In freshly exposed
soil cattle paths, new roads, slips, grazed area, etc. new seedlings appear profusely.
Given a little light, establish in course of time. Under spruce where humus not so deep
regeneration of fir very common succession so under broad leaved species. Natural
regeneration is very difficult task, impossible over most area because of heavy fellings
and neglect of regeneration which has produced weeds.

8) Artificial regeneration
Experiments have shown that scraping of humus followed by a little soil working
and sowing of seed produces a thick of seedlings. In moderate openings weeds and
shrubs are lesser than in big openings. Shrub cutting and weeding helps establishment.
Natural spruce and kail also invade and give a mixed crop – the most desirable
conditions.
Seedling grows much too slowly. Weeds a problem. Planting more successful
and economical on the whole.
Nursery sown in October, November, 6’ x 4’ bed needs 2 oz. Seeds. Germination
and growth better on warmer soil. Side shade important, 1st rains planting out 3” x 4”,
2nd rains 4” x 6”, 3rd rains 6” x 9” and in 4th rain planted out when seedlings are about 9”
high. Nursery should be planned in the planting area itself.
Planting – 6’ x 6’ would be ideal. Cannot be closure because of cost. Planting
spade for which notch planting to reduce cot. Seedlings grow during summer. Autumn
planting worth trying. It may give better results. Failures should be beaten up next
year with bigger plants.
Tending – weedings during rains done. Also shrub cutting. Hot weather
weeding may prove useful. Weeding, etc. essential for 5 – 6 years after planting.
9) Removal of overhead shade – Due to weed has to be very cautions.
Encourage broad leaved species – Populus, Corylus, Aesculus, Prunus padus, etc. Cost
of planting should not be high as the species fetch very low price. Initial removal of
inimical conditions move a capital investment for a few rotations than the cost of
regeneration in the 1st instance.

10) Silvicultural treatment

Earlier managed under selection system. Not suitable mostly because
concentrated regeneration operations essential. Punjab shelterwood and selection
systems followed in Punjab and Himachal. Aim is mixed crip. Exact number of seed
bearers (misnomer) not known. Roughly 25 trees per acre should be alright. Even very
small groups of advanced growth should be retained.
 Debris burning has to be careful. A difficult operation because of moisture.
Artificial regeneration – Shelter essential to keep down weeds. Weeding and
shrub cutting explained above. Thinnings not studied yet.

11) Statistical
Rotation 150 years for 24” d.b.h. and 180 years 26” d.b.h. If progress of
regeneration satisfactory, 150 years more suitable. 160 cft in round volume at 180
years rotation per tree. Site qualities not worked out, quality will be at 170 feet or so.

Cedrus deodara (Deodar)

Family : Coniferae
English name : Himalayan Cedar, Deodar
Vernacular name : Diar, Deodar, Dedwar, Kelu, Kilar (W. Him.)

General Description
A very large evergreen tree with dark green or in some cases, silvery foliage.
Branches horizontal or slightly ascending or descending, not whorled but arising
irregularly from the stem. Extremities of loading shoots and branches drooping in
normal young to middle age trees, stiffer on stunted, slow growing specimens. Has a
conical crown upto middle = age; later the crown becomes rounded or broad and flat
with spreading horizontal branches. The flat topped formation sometimes hastened by
injury to the leading shoot or by the action of the wind in exposed situations. Leaves
acidular, still, 1.0 – 1.5” long, arranged spirally on the normal long shoots and in
pseudo-whorls in the short shoots. The successive years of growth are marked on the
branchlets by rings of recurved bud scales marking the joints of junction between the
succeesive years on the arrested shoots also a fresh ring of small brown recurved scale
marks each years growth. Bank grayish brown with vertical and diagonal cracks dividing
it into irregular oblong scales. Maximum height – 240’ (Sutlet valley – Schlich).
Maximum girth – about 50” (Manali – Troup).
Uses
Wood moderately hard; sap wood white, heartwood light yellowish brown. Oily
and strongly scented, very durable, most important timber of the Western Himalayas,
extensively used for building, railway sleepers and other purposes requiring durability,
also used for furniture, general carpentry, etc.

Distribution and Habitat

General distribution – Throughout the Western Himalaya from Afghanistan to
Garhwal upto the valley of the Dhauli river below the Nj ti pass, long 79o48’, at elevation
from 4000’ to over 10000’. Most common from 6000 – 8500’. Altitudinal range is higher
on southerly than northerly aspects. Jaunsar, Kulu, Kashmir, Chitral and Dir, Chamba,
Bashahr, Tehri, Garhwal and other minor hill states carry deodar forests.
Topography, geology and soil – Occurs naturally in mountainous country with
slopes varying from moderate to precipitous. Also grows on level ground in river valleys
at suitable elevations. Found in all aspects. Reaches its best dimensions in northerly
aspects and regeneration can be established only with the aid of a shelter.
Climate – Rainfall – 40” to 70” mostly from the S.W. monsoon. Considerable
fall of snow during winter.
Temperature – Date scanty - Max. 80o to 100oF
Min. 10o to 25oF
Associates – A typically gregarious species. Is usually associated with
coniferous and broad-leaved species, but even so tends to retain its gregarious habit.
The following are associations with Himalayan conifers:
1. Deodar – kail: C h aracteristics of the drier types and is the commonest.
Sometimes found in the form of deodar under wood making its way through an
open over wood of kail.
2. Deodar – spruce: Characteristics of moist rich soil. Deodar attains its best
bright growth with a tall, clean bole, e.g., forests of Chamba, Jaunsar, Bashahr,
etc.
3. Deodar – silver fir: Found sometimes at the higher elevation. The conditions
sometimes is that makes its appearance under an over wood of deodar
4. Deodar, kail, spruce and silver fir: Found in parts of Hazara, the deodar
seeking here the more rocky spurs
5. Deodar – chir: At lower elevations, chir occupies the drier ridges and spurs and
deodar the moisture and cooler depression. The appearance of deodar may
sometimes be due to fire protection
6. Deodar – cypress: In area carrying Cupressus toulosa
7. Deodar – pinus: In the dry inner Himalaya
8. Deodar – yew: In moist shady situations, the yew (Taxusbacatta) being an
under wood
Many broad leaved species are associated with Deodar, Quercus incana and Q.
dilatata are frequent companions, the former at lower elevations. Q. diliata often occurs
in the spruce, deodar associations in moist situations. Deodar extends into the Kharsu
oak region but is not typical of it. Apart from the Oaks, Pieris ovalifolia and Pyrus pashia
at lower elevations, Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus padus, P. puddum, Aesculus
indica, Cedrela serrata, Populus ciliata, Corus macrophylla, C. capitata, Juglans regia,
Tilmus wallichiana, Retula almoids, Corylus colarme, Ilex dipyrena (in moist situations)
and various maples are other road wood associates.
Phenology – Leaf sheeding and renewal – old leaves are shed mostly in the hot
season, chiefly in May and sometimes in autumn. Persistence of leaves varies from one
year in vigorous sapling to six years in older ones. New shoots appear in March to early
April.
Flowering and fruiting – Male flowers (Catins) first appears in June, Ripen and
shed pollen from the middle of September to middle of October. Majority fall down after
ripening being dislodged by showers of rain.
Female flowers appear in August. Pollinated from the middle of September to
middle of October. The flowers are inconspicuous at the time of pollination. By early
May they become sufficiently big to be visible. By the end of June or during July they
become full sized and are bluish green. Turn chocolate brown in August and ripen from
the end of September to middle on end of November. From the time of its appearance
the female cone takes 12½ to 13½ months to ripen. On ripening the cone breaks up
on the tree, the scales and seeds fall to the ground and only the persistent axis remains
on the trees. Opening of cone is favoured by dry, sunny weather. The species is
generally moncecious and sometimes also dioecious.
 Seed and seedlings – Seeds only and soon lose their fertility which is quite
high in good fresh seeds. Size of tree does not seem to affect fertility. Old trees
produce quite fertile seeds. Cones with fertile seed may be provided at an early age as
low as 28 years. Seed bearing is increased by isolation. Trees in the open bear more
than those in the dense crop.

Silvicultural characters
Light – A light demander, capable of standing much lateral shade. Finest
deodar with clean bole grown in mixture with spruce affords dense lateral shade. Young
plants are capable of standing moderate shade, but cannot grow satisfactorily unless
afforded complete overhead light. On hot aspects protection against desiccation is
necessary for the first two or three years.
Drought – Affected chiefly in the seedling stage. If it survives this it has
nothing to fear later.
Wind – Has a massive root system and is seldom affected ordinarily
Frost – Seldom affected
Snow – A cause of serious injury, poles bent, broken or uprooted, unthinned
crops suffer most. Start thinnings early and do them lightly and at a regular intervals.
Snow has some beneficial effects. Protects seeds during winter from birds and animals.
Provides moisture in the dry season immediately preceding the monsoon. Is the only
source of moisture in the inner areas where monsoon rainfall is not received.
Fire – Fire tender, fire seldom a factor in the moisture types. Extensive damage
done in drier parts.
Browsing – Goat browsing causes much injury to younger deodar when other
edible plants are not available. In certain areas it is browsed down to bush like form
and kept in this condition.
Lopping – Lopped commonly for litter production and manure. Cone production
prevented and natural regeneration hindered. Lopped trees die off by degrees and
wooded areas become grasslands.
Wild animals – Bears, percupines and monkeys are the most injurious. Bears
remove the bark of deodar poles and saplings with their teeth and claws and this has
often a girdling effect. Procuping do similar damage at the base. Langur monkeys do
much damage by grawing the bark round the base of the poles and saplings. They and
the brown monkeys pull out seedlings. Birds like Jays and nut crackers attack unripe
cones from early September tear off scales and eat the seeds. Pheasants devour seeds
which lie on the ground.
Insects – The larvae of a small brown moth, Euzoppera cedrella destroys the
seeds. Attack noticeable in July when cones are half grown. Young plants suffer much
from the attacks of insects particularly cook-chafer grabs which destroy the roots, and
cut worms (Agrotis psilon) which bite through roots and stem.
Climbers – Rosa moschata the worst as it isscrambles into the crown of young
trees and suppresses them.
Fungi – (i) Fomes annosus – Constitutes a serious meance to deodar in some
pares of Himalayas. Has spread into plantations in Kulu. Young trees appear to be
more prune to the attack. Spreads centrifugally attacking the roots which become
rotten; the bark cracks, and while bands and sheets of mycelium are found beneath the
scales. The mycelium ascends from the roots along the cambium into the lower part of
the roots along the cambium into the lower part of the stem, which shows on exudation
of resin and the needs turn yellow and fall when the mycelium has encircled the stem
the tree dies. The wood is also attacked by fire hyppae which disintegrate the tissues
and reduce the value of the timber.
ii) Paridermum cedri – Attacks young needles of the current years shoots.
Eventually foliage becomes thin and the twigs and afterwards the branches die. A
characteristics result in the appearance of ‘Vitches broom’.
Natural reproduction – Factors influencing natural reproduction (1) seedling
conditions, (2) germination, (3) weather conditions, (4) conditions of soil and soil
covering, (5) light and (6) miscellaneous factors.
In the management of the deodar forests, canopy manipulation is primarily
depended upon for inducing and establishing natural reproduction. Such manipulation
has most important results on the composition of soil, the light reaching the ground, the
temperature and the moisture content of the soil. Regeneration fellings leaving the
trees 50’ apart, i.e., leaving 20 trees per acre, have given excellent results.
Artificial reproduction – Natural regeneration cannot be wholly relief upon for
complete and rapid regeneration for a coniferous crop. Has to be supplemented by
sowing and planting either to fill up failed areas or to restock blanks. Artificial
reproduction is indispensable to restock burnt areas, clearfelled areas abandoned
cultivation and landslips, to introduce deodar in pure kail and spruce forests, to increase
proportion of deodar in mixed forests, to convert oak and other inferior forests into
mixed deodar crops and lastly to create new plantations of deodar.
Deodar is both sown and planted. The choice depends on the site to be stocked
and the quantity of seed available. On difficult areas such as poor exposed hot and dry
ones and those overgrown with thick grass, heavy weeds, etc. and steep slopes
landslips, etc. planting is more certain and on the whole less expensive and should be
preferred to sowing. Where failures planting is the more probable to succeed. Direct
sowing on a large scale is impossible except in good seed years. Where damage from
birds, monkeys and hail is prevalent, sowing may not be desirable. If sowing are
followed by snowfall and monsoon rains are timely and copious, good results are
obtained.
Direct sowing – Follow nature by sowing in November or December in advance
of the snowfall. Sowing is done broadcast or in contour lines broken or continuous or in
patches of various size. Broadcast sowing is useful for sowing up abandoned cultivation,
gaps and where falling refuse has been collected and burnt. In the restocking of burnt
areas, the bushes and dead trees and cut, soon after fire damage and set on fire when
dry and deodar seed is broadcast if sufficient seed is available (20 to 25 lbs per acre), if
not, transplant from nurseries are put in. If too much weeding is to be anticipated or if
sowing has to be done in areas carrying dense shrub growth line sowing is indicated
lines being 10’ apart along contours, 1’ wide and terraced (20 lbs of seed per acre).
Patch sowings patches varying from square are indicated in areas where there is not
much of weed growth. In the Punjab, patches 5’ x 2’ and 6’ apart from end to end are
used but in areas with heavy weed growth, the patches are 5’ x 5’. The shrubs and
herbaceous weeds are uprooted and the soil dug 9’ x 12’ deep. The slopes of the
surface of the patches must conform to that of the hill side. The patches are used as
temporary nurseries for the next year, surplus seedlings being planted out. When this is
intended, the patches are made 12’ apart from edge to edge in the line.
Planting – Nursery plantation put out in July after rains have just set in. In
Punjab the nursery beds are of a standard size of 6’ x 3’. These beds are sown after
broadcast or in drills accordingly as the young plants have to be pricked out in the
nursery lines or not. In broadcast sowing the seeds are scattered as evenly as possible
over the entire surface of the bed, sown rather thick and lightly covered with fine earth.
In drill sowing when seedlings are to remain for less than 1½ years, drills must be 2”
apart and seeds sown in the drills ½” deep and spaced ½” to 1” apart, when seedlings
have to remain longer the drill must be 9 apart and the seeds should be spaced 3” in the
lines. After sowing the soil of the bed, must be properly consolidated with a light
wooden roller 3’ wide or with felt. Sowing is done in November – December.
Germination takes place in March or April. Transplanting in nursery lines is expensive
and should be resorted to only when the locality to be restocked is poor and conditions
of growth weedy and very unfavourable for unpricked seedlings. Seedlings are pricked
out when 6 months old and planted in parawise nursery lines 3” x 6” each seedling
being placed in a hold with its collar level with the surface and the earth processed
round it. The weakest and worst shaped plants are discarded. A second transplanting
should be done, if needed, when the deodar is 1½ years old.
The planting spacement is 6’ x 6’ or 8’ x 8’ for pure planting and 10’ x 10’ or 12’
x 12’ when in mixture. For line sowing 10’ x 6’ spacement is usual in the Punjab.
Silvicultural treatment – May be considered under these heads: (1)
Regeneration measures, (2) Tending operations and (3) Silvicultural systems.

Pinus wallichiana (Kail)

Habit – A large evergreen tree with bluish feathery foliage. Branches whorled,
spreading, usually ascending in young trees and horizontal or drooping in cold trees,
with unturned ends. Two whorls often produced in one season, the second or summer
whorls being only a few inches above the first or spring whorl below which is the long
spring internode of the current year. Adult needles in fascicles of 5, abnormal fasciles
containing 4, 6 or 7 needles may be found occasionally.
Uses – Wood moderately hard, with a pink heartwood of good quality, less
durable than Deodar, but easily worked and much used for building especially interior
work, furniture and general carpentry. Resin yielded by this pine is superior to that of P.
longifolia but not tapped as yield during the season is small owing to occurrence of this
tree in cooler regions.
 One of the most beautiful pines in the world when growing vigorously, tends to
become regged in old age.

Large dimensions recorded

Kishen ganga valley, Kashmir
i) Height 165 ft; girth 9 ft
ii) Height 110 ft’ girth 16 ft
Normally under favourable conditions a height of 120 ft with a girth of 8-10 feet
not uncommon.
Distribution and habitat – It occurs in the Himalayan moist temperate and
dry temperate forests. It is considered to be a seral species by champion.
Occurs chiefly at 6000 – 10000 ft but sometimes as ascending to 4000,
extending westward to Afghanistan and Kafiristan and eastward to Bhutan, though
absent from Sikkim and a considerable portion of Kumon, altitudinal range greater than
any other Himalayan conifer. At lower elevations descends into region of P. longifolia
with which it is frequently mixed towards upper limit of latter. At higher elevations
extends into region of birch and juniper but growth here stunted and often prostrate.
Most abundant in W. Himalaya between 6000 ft to 8500 ft and occurs gregariously as a
rule on warmer slopes and spurs except in lower zone where it occupies colder aspects
and depressions. Blue pine frequently occurs mixed with other species, of which the
commonest are among conifers Deodar, spruce and silver fir and among broad-leaved
species oaks (Q. incana, A. diliata and at higher elevations Q. semecarpifolia),
Rhodendron, Pieris, Populus, Cornus macrophylla, Prunus, Cedrela, Aesculus, Acer,
Ulmus and others.
Among conifers most important companion is deodar and mixed crops of the two
are frequently met with. Mixture of blue pine with Q. incana a n d Q. dilatata also
common, pine usually flourishing well with oak. In mixture with spruce which is
common, blue pine usually reaches large dimensions. As already mentioned blue pine is
considered to be seral species. It readily colonizes fire burnt areas, abandoned
cultivation, landslips, avalanche paths, etc. and also comes in when oak forest is lopped.
Mixture of other species is often the result of succession.
Under growth in blue pine forests sometimes absent owing to density of crop.
Maiden hair fern, wild straw berry and bracken fern (Pteris aquiline) usually present.
Where light sufficient a plentiful growth of grass, other herbaceous plants and shrubs
appear.
Geology and soil – Found on a variety of geological formations. Thrives on
moderately dry soils but, provided drainage is good, it grows best on moist, fresh, deep
soil. Avoids very wet an badly drained ground. Sometimes suprings upon boulder and
gravel deposits in beds of streams, showing its partially for a prows soil with a fiar
amount of sub-soil moisture. Micaschist, which decomposes into a moist frest soil often
of considerable depth, is very suitable. On shade, growth varies according to hardness
of rocky and depth of soil. Limestone suitable only if soil sufficiently deep.
Effect of geological formation in determining local distribution well illustrated
below Bendal in Tirthan valley, Kulu, normally blue pine occurs above chir, but there is a
belt of pure blue pine on moist micaschist, above this a belt of pure chir on quartzite on
account of dryness of the soil, higher up blue pine again makes its appearance on
micaschists.
Climate – Most of important blue-pine forests suitable in regions with 40-75
inches rainfall. In Bhutan, however, rainfall probably well over 100 inches while in
Suliman range pine occurs where rainfall possibly little more than 10”, but there its
existence believed to be due to pockets of moisture in limestone formation. Does not
extend so far as the Deodar into inner dry valleys of Western Himalaya. Absolute
minimum and maximum temperatures very from near zero to about 100oF. Throughout
its habitat there is snowfall during winter.
Leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting – New shots and needles appear in
March or early April according to locality. By August or September needles attain full
size and their based sheaths have fallen. Needles persist for 14 to 15 months and in
part for a second year. Needles shed chiefly during May, June and July. In June – Juy
trees often have a somewhat bare appearance when many of oil needles have fallen
white new ones have not yet expanded fully. Needles usually shed earlier in case of less
vigorous trees, at high elevations and on exposed ridges, that in case of vigorous poles
in favourable situations. Sometimes partial shedding of needles from October to
December.
Male flowers (or male catkins) – Arranged in rather indistinct spirals in a
cluster 0.5 to 2 inches long at best of current year’s young shoot. Catkins 0.3 to 0.4 in
long before ripening. Pollen shed from end of April to beginning of June according to
elevation. Catkins fall soon after ripening.
Female flowers and development of cones – Young female flowers become
visible in April, are pollinated from end of April to beginning of June according to
elevation, locality and season. Young cones erect and terminal on 1” to 1.5” long scale
covered peduncles, solitary or usually 2 or 3 together sometimes more, at end of new
shoots forming a short round terminal bud. Cones dark reddish purple with scale open.
After pollination scales close and cones increase somewhat in size becoming glaucous
green or bluish in colour and remain in this condition for remainder of first season.
Fertilization not completed until beginning of year after pollination. After this
cones start growing rapidly in March – April and reach full size from latter half of June to
early August and become pendulous. They ripen and shed seed from end of September
to early part of November, 18 months after pollination. Ripe cones 6 to 13 inches long.
Old cones remain on trees for varying times occasionally upto 5 years or even more.
Seed and seedlings – Seeds winged, lie in pairs at base of each come scale.
Weight about 450 per ounce. Tree starts seeing at an early age of 15 to 20 years,
sometimes trees fairly fertile. As long as tree remains vigorous, number of cones
produced increases with size of tree. Consequently where possible, select seed bearers
from among larger vigorous trees with well-developed crowns.
Tests at Dehradun have shown that seed retains its fertility to some extent for at
least 14 – 18 (Troupe monghs). On the average every other year is a good year. A
certain amount of seed produced almost every year, complete failure is rate. Probably
good seed years can be foretold about 18 months in advance of seedling. Crop of cones
may, however, be largely or completely destroyed in immature state by animals and
birds. Chief such animals being monkeys and flying squirrels, particularly latter. Both
the common Western Himalayan flying squirrels (the large red and the smaller) are
concerned. They are natural in habit and destroy large quantities of green cones of 2nd
year from May onwards. Among birds worst offenders joy and nut crackers which attack
green cones from June onwards. After seeds fall pheasants food on them throughout
winter. Inspite of all this damage to seed the tree reproduces itself freely in nature.
Germination – Epigeous, Cotyledons 9 to 12 number from first green leaves of
seedling.
 The seedlings – A natural forest seedling grown under average conditions
attains a height of 4 to 8 inches in 4 years, though under specially favourable conditions
height may be considerably more. There is little or no growth above cotyledons in 1st
year and adult needles commence to form in 2nd year. In counting rings on stumps a
least 5 years should be added for a seedling to reach stump height.
Nursery raised seedlings reach a height of 9 to 15 inches in 5 years with stout
stems and well developed masses of adult needles. In first year they usually show a
distinct elongation of stem above cotyledons. Seedlings flourish best on well drained
soil with an abundance of light. Tend to damp off with an excess of moisture and to die
of drought in shallow dry soil, frost hardy. Persist for sometimes under slight shade but
die off under heavy shade. Rats often do considerable damage growing through
seedling roots.

Silvicultural characters
Light – Strong light demander from young onwards. Persists under moderate
shade for many years but makes little progress, and eventually loses power to recover.
Vigorous growth attained only with complete over head light. Even in fair sized gaps
growth is poor compared with the open. Young blue pine plants have a remarkable
altitude for pushing their way through shrub by growth it this is not too heavy.
Wind – Root system massive but some extent superficial. The tree is wind-firm.
Snow – Suffers more from than any other Himalayan conifer. Damage consists
in breakage of crowns and stems and curvature at base of stem. The latter is due to
snow sliding and many feet length of lower part of bole may be rendered useless for
timber. Snow-break particularly common in dense pole crops and is aggravated if these
crops are suddenly heavily opened.
Fire – Blue pine is very sensitive to fire
Browsing – Goat browsing causes serious injury. Sheep and cattle avoid pine if
other food available, though in case of cattle damage caused by trampling. Bears and
porcupines, they do much injury in some localities by girdling poles and saplings.
Man – Branches lopped for little and manure. Torch wood removed from base
of trees.
Climbers – The only serious climber is Rosa moschata. Other climbers that
occur do not do much damage.
 Parasitic plants – A minute plant of Loranthaceae is called Arcevthobium
minutissimum does considerable injury in many localities particularly where the blue
pine does not grow vigorously. Particularly in the dry inner Himalayas it causes a large
number of casualities among trees annually and it is now considered that the damage is
so serious that the extinction of blue pine from those regions in only a matter of tree.
Fungi – It causes root and disintegration of heart wood of blue pine and renders
the wood useless for any purpose. At a later stage several years after infection
sporophotes of fungus appear on stem or on exposed roots. Infection as a rule takes
place through wounds in stem and disease spreads mostly on account of practice of
lopping. The disease can be controlled to a large extent by stopping lopping of trees
and folling the infected trees. In some localities where lopping has been prevalent
almost every tree may be infected. It is no use allowing such crops to grow to maturity
as timber from them will be useless. Such crops should be replaced by new ones at the
earliest. Diseased trees can be used as seed bearers as infection is not transmitted
through seed.
One of the chief objections to starting resin tapping operations systematically in
blue pine forests is that this is likely to spread the trametes pini disease. Possibly
tapping to death a few years prior to felling may have no adverse results.

Natural reproduction
Wherever conditions favourable natural regeneration profuse. Factors
influencing natural reproduction may be considered separately under (1) seedling
conditions, (2) germination, (3) climatic conditions, (4) soil and soil covering, (5) light,
(6) fire and (7) grazing.

Artificial reproduction
Planting – Planting of three years old seedlings which have been pricked out
twice in nursery at age of one year and two years respectively is successful provided
planting is carried out with balls of earth and much care taken to avoid injury to roots.
In practice planting is not done.
Sowing – Direct sowing usually more successful than planting. For sowing up
abandoned fields, clear felled areas or burnt areas broadcast sowing is best. About five
seeds required per acre. In acre as with excessive weeds or bushes sowing in contour
lines in which soil has been worked in a width of one feet or 1½ feet or in patches is
very successful. Soil should not be worked to a fine tilth. Sowing sho8uld be carried
out before break of monsoon. If done earlier much of the seed is likely to be eaten up
by birds. Sowing on hot bare hill sides with shallow soil do not usually succeed.

Silvicultural treatment
May be considered under following heads:
Regeneration – Good regeneration can be obtained with seed bearers varying
in number from 5 to 20 per acre. Normally space out seed bearers 60 to 70 feet apart,
i.e. 10-12 per acre. On hot aspect upto 20 per acre should be retained but further
opening up of canopy desirable as soon as regeneration is 3 or 4 years old.
Where there is heavy growth of undesirable weeds of a mass of felling refuse on
the ground it is necessary to cut and burn weed and to collect and burnt felling refuse.
Badly suppressed advance growth should not be retained. Where pure blue pine is
concerned a regeneration period of 20 years will usually suffice. Normally it is mixed
with Deodar a regeneration period of 25 to 30 years required.
Tending – Weedings not always necessary but required where there are trouble
some seeds like Vibumum foctens, Parrotia and others.
Thinnings – In order to prevent development of side branches and minimize
damage from snow thinnings should be light and repeated frequently that is on a cucle
of 10 years in the early stage. Where much risk of fire remove suppressed stems to
prevent crown fires. Heavy thinnings should be done when the crop nears maturity to
produce increment and to induce crown development for production of seed. In carrying
out thinnings in mixed crops of Kail and Deodar cutting out of large well grown Kail in
order to favour small Deodar is not desirable.
Statistical – According to yield tables publishes for this species three quality
classes have been recognized:
Class Age Average ht. in feet
I 90 120-140
II 90 100-120
III 90 80-100
As a rotation age of 120 years theave age diameter reached for I, II, III qualities
if 23.8”, 20.4” and 17.6” respectively and the mean annual increment for stem timber at
that are is 173, 139 and 104 cft respectively. In many places a rotation of 150 years
has been adopted for mixed crops of blue pine and deodar.

Pinus roxburghii (Chir)

Habit – A large evergreen tree, sometimes nearly deciduous in dry localities and
seasons. Branches upto middle and whorl but whorls not so well defined as those of
blue pine upto middle age elongated and more or less pyramidal, afterwards becoming
spreading, rounded or umbrella shaped, with a massive branch system. Adult needles in
fasciles of 3. Basal sheath persistent, of 10-15 imbricate scales. Needles long on
vigorous tree, short in poor localities, at high elevations and on over-mature trees. Bark
thickness varies from about 4” in young sapling to about 2” in mature trees sometimes
reaching 3” on lower part of stem.
Uses – Sapwood white, heartwood light reddish brown. Much used for building,
common furniture, boxes and general carpentry. Also principal resin producing pine of
India and resin tapping industry for this species now flourishing in U.P., Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu.

Large sizes recorded

i) Ht. 180 ft, girth 10 ft
ii) Ht 178 ft, girth 10 ft 3 inch
Perhaps the largest trees to be found anywhere are those in the Tons valley of
Jannsar and Tehri Garhwal. On shallow soil, exposed ridges and other unfavourable
situations maximum height may be only 29 to 30 ft with tapering and often twised and
gnarled boles.
Distribution of habitat – Chir pine occurs in the Himalayan sub-tropical pine
forests which is a sub-type of sub-tropical pine forests according to Champions
classification. Normally occurs from 450 – 2300 m descending at places in the
northwest to 1500 ft and ascending at other places to 7500 ft, occasionally higher.
Extends from Bhutan in east to Afghanistan in West, occurring extensively in NWFP,
Jammu, Punjab, U.P and Nepal. Does not occur on Southern face of cuter range of
Himalayan which is primarily due to excessive summer heat and excessive monsoon
moisture which are perhaps unfavourable to regeneration.
A typical gregarious tree forming pure forests of considerable extent though it
often occurs mixed with other species particularly at its upper and lower limits. Towards
upper limit common companions are deodar, blue pine, Quercus incana, Rhododendron
arboreum, Piaris ovalifolia, Myrica nagi and other species. At higher elevations it seeks
hotter slopes and drier spurs whereas the moisture depressions and cooler slopes are
occupied by its associates.
Towards lower limit associated with low level species as Shorea robusta,
Anogeissus latifolia, Ougenia delbergiodies, Buchania latifolia, Bauhinia retusa, B.
variegata and others. True chir pine belt occurs between upper and lower mixed belts.
Apart from gregariousness, this pine has a marked tendency to from even-aged crops of
varying extent from small patches to extensive stretches, this is partly due to ease with
which it regenerates and partly to its light demanding character.
Climate – Absolute maximum shade temperate at lowest elevations probably
about 46oC in pure chir pine zone it varies earture usually below freezing point. Rainfall
varies from about but most 900 to 3000 m. Most of rain falls during monsoon. Snow
fall usual towards upper limit but rarely lies for more than a few days.
Geology and soil – Occurs on a variety of geological formations. In outer
Himalayas and Siwaliks on tertiary sandstone with occasional bands of clay or beds of
conflomerate. In Himalayan valleys chir common quartzite and often attains large
dimension. Also commonly occurs on micaschist, gaiess and shales. In certain localities
found on limestone, does well on loose porous soil. Consistency and depth of soil and
sub-soil appear to have more effect on growth of chir and natural reproduction than
underlying rock.
Often grows on bare rock but trees in such localities stunted and gnarled. On
quartzite chir forests usually remarkably pure, other species mainly occurring in moisture
depressions. In Tirthan valley Kulu a somewhat dry quartzite formation is found above
micaschist with oak and other species while chir pine covers quartzite area at higher
elevation than blue pine, thus revering the usual order. On micaschist with a deep soil
Chir is often found mixed with oak and other broad leaved species and attains large
dimensions under favourable conditions. Where underlying rock is hard and depth of
soil shallow, chir is as rule stunted. In Nainital chir generally absent on delomite and
where it occurs it does not grow well. Chir sowing have done well on sandy loam
derived from laterite with several feet of sub soil on Supkar plateau in Madhya Pradesh
and also on arable land at Dehradun.

Leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting

i) Growth and persistence of needles – Needles usually persist for about one
year and 5 months from the time of sprouting of buds in January to shedding of needles
in May or June of following year. In many cases, particularly in vigorous saplings and
poles they persist in whole or in part for a second year and in exceptional case also for a
third year. In dry hot localities and in exceptionally dry seasons trees nearly deciduous.
Resting period short, winter buds form in October or November and growth
ceases till December or early January when new shoots begin to appear. Needles
mostly fall during April, May and June though some may being to fall during March and
some may continue to fall earlier. While oil needles are falling new ones lengthen
rapidly and by the time the former have fallen the latter are 3” to 6” long and still erect.
In June trees have a characteristic bare appearance. By September needles reach fully
length. In October – November terminal winter buds formed and growth ceases till
December or early January.
ii) Male flowers – Male flowers 0.5” to 0.7” long when ripening grouped on
axis of new shoots in sirals of 5. Whole inflorescence 1” to 4” long by 1.5” to 2” in
diameter. At low elevations inflorescence visible by beginning of January. Flowers ripen
and shed pollen from February to April according to altitude and season. After pollen
escapes flowers elongate to about 1”, remain on shoot for a short time and are then
shed one by one, leaving the axis destitute of any covering except persistent recurved
triangular bases of scales.
iii) Female flowers and development of cones – Female flowers erect,
occur or near spices of new shoots either sclitary or in pairs or in 1 or 2 whorls of 3
each. Appear from early February onwards. Pollination from February to April according
to altitude and weather. Within a month of pollination increase to about 0.6” to 0.8” in
length. Remain green during greater part of first season increasing somewhat in
thickness but not much in length. About end of October turn grayish brown outside
remaining green inside and become horizontal. At this time new needles have become
full sized and young cones are hidden by them. Remain in this condition throughout
winter.
Fertilization probably occurs during second year. A beginning of second season
again turn green and start growing rapidly. By middle of April 3-4 inches long and by
June or July reach full size but still green. Towards beginning of winter gradually turn
brown and hard, and in this stage pass winter. At higher elevations cones may be upto
6 weeks late in development.
In spring of 3rd season 24 months after appearance they are light brown, 4, 5 to
8 in long by 2.5” to 3.5” in diameter and pendulous or horizontal. Cones begin to
appear as a rule in April or May but sometimes as early as March, open only in dry
weather, closing up again with rain. In cool localities and in case of rains seed may
remain unshed till June. Thus from first appearance of cones till the seed is shed it
taken 26 to 27 months. Cones are gradually blown down from trees in about a year’s
time mostly during storms in May – June and in autumn. Some might remain on trees
even a year after opening.
Succession of cones and flowers - Male inflorescence may follow each other
in successive years on same branch. Female cones may succeed female cones at
intervals of one or more years. Male flowers may succeed female flowers same shoot at
intervals of one or more years. Male and female flowers of same year do not occur on
same shoot.
Seed and seedlings – Seeds winged, lie in pair at base of each cone scale seed
weight varies from 8800 to 12300 per leg. Light as well as heavy seed is equally fertile,
number of seeds per cone varies from about 30 to 100; on the average it is 40 to 50.
Chir crops start producing seed at about 30 years age or little earlier but some
trees 40 years or older may not produce seed. Vigorous trees in open field seed earlier.
Male flowers produced at an earlier age than female flowers. Trees with wounded or
umbrella shaped crowns bear a much large number of cones than these with conical
crowns. In good seed years nearly every tree of former type is heavily laden with
cones. Such trees should therefore be selected as seed bearers.
Trees of fairly small dimensions, any about 2’ in girth are capable of production
seed of good fertility and fertility remains high until trees become over mature, when it
diminishes. At the same time only trees approaching maturity with wall developed
crowns produce seed in sufficient quantity to effect complete regeneration. If stored
properly seed remaining viable for several years, particularly when kept in sealed tins. A
fair to good seed year occurs on an average once very two to three years. A good seed
year can be forecast 2 years in advance by looking at top of trees in March – April with a
pair of binoculars when they are visible for 3 to 4 weeks. While on trees seed subject to
damage by birds, flying squirrels and monkeys.
Germination – Epigous, cotyledons 9-13 in number from first green leaves.
Seedlings – 1st year – Natural seedlings in dry localities have tap roots 15” or
more in length. Hypocotyle 0.75” to 0.8” stem above cotuledons 0.5” to 3.0” of more
long. Leaves primordial.
2nd year – Roots on rich soil much thickened but nor conspicuously elongated,
on poor soil root may elongate to 2’ or more. Some 5” to about 1.2”. Aduit needles
formed towards the end of grow in season in vigorous seedlings.
3rd year – Height of average natural seedlings 1’ by and of season, well grown
seedlings 2’. Needles usually prescribed early in season and mature later on.
4th year – Height of average natural seedlings. 1.8” by end of season and 3.4”
in well grown seedlings.
5th year – Ht. of average natural seedlings 2”10” and of well grown seedlings 6’.
Chir seedlings are very light demanding. Growth greatly retarded under shade.
Frost hardy, drought resistant but in still soils in which root development is
unsatisfactory may die off in quantity due to heat of sun. Young plants cannot endure
bed drainage and where there is excessive moisture in soil or under growth they damp
off. Seedlings more fire resistant than those of other conifers but suffer badly from
severe fires which occurs in chir pine region. Not readily browsed, but in many localities
heavy grazing accounts for absence of regeneration. Among animals porcupines eat the
roots of seedlings and saplings, rate gnaw through the roots of seedlings and birds bite
of cotyledons during and shortly after germination. Among insects grasshoppers bite
through stems of seedlings.

Silviculture characters
Light – A strong demander, grows best under complete overhead light. On hot,
southerly aspects side protection from sun may be necessary especially on stiff clayed
soil.
 Soil – Least exacting of Himalayan trees growing often on base rock but
intolerant of badly drained soil.
Wind – Root system massive spreading both downwards and laterally. Trees
ordinarily wind firm.
Frost – Very frost hardy
Chir pine more fire hardy than any other Himalayan conifers owing to presence
of thick bark in saplings as well as trees. Inspite of this heavy casualities occur on
account of the following reasons:
i) Chir needles are shed during the hot season and these are very inflammable
ii) Chir occurs on hot inflammable slopes
iii) When trees are tapped for resin the blazes catch fire and trees suffers badly
unless all inflammable matter is kept cleared from their base
iv) Where there is heavy growth of grass or bushes, particularly on steep slopes chir
needles get lodged in them and a fierce conflagmation results when they catch
fire
v) Crown fires are likely to take place in chir crops particularly in unevenaged crops
On account of the above reasons controlled during early in the season is carried
out in many of the chir forest to reduce the inflammable material on the floor of forest.
As a result of fire protection less fire hardy species such as Deodar, blue pine and oak
often invade chir areas towards the upper limit of distribution of later.
Climbers – In true chir pine some the only destructive climber of serious
importance is Rosa moschata.
Fungi – i) Cronartiu himalayanse – A rust disease occurring on chir saplings and
often hills them. Sweet species are alternate hosts for these rust.
ii) Caleosporium campanulas – Needles rust of chir. Occurs on chir pine needles.
Not very harmful except that carbon assimilation by needles is retarded. Campanule
colorate is an alternative host for this rust.
Twisted fibre – Twist may be left handed or right handed. Twisted trees
useless for timber. The defect appears to be inherited. It also appears the twist is
caused by maltreatment on damage to chir in the young condition by grazing, browsing,
fire, lopping, etc. This is especially so in unfavourable localities such as hot aspect or
shallow soils. It appears to be specially common on micaschist formations.
 Natural reproduction – In natural seed falls during April to June and
sometimes in higher altitudes upto July. It germinates within a few days of start of
monsoon. Various factors affecting natural regeneration are dealt with below:
Seed bearers – It is important that only large trees with rounded or umbrella
shaped trees should be retained as seed bearers. Younger trees do not produce seed in
adequate regeneration.
Light – A strong light demander, ordinarily 5 to 8 seed bearer retained per acre.
Number increased on poor localities as trees have smaller crowns and also on hot
aspects particularly on stiff clayed soil.
Drought – On hot slopes regeneration may fail on account of drought
particularly where soil is stiff and grass and under growth is scarce. In such localities
heavy opening up of canopy should be avoided, grass and under growth should be
retained and soil should be hoped up.
Aspect – In general, regeneration is better on northern slopes than on southern
slopes except near the upper limits of chir.
Topography and soil – Reproduction good as a rule on well drained porous
soils, such as those containing a fair proportion of senior fine mica, particularly on
moderate and gentle slopes and rounded spurs. On flat places with bed drainage, on
stiff clayey soil and shallow soil regeneration is poor. Regeneration good on abandoned
cultivation provided soil is loose and drainage good.
Soil covering and undergrowth – The presence of a thick layer of
undecomposed needles, characteristics of chir forests, which have been protected from
fire and grazing for some years, is inimical to reproduction. Accumulation of debris from
fellings also acts as a serious hindrance.
Presence of a fairly heavy growth of grass on moderate to steep slopes is by
means inimical to reproduction and in fact on bare hot slopes presence of grass is very
helpful. A heavy growth of grass on flat soil often denotes bad drainage, in such places
reproduction fails. Shrubby growth is beneficial only on hot unstable slopes. In general
it is adverse to chir regeneration.
Fire – Natural regeneration normally not possible without fire protection. Young
crops are likely to be wiped off by fire, but regeneration may reappear on loose porous
soil in areas subjecting to grazing as even when a fire occurs there is not much
inflammable material on ground on account of grazing. Regeneration in such cases only
appear if there are large gaps otherwise needle fall will add to severity of fires. A long
period of fire protection is inimical to reproduction.
Young regeneration areas should be control burnt in winter as soon as
regeneration is about 4 to 6’ high. For this purpose it is better to prune the lower
branches and removes grazing to reduce the intensity of grass.
Grazing and grass cutting – In many localities excellent regeneration
established inspite of cattle grazing as distinct from goat browsing provided grazing not
heavy and other condition usually not possible without closure to grazing. Browsing by
goats is particularly harmful. At the same time even in Kangra forests which are
subjected to heavy grazing are easily regenerated when closed for regeneration but in
areas which are excluded from grazing for long periods dense under growth developes
and regeneration of such areas is very difficult as in case of the reserved forests in
Kangra.
Grass cutting is very harmful when the chir seedlings are young as these get cut
along with the grass. Often this cutting of chir seedlings is intentional by villagers as
they are usually interested in keeping the area un-regeneratged because grass growth
gets much reduced under cover of chir crop.
Artificial reproduction: Cones collected from December to March usually from
felled trees, then dried in sun. Cones open and seed is shaken out.
Planting: Planting successful if done carefully without injury to roots and with
balls of earth. In practice planting not done.
Direct sowing: Direct sowing is done in patches or in contour lines at the break
of monsoons. Proper drainage should be provided by keeping patches a little sloping.
Clods of earth should not be finally broken. In dry localities grass should not be
removed.
Silvicultural systems: Chir pine is mostly managed under the uniform system.
Selection system is not very suitable as chir is a light demanding species and it has a
tendency where possible to regenerate in even-aged masses. Even the group selection
system is not very suitable as the diffusion of work renders subsequent tending of
groups difficult and the suppression of much of the young stock is almost inevitable.
Damage by fire is intensified in the unevenaged crops produced by such a system, while
the concentrations of fire, protection in areas under regeneration, with controlled
burning for protective reasons in other areas is impossible. Again, resin tapping
operation can be conducted more efficiently and economically when concentrated on
definite areas than when spattered widely as they would be under any form of the
selection system.
The rotation adopted for chir pine in most places varies from 120 to 150 years.
In Kangra fixed periodic blocks with period of 30 years and rotation of 120 years are
adopted. In Chaimata and Kumaon chir is being converted to the uniform system by the
floating periodie block method with no fixed period and the conversion period has bean
fixed at 100 years.
Tending: Cleanings in chir regeneration should start early as soon as theyoung
regeneration is about 3 to 4 ft. high, in order to space out the saplings. In Punjab
pruning of lower branches is also carried out as a fire-protection measure. Controlled
burning in young regeneration areas should be carried out as soon as practicable.
Regular thinnings after the crop is about 15 years old are necessary as chir is a strong
light demander and suffers badly by congestion.
Statistical: The existing yield tables for chir were prepared by Howard in 1926.
Three quality classes have been distinguished and their heights an 100 years age and at
maturity (150 years) as under:

At 100 years At maturity

Quality I. 114 – 138 ft Over 128 ft
Quality II. 91 – 114 ft 103 – 128 ft
Quality III. 72 – 91 ft 80 – 130 ft

The diameter attained at 120 years age by crops thinned to C grade in the
quality classes I, II and III is 25.9”, 23.2” and 20.2” respectively.
The mean annual increment for stem timber for all the three quality classes
culminates at 110 years age is 131 cft., 86 cft., and 54 cft. Respectively.
 Acacia nilotica (Babul)

An excellent multipurpose timber used in building carts and carriages wheel

work, agricultural implements, boat, building, etc. Excellent fuel. Bark for tanning, pods
serve as fodder for cattle, goats and sheep.

Distribution
Indigenous to sind, Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Northern Deccan. Cultivated or
self sown throughout most of the drier parts of India, but not in the extreme northwest
of the Punjab where the winter cold is too severe – also found in Africa and Arabia.
Climate: Temperature Maximum 105oF to 122oF = 41oC – 50oC
Minimum 30oF to 60oF = -1oC – 16oC
Rainfall: 750 – 1250 mm
Soil: Alluvial – black cotton soil
Leaf fall: Hardly ever quite leaflets on poor dry areas for a short time in
April – May.
Leaf renewal: April to May
Flowering – June to September or October – sometimes as late in
December or January. The time for ripening varies correspondingly but is usually from
April to June or earlier in South India. In Sind flowers twice a year one in June – July
and again in November – December. Fruit from 1st flowering ripen about October but of
poor quality, 2nd fruiting about May and gives good crop.
A strong light demander.
Develops a long tap root – also a strong superficial root system is provided.
Root suckers – Not usually produced root suckers in some places (Kistna district).
Coppicing – variable – generally poor coppicer. In some places (e.g., Guntur)
worked on coppice. Pollarding – Pollarding wall – freshly cut for fencing and fodder.
Storns – Fairly wind firm liable to be uprooted on extensive scale on inundated
ground which has become soft.
Frost - Tender
Drought - Hardy
Fire - Tender
 Animals – Goats and camels are the worst – sheep and buffaloes are also
harmful – young plants damaged by deer, antelopes, hares and rats.
Insects – Coelosterna scabrata – beetle (a root boring longicorn) grubs tunnel
into the roots and kills young trees the imago (completely mature state of insect) strips
the bark from the leading shoot and branches of young trees.
Psilopters fastuesa – beetle – attacks trees only in its mature stages, striping the
bark of the sheets and branches.
Fungi – Much damage caused in Berar by the fungus Fomes pappianus – attacks
the heartwood of the stem and branching and spreads into the roots, causing the wood
to become brittle and in severe cases, to crumble away; infected trees thus liable to be
blown over or to have their stems and branches snapped by wind – does not attack
young healthy trees.

Protection
1. Remove all sporop hores from infected trees
2. Cut out badly infected trees
3. Thin regularly
4. Cultivate field crop after removing babul crop raise babul again by
Taungya
Another fungus which attacks babul is Gamoderma lucidum (also attacks sissoo)

Natural reproduction
Germination commences early in the rainy season and continues for sometimes.
Natural regeneration favoured by (1) complete sunlight, (2) abundant moisture, (3)
loose soil, (4) absence of grass and weeds.
Artificial regeneration
220 seeds to the cunce. Collect pods from tree or ground. Soak for 40 hours
before sowing when plant per cent is 30 seeds from sheep or goat pans give host results
– germination commences after 2 or 3 weeds and almost complete in a month. Should
be sown not transplanted. Does not stand root or shoot pruning. Best method is direct
sowing early in June or cover seeds about ¼” weed in 1st and 2nd rains and if necessary
3rd rains also. Plantations raised in dry localities combined with or without cultivation.
Treatment
Hilly clear felling with artificial regeneration. Except hills of Madras and Mysore
by private owners.

Acacia catechu (Khair)

Family - Leguminosae – Mimoseae

Moderate sized deciduous tree; heart wood very hard used for house posts,
agricultural implements, wheels, tool handles, etc. gives excellent fire wood and
charcoal. Cutch and katha obtained by boiling down chips.

Varieties
1) A. catechu – Punjab, Garhwal, Kumaon, Bihar, Ganjam and in the Irrawady
valley. Also in North Kanara and Konkan.
2) A. catechucides – Chiefly in Sikkim, Tarai and Assam, also in Upper Burma,
Mysore and the Nilgiris.
3) A. chundra - Chiefly in the lower Peninsula and Upper Burma.
Habitat – Distributed throughout India except in the most humid regions.
Typical in (1) the shingly and sandy alluvial beds or rivers and streams which may or
may not be dry for a considerable portion of the year – here markedly gregarious and
(2) in dry types of forest on high land away from water courses where it is frequently
more or less gregarious, though often mixed with Xerophytes.
Geo. Rock and Soil – Occurs in a variety of geological formations. Thrives best
on porous alluvium comprising sand and shingle and on well drained sandstone. A.
chundra comes up on a variety of soils including clay and shallow soil with sheet rock
below.
Climate – Rainfall – In Eastern Sub-Himalayan tract, stands high a rainfall as
150”. Away from rivers in tracts occurs when rainfall is 20” to 85”.
Max. temperature - 105o to 120oF
Min. temperature - 30o to 55oF
Leaf fall – Leaflets for a time in the hot weather. In Northern India leaves shed
about February.
 Leaf renewal – about end of April or during May. By June complete.
Flowering – Appear with the new leaves, i.e., by June – continue in flower fill
July or August or even later.
Fruiting – Develop rapidly, full size by September to October. Turn from green
to reddish green and then to brown, ripen by the end of November and continue
ripening during December and early January. Pods dehisce not long after ripening and
commence falling in January and proceeds in succeeding months. Seeds adhere to the
pod valves and, the later being light, are blown by wind over considerable distance.
Silv. Characters – A strong light demander. Decidedly frost hardly in the
habitat, young seedlings frost tender. Coppice-well up to a moderate size. Produces
root suckers when roots are exposed. Fairly fire hardly, but benefits from fire
protection.
Is Xerophious, but suffers from abnormal drought. Subject to damage by
browsing and responds well to closure. Porcuppines are particularly destructive,
gnawing the bark off from the bases of trees and killing them as a result. Elephants
very fond of this species and so should not be grown in elephant ridden areas.
Natural regeneration – Seed disseminated by wind and water germination takes
place early in the rainly season profusely under shade and in the open. The former die
from shade and sampling off, a fair proportion survive in the open if saved from grazing
natural regeneration occurs remarkedly freely in alluvial tracts.
Artificial regeneration – Weight of seed 1100 to the oz. Best to collect from the
tree and then spread them for a few days in the sun to dry. Ripe pods dark chocolate
brown in colour. Requires no pretreatment but it is better to soak for 24 hours, before
sowing. Germinates over a long period, commencing after a few months. Germination
per cent upto 75 in the nursery and 30 to 50 in the field.

Should be sown and not planted

Does not stand root and shoot pruning at all. Nursery seedling partially
successful when planted at the break of rains. Not recommend. Direct sowing in lines
done just before the break of monsoon, lightly covered with earth and weeded. Success
of direct sowings depends on (1) extent to which soil is kept loose in the first two years
after sowing, (2) thorough weeding and (3) abundance of light. In Dehradun
experiments, the greatest success was attained by line sowings, particularly in
combination with field crops. Strips x 32 to 3’ wide and 8’ to 10’ apart indicated [field
crops mendus (Eleusine coracana) sown in May or June and reaped in October khair
seed sown at the same time as millet.
Plants attains a height of about 2’ at end of the first season and 4’ at the end of
the second. Two years weeding sufficient. A fast grower in early youth. In favourable
localities two year old plants are on an average 7’. In Dehradun plants ripped by frost
for a year or two. In Bengal 14’ high in 3 years.
Tending – Needs regular weeding and climber cutting or pulling till it gets
established.
Diseases and pests – Liable to attack cattle, deer, percupine, rhinoceros and
elephants. Climber damages from Dregea volubilis, Cryptolepis and Valleris.
System of management – Generally coppice or coppice with standards and
selection fellings.
Statistical – Standard, commercial and heartwood volume tables (Factory
working) for Acacia catechu by H.G. Champion and I.D. Mehendru – I.F.R. (silvicultural
series – Vol. XV – Part III).

Shorea robusta (Sal)

Family : Dipterocarpaceae
Local name : Sal, Sakhu (Hindi), Sakwa (Nepali), Shal (Bengali), Saria
rigal (M.P.), Gugal (Telugu)
A large deciduous tree, seldom leaf-less with shining foliage, mature leaves some
what coriaceous, ovate-oblong, usually about four to eight inches long. Crown conical
or elongated in young – afterwards rounded with strong root system. Bole clean and
straight in forest grown trees. Bark of saplings grayish brown and smooth. In older
trees 1” to 2” thick rough with deep longitudinal furrows. Sapwood small, pale coloured
heart wood brown, hard, cross grained very strong and durable seasons slowly. One of
the most important timber trees of India. Wood used for buildings, railway sleepers,
wagons and a large number of other purposes. When tapped the tree yields a whitish
resin which is burnt as insencese and used for chaulking boats.
 In favourable localities reaches height of 125 ft and girth of 12 ft or more. In
Nepal, many attain a height of 150 ft with a clear bole of 60 to 80 ft and a firth of 20 to
25 ft.
General distribution – It occurs two main regions separated by Gangetic plain
– namely the ‘northern’ and ‘central’ Indian regions. Ascends to 4000’ and occasionally
to 5000 ft.
Climate – Sal regions very widely as regards temperature and rainfall.
Maximum temperature is 95oF to 117oF, minimum from 30oF to 45oF. Rainfall varies
from 40” to 140” per annum.
Topography, Geology, Rock and Soil – Occurs both in hilly country and flat
ground – grows best on lower slopes and valleys with deep, moist and fertile soil.
Found on a variety of geological formations. Avoids swampy tracts with poor drainage.
Most favourable soil is well drained moist deep sandy loam with good subsoil drainage.
Under lying rock – Occurs on the older Himalayan rocks of outer ranges
consisting chiefly of shale or mica, schi with occasional lime stone; on the tertiary sand
stone and conglomerates of Siwalik range, deep boulder deposits at the foot of hills.
Avoids pure limestone but thrives on soil consisting partly of lime stone debris. In Doon
avoids dry shallow soil over lying hard calcareous pan. In Assam occur on schist,
granite, sand stone conglomerate of lower hills and deep boulder belts flanking the
outer ranges.
Types of forests and local occurrence – It is one of the most gregarious of
the Indian trees. Tands to regenerate to profusely under favourable conditions and
grows in more or less even-aged crops. Also occurs frequently in uneven-aged crop and
may be found more or less scattered by single tree or in small patches mixed with
various other Sal forest is generally separated in two extreme types (i) the dry type, (ii)
the moist type, between these various gradations occur.
Leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting – Leaves commence turning yellow
and falling from January to March. In dry seasons and in dry localities leaf shedding
takes place earlier and is more complete than in wet season and moist localities. New
leaves and shoots appear February to May. Young leaves are tender reddish and
shinning, soon turning to a fresh delicate green. Where old foliage is defoliated by
insects early in the year – new shoots appear earlier than usual. Sometimes two
separate flushes of raw leaves appear in one season.
Flower buds, as a rule, just become visible in February, but in early season this
may in layer parts of January. They are full out from end of February to April. At this
time the trees are partially leafless. Fruits are 0.6” long by long by 0.5” in diameter.
350 to 420 fruits per lb. Ripen in June and fall as soon as ripe. Under favourable
moisture conditions seeds germinate soon after falling or even on the tree. Sound fresh
seed has a high percentage of fertility but it rapidly loses its viability and under ordinary
conditions will not keep fertile for many days. Drought is the chief cause of mortality
and it care is taken to keep the seeds cool and prevent their dying they may retain their
viability for a few weeks. In most localities good seed years are of fairly frequent
occurrence, while occasionally the seedling is remarkably gregarious and profuse.
Storms hail or strong dry winds occur from March to June. The flowers and mature
fruits may be blown or knocked down destroying the seed crop. At times insects
destroy good deal of seeds. Germination hypogeous.
Stem development – Stems of sal seedling are at first thin and whippy,
eventually becoming thickened with ausmoth cortex. After this the growth is more rapid
and the seedlings is considered established. Before long the smooth cortex begins to
crack, forming rough bark – this is sapling stage.
Dying back – Dying back or complete dying of Sal seedling in the forest is the
phenomenon peculiar to this species. Subsequent recovery takes place with vigorous
development of the tap root so as to with stand the adverse influences.

Silvicultural Characters
Light requirement – Although sal is able to persist under moderate shade – it
is strictly speaking a light demander, young plants require protection from frost and
drought.
Root system – Produces a long stout taproot of great length which reaches
down to a strate most enough to supply the water requirements of the tree. Stout
lateral roots are produced at no great depth below the surface, while deeper down are
found numerous fibrous lateral nutrition root-lets a in all directions where there is
sufficient moisture.
 Coppicing power – As rule coppices well upto a moderate size. Shoots are
usually produced from the sides of the stool near ground level.
Drought – It causes great damage.
Frost – Stands frost better than many of its associates, but since it often occurs
in grassy tracts and other localities subject to severe frost it is particularly susceptible to
injury by frost.
Fire – One of the most fire resistant species of its region.
Storms – Is not ordinarily liable to be thrown by wind, but as badly drained
clayey ground the taproot sometimes rot and the trees are readily blown down.
Animal damage – Injury by animals occur in younger stages. Pigs and
porcupine uproot young plants. Wild elephants trip the bark of lower parts of poles and
small trees. Browsed by deer and cattle particularly in coppice shoots, heavy grazing
may result in complete absence or natural regeneration. It has numerous insect
enemies.
Parasitic plant – Loranthus causes much damage.
Fungi – i) Polyporus shoreae, ii) Fomes caryophylli and iii) Sylarya polymorpha
Natural reproduction – Natural regeneration of Sal has many puzzling
features. In some localities it springs up in great profusion and with great vigour.
Whereas in other localities it is completely absent for no apparent reasons. Three
factors have bearing on nature reproduction viz., (i) seeding, (ii) germination and (iii)
establishment.
In germination the most important factor is monsoon. The seed falls at or
immediately before rains and if they are delayed many days after the seed fall
germination falls. In the open Sal seed falling on a layer of dead leaves either fails to
germinate or dies after germination.
Establishment of seedlings – Under this the following factors are important:
1) Dying back
2) Effect of dead leaves
3) Light
4) Frost
5) Grazing
6) Hardened soil and bad drainage
 7) Fires
8) Indicator plants and nurseries
9) Seasonal variations, e.g. untimely monsoon, etc.
Artificial regeneration – Various methods followed but generally natural
reproduction is taken advantage of.

Rate of growth
Place Age in years Girth in inches
Saharanpur 13 27.0
,, 30 54.5
,, 35 79.5
,, 25 69.0

Hopea parviflora

Family : Dipterocarpaceae
A large handsome tree of the western evergreen upto about 2500’ a good timber
of construction purposes and for sleepers. W. Ghats from S. Kanara to Travancore and
Tinnevalley.

Climate
Maximum - 95oF to 100oF
Minimum - 65oF to 70oF
Rainfall - 35” to 150”
Flowering – January – February
Fruiting – Ripe: May – June
Silvicultural characters – A typical hyprophilous (inhabting moist sites)
dipterocar. Semi shade bearer.
Natural regeneration – Regenerates freely in its habitat
Artificial regeneration – Dense in S. Kanara in moist situations under
moderate shade sowing cheaper and more successful than transplanting – tried with
success under teak – seeds must be sown fresh – quickly lose germination power.
 Diptercarpus spp.

Contain about 325 species in 16 genera and confined to the Ino-Malaya region.
These occurring in India and silviculturally and economically important and also because
some of them occur gregariously (e.g., soil). Most of the dipterocarps are rich in resin
or wood oil. Most are also characterized by till, straight cylindrical boles and this is
particularly so in respect of the larger Dipterocarpus and Hopea spp. Dipterocarps of
India may be divided into two categories viz., Hygrophilous and Xerophilus types.
1) Hygrophilous type – Occur sporadically in fertile ground in tropical, usually
evergreen forest.
2) Xerophilosus type – The species occur generally gregariously only rarely
sporadically. This is due to abundance of seed produced and to conditions being less
unfavourable to them than to the majority of their associates.

General distribution
Andamans – 5 spp. viz., D. alatus, D. costatus, D. pilosus, D. grandiflorus and
D. kerrii.
Bengal – 4 spp., viz., D. alatus, D. costatus, D. pilesus and D. turbinatus.
Assam – 2 spp., viz., D. turbinatus and D. macrocarpus.
Excepting the rare of D. tuberculatus and D. costatus (found in moist tropical
forests), the other species are found in the tropical wet evergreen forests with a rainfall
range from 100 to 350”. Altitude varies between 25 feet and 2000’ for most species and
upto a little over 3000’ for D. indicus. Topography generally undulating. Geology
variable; resultant soils are fairly deep, fertile, sandy to clayey loam, gravelly in places
and tending to harien on flats. Drainage good in all places.
Leaf shedding and renewal – Strictly no Dipterocarpus spp. is deciduous
although D. costatus may be locally so far a very short time. Renewal follows leaf fall
quickly by the appearance of new foliage in the cold season.
Flowering takes place in winter – Fruits of D. alatus, D. cotatus, D.
grandiflorus and D. macrocarpus appear sooner than these of the rest, ahead of the
monsoon. Towards storms, immature fruits are blown away and mature fruits fall just in
time for germination at the commencement of the rainy season. Adequate seed year
and timely rains results in good germination.
 Silvicultural characters – Same as apply to the Hygrophilus and Xerophius
dipterocarps. Except to a limited extent D. alatus, D. costatus, D. macrocarpus,
Dipterocarpus sp. do not coppice. Those over 3’ girth seldom coppice in any case.
Natural regeneration – Conditions variable, natural regeneration is satisfactory
in Andamans, but not uniformly so elsewhere. In Andamans, no artificial regeneration is
to be resorted to except to augment natural regeneration due to gaps or lack of seed
bearers. Natural regeneration is effected by a series of regeneration operations in the
evergreen forests, which consists of (1) complete removal of under growth, (2) skilful
manipulation of canopy in which the lower and middle storage should be so removed
and thinned as to leave only a complete top canopy containing a sufficient number of
seed bearers, without burning the slash and (3) weeding and cleaning according to the
requirements of the young crop. If recruitment is already present, which is often the
case, regeneration operations are taken up immediately after fellings and extraction. If
there is not natural regeneration, initial burning ahead of the seed fall may be resorted
to, but thereafter the area will be fire protected.
Artificial regeneration – Artificial regeneration is being done on an appreciable
scale in Bengal and it is only there that the work is past the experimental stage,
particularly in respect of D. tubrinatus. Artificial regeneration of Dipterocarpus sp. is
being done, more open in the experimental stage, in Assam and W. coast also. The
artificial regeneration of D. turbinatus, a species common to Bengal and Assam as
practiced in Bengal will be dealt with. Mature fruits are ready from May to middle of
June. 4th week of May till end of first week of June is the best time for collection. Seeds
start germinating in situ from the first week of June. Good seed years irregular, but
sufficient seed generally available.
Wt. of seed – 65 to 70 seeds with wings to the lb (weighed one day after
collection).
Method of collection of seed – Collection from ground under the mother
trees, ground is kept cleaned, seed fallen earlier being rejected, seed should then be
collected daily to avoid insect attacked seeds.
Treatment of seed – Seeds should be looked into carefully, light and damaged
seeds rejected and only plump and heavy seeds should be used.
 No other treatment – Seed may be stored just for a few days in well
ventilated shed.
Storage – Not stored for more than 5 days under ideal condition.
Sowing – Usually sown direct in lines on cloudy days, best sown just after break
of rains. Seeds are notched, a process which consists of making a hole in the ground
with a deo, placing the seed in the hole and just covering the seed with earth leaving
the wings sticking out. This prevents destruction of the seeds if the rainfall is delayed.
Seeds are notched in head lines 1’ – 6” wide, 6’ apart, with 2 or 3 rows of seeds in each
line, the rows being 6” apart and the seeds 3” apart, in each row. Also sown in thalis
6’ x 6’, several seeds to the thali. Line sowing is to be preferred, as in thalis much
growth is put into branches and height growth is poor. Taprosia conida (Boga) is sown
between the lines. D. turbinatus has been raised in alternate lines and group of lines in
mixtures with Gmelina, the former in lines and the latter by dibbling 6’ apart at stakes in
its lines.
Germination – Commences in one week and is complete within four weeks
upto 85% in direct sowing. It the best germinator of all the gurjans.
Nursery – Experimental sown in shaded beds by dibbling 6” x 6” seeds are kept
on their edges, the soil covering being of the thickness of the smallest diameter of seed.
No special treatment in nursery.
Method of planting – Has been successfully planted with a handful of earth
round the roots in July of the same year when about 6” high with complete success.
Planting should be done immediately after removing the plant from the nursery.
Seedlings from direct sowing are on the average, 1’ higher than plants from
nursery stock at the end of the first season. Direct sowing is therefore the best. Is only
sown and not planted in Assam.
Rate of growth Moderate
st
1 year 1’ – 6”
nd
2 year 3’ – 8”
rd
3 year 6’ – 8”
th
4 year 10’
th
5 year 13’
 Dalbergia latifolia (Rose wood)

Family : Papilionaceae
Dalbergia sissodes till lately believed to be variety of the same species is also
known as Rosewood. This has however been found to be distinct. For purposes of the
present silvicultural study both will be treated as one.
Vernacular name: Setisal (Bengal), Shisham (Mar), Sissu (Gujarat), Beeti
(Kann), Jitengi (Telugu), Eeti (Tamil), Thothagathi (Malayalam).

Habit
Tree, shrub or herb – A large deciduous, nearly evergreen tree with a full
rounded crown.
Erect, climbing, etc. – Apot to the somewhat cooked in the earlier years but
straightens itself in the long run.
Gregarious, sporadic, etc. – Although found distribute in large numbers in typical
localities, the species cannot be called gregarious. It grows more or less scattered in
mixed deciduous forests.
Maximum girth – Trees of 25’ girth were found in Ulandi valley of Tunacaduvu
range, Coimbatore south division.
Maximum height – Troup cities, Tiraman’s recorded measurement of 130’ height
of a tree of 15’ – 5” girth in Coorg. It is likely that trees of greater height have existed.
Flowering period – January to March; local variations are noticed.
Fruiting period – November – January, local variations are noticed.
Leaf fall – In most localities, the tree is seldom leafless and in almost evergreen.
In dry localities, the leaves are shed in February – March.
Leaf renewal – April – May.
Habitat – General distribution – The sub-Himalayan tract from Oudh (Gonda
and Bahraich) to Sikkim. Chota Nagpur, Central, Western and Southern India.
Class of Forests – Mixed deciduous forests, dry and moist, not frequently it is
found in semi-evergreen forests as well.
Altitude – It is found in elevations upto 4000’ and in the Anamalais upto 4500’.
 Soil – It reaches its best development on deep moist soil particularly in the
neighbourhood of perennial streams. It grows on a variety of geological formations
including gneiss, trap, laterite, boulder deposits and alluvial formations, but requires
good drainage.
Climate – In its natural habitat max. shade temperature vary from 95o to 118oF,
the absolute minimum from 32o to 60o and the rainfall from 30” to 2000”.
Chief associates – The associates depend on the elevation and type of soil at
which it is found. In Bombay it occurs in elevation upto 3000’, associated with teak,
Terminalia tomentosa and other trees and bamboos. I digenous in dry savannah forests
of Khandesh on trap and ascends to 3700’ where it is mixed with teak, Qugeinia
dalbergiodes and Z. jujuba and is usually a small tree owning to unfavourable climate
and soil. In Madras, it is found in most districts but grows best on the Western slopes of
Nilgiris upto 4000’ and on the Anamalais upto 4500’, the associates are teak, Terminalia
tomentosa, T. paniculata, Lagerstromia lanceolata, Anogeissus latifolia a n d Xylia
xylocarpa. Attains large sizes in these localities. It occurs in the drier types of forests in
Madras in small sizes. In the Madhya Pradesh, its most important comparnions are teak,
Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstromia parviflora, Anogeissus latifolia a n d Qugeinia
dalbergioides, largest dimensions are attained in Chanda, but trees over 4½’ girth are
seldom sound. In Bihar and Orissa the tree is somewhat scattered and does not reach
large dimensions. The Chota Nagpur it is common in cool aspects along streams. U.P.
sparsely scattered in dry deciduous forests of Bundelkhand and adjacent tracts and
along the sub-Himalayan tract in Gonda and Bhaharaich district, chiefly in mixed
deciduous forests but sometimes in Sal forest. This is the Northern limit and the tree is
similar size.
Economic uses – The wood is very hard, close grained strong, durable and
ornamental and is used for a large number of purpose such as for furniture, paneling,
ornamental work, ordinance work, agricultural implements, etc. It is exported to Europe
under the name of rosewood or Bombay blockwood. Wood is also used for cart wheels,
gun carriages, etc.
Silvicultural characters – Light, moderate light demander; capable of standing a
fair amount of shade, particularly in youth it benefits greatly by overhead light. If
however, it is grown in too open a situation it is apt to become crooked and brancy.
 Frost – Frost tender more so in early stages. In change Manga plantations it is
reported to have failed because of frost. Frost a key factor determining its distribution.
Power to coppice – Coppices well, the season of cutting appears to influence
production of coppice shoots. Experiments in North Chanda revealed that cutting
between April and May produced 100% results. August 80% and September 25%.
Reproduction by root suckers – Very pronounced; has dimorphorous roots. A
long taproot is formed in the earlier stages; this becomes thickened and other main
roots, as well as numerous smaller nutrition roots and fibrous rootlets without buds, are
also produced, growing downwards into the ground. In addition to this root system,
long superficial propagation roots with buds spread rapidly outwards, running
horizontally not far below the surface or at times even along the surface of the ground.
From these numerous suckers are sent up, particularly where the roots are exposed or
wounded, old trees being often surrounded by quantities of suckers. Root suckers are
most numerous in situations exposed to light, e.g., on the edge of roads, fire lines,
boundary lines and the like.
Drought – Decidedly resistant, though vulnerable in the seedling stage.
Growth in young – Growth is moderate during the 1st year but in the 2nd and
subsequent years it is rapid under favourable conditions. It is however far slower grown
in the earlier years than sissoo. Development is greatly stimulated by weeding
particularly when accompanied by periodical soil working. Under natural conditions it is
not a fast grower. Compared to teak it grows slower but later catches up with and in
favourable situations, overtops.
Fire – Not so hardy as teak. It does withstand annual fires, however, but
benefits from protection.
Injury by grazing, etc. – Seedlings and saplings are readily browsed by cattle and
goats. Light grazing helps to put down weeds and benefit its growth.
Browsed by deer and damaged by elephants. Owing to its capacity to coppice
well, it manages to withstand mechanical injury considerably.
Germination and early growth – Germination epigeous. Development greatly
stimulated by weeding, soil working and watering. In early young seedlings are tender
to drought and frost, but become more hardy later. Partial shade is beneficial in young.
Develops long taproot early in life. There is cessation of growth between November and
February sometimes upto April.
Weight of dry pods, 680 to the oz. seeds need not be removed from the pods.
Better germination is noticed when sown with pods. Pods to be well dried before
sowing. Care should be taken that only ripe seeds are collected.
Experiments on pretreatment of seed have not revealed any method which
improves germination per cent. As it is, germination per cent is high being about 65%
on size, age and condition of seed bears are inconclusive. Seeds are good up to three
months (30% to 50%) falling to about 10% after six months and to zero when kept for
over a year. Sowing of seeds when fairly fresh is indicated.
Natural regeneration – The species propagates itself freely by root suckers. It
also regenerates itself from seed.
Germination takes place early in the rainy season. Chief cause of mortality is
drought in situations exposed to direct sun. Seedlings are found usually in places with
loose moist soil with moderate growth of grass, etc. In fire protected areas where
grazing also is restricted, natural regeneration is usually good under light shade.
Artificial reproduction – The best method of raising is by planting one year old
stumps early in the rainy season. Direct sowing is next best and entire plants the worst.
Stumps of 0.2” to 0.6” diameter give the best results in point of survivals and height
growth.
In Madras artificial regeneration has been confined so far to growing in mixture
with teak and lately this too has been given up owing to slower growth of rosewood in
the earlier stages as compared with teak. It was tried in gap regeneration in areas
subjected to selection felling but here too its slow growth in the early stage and its
susceptibility to browsing have necessitated the abandonment of this method. So far as
is known no concentrated regeneration of the species on any systematic and large scale
has been attempted.
Seed collection – Seeds from December to May. Best time of collection is
February/March.
Method of collection – Collected from trees by lopping branches. Only ripe
pods to be collected. Pods turn bark brown on ripening.
 Seed treatment – Dry in the sun, not necessary to extract seed, better results by
sowing pods.
Storage – Stored in bags until required for sowing in May.
Germination – Starts in a week and is complete in three weeks with 40%
success.
Treatment in nursery – Regular weeding and watering. Pricking out not
necessary as planting out is done in the same year. For stumps kept in the nursery until
the 2nd or 3rd rains.
Tending – At first weeding pluck off all except one shoot in the case of stump
planting and put mud over cut shoots. Rate of growth slow at first, so, frequent
cleanings required.
Rate of growth – No yield tables, generally slow under natural conditions.
Treatment – Usually worked out selection fellings. Partly also simple coppice,
coppice with standards and coppice with reserves systems. For intensive management
clear felling with artificial regeneration in combination with other valuable species is
indicated.

Dalbergia sissoo (Sissum)

Family : Papilionaceae
Vernacular name – Sissoo (English), Shisham (Hindi), Tali (Punjabi)
Habits – Large deciduous tree; erect; comes up gregariously in the alluvial
deposits on the sissoo of rivers and streams in the sub-Himalayas and outer Himalayan
valleys. In favourable localities attains a grith of 8’ and a height of nearly 100’. In
favourable localities is a small tree.
Roots – Dimorphous, comprising nutrition roots without buds penetrating
downwards into the growth and long horizontal roots with buds form which suckers are
produced. The seedling produces a long taproot at a early stage; this thickness
considerably during the sapling stage becoming such gnarled and twisted by contact
with boulders. In the meantime lateral roots are thrown out; the original taproot often
dies off in part and forms nothing more than a short thick garled mass in which boulders
and pebbles are often embedded. The taproot is sometimes thicker than the bole itself.
It may consist of several branches with numerous subsidiary fibrous nutrition roots.
Lateral roots may attain considerable length and thickness, e.g. tree 3’ – 3” in girth in
Siwaliks had lateral roots 30’ long. They spread at a depth of a few inches to about 2’
below ground level, frequently sending up root suckers where exposed.
Trunk – Boles as a rule somewhat crooked, straight logs of any great length are
difficult to get.
Grown – Light, spreading.
Uses – Heartwood brown with darker streaks, very hard, strong and durable;
used as furniture wood and for building, carts and carriages, wheel work, gun carriage
wheels, carving, etc. Used in tea gardens of Dehra Dun as a shade tree and fertilizer for
tea bushes. Makes excellent firewood.
Latitude – Normally upto 3000’ sometimes ascending to 5000’.
Slope – Thrives best in alluvial riverbeds with gentle if any slope. Also
distributed on hills sides in promounced slopes.
Leaf fall – Begins in November. Leaves turning brown a little earlier, leaflets fall
separately; in colder places leaf fall may be complete by the beginning of December;
elsewhere this may be incomplete even at the end of January; very irregular.
Leaf renewal – Young leaves appear in the 2nd half of January or in the 1st half
of February.
Flowering – Flower buds appear with the new leaves and these open in March
or April.
Fruiting – Young pods form rapidly and by the end of April may be as much 2”
long. By July, they are full sized, but remain unripe and yellowish brown till November
when they commence to turn brown. They ripen towards the end of November and in
December and beginning of January. Ripe pods are partly blown off; the trees b wind
and carried down the gorges and rivers of the sub-Himalayan tract in winter. Part of the
pods remain on the trees till April and May.
Soil – Thrives best on alluvial soil in beds of streams of rivers. It avoids stiff clay
in which it does not attain and size; prefers porous soil on sand, pebbles and boulders.
In Rawalpindi district it occurs in the form of a straggling bush at an altitude of 5000’
clinning to crevices on the sides of sandstone cliffs and spreading by means or root
suckers. Detrital boulder fans, torrent beds, etc. along the base of the outer hills are
cogered with dense sissoo crops.

Climate
Maximum shade temperature - 103o to 120oF
Minimum shade temperature - 25o to 42oF
Normal rainfall - 30” to 180”
Growth stunted when rainfall is below 40”

Ecology
In the alluvial sissoo forests, characteristics sub-Himalayan and outer Himalayan
tracts, sissoo grows gregariously on new alluvial depots or low banks formed of deposits
of sand. Advent of sissoo is proceded by or takes place simultaneously with Tamarix
dioics. Grasses appear immediately before, along with or a little after sissoo. In the
Western sub-Himalayan tract Saccharum munja colonises large stretches of rather sandy
or shingly alluvium. Sissoo subsequently invades the area making its way through the
moonj grass. Other grasses associated with the early development of alluvial sissoo are
Saccharum spontaneum, Aristida cynantha a n d Triraphis madagascariensis. When
sissoo gets well established its characteristic density kills out the grasses. Subsequently,
reduction in the density of the crop due to fires, fellings, etc. brings in miscellaneous
species such as Ehretia laevis, Hollarrhena antidysenterica, Lannea grandis, Bombax
malabaricum, Kydia calycina, Premna latifolia and the composition of the forest is
changed. Changes in river and stream – courses frequently account for the washing
away of immature sissoo stands. In the moist climate of Duars the alluvial sissoo forests
are characterized by much more luxuriantly grown savannah grasses, such as
Saccharum arundinaceaum, Erianthus elephantinus, Themeda arundinacea and in
moister places Pharammites karka. With fire and grazing excluded, these grasses attain
a height of 12’ to 20’. When fire enters great damage is done to the sissoo, all but a
few widely scattered trees being killed. It is considered desirable to allow grazing
immediately the sissoo gets beyond reach of cattle so that the rank growth of grass can
be kept down and fire danger reduced. The chief associates of sissoo in these forests
are Acacia catechu, Albizzia procera and Bombax malabaricum.
Silvicultural characters
Light – A strong light demander
Frost – Decidedly frost hardy; leaves affected by severe frost but the tree is not
seriously injured.
Drought – Fairly hardy in its natural state, but in the irrigated plantations suffer
badly if water supply is cut off for any length of time. Seedlings are sensitive to
drought.
Fire – Not particularly resistant.
Mechanical damage – Is good coppicer, recovers fairly well from mechanical
damage.
Grazing and other animal damage – Readily browsed by cattle; goats and
camels. In grazed areas seedlings and saplings are browsed year after year and coppice
shoots assume a dense bushy growth. Rats and porcupines eat the roots and bark.
Subjected to severe damage by wild elephants and so should not be grown in elephant
ridden localities.
Weeds – Dense weed growth entirely prevents the establishment of
regeneration.
Climbers – Much damage done in alluvial sissoo forests by the climber, Dregea
volubilis which twines round the stems and over the tops of trees; trees get stunted and
badly shaped. Crystolepsis buchanani and Acacia pinnata are other climber pasts.
Root suckers regeneration – Regeneration prolific by root suckers. Felling
the tree below ground and exposing the rots by digging to a few inches 2’ results in root
sucker regeneration. In Changa Manga plantation, this method of regeneration has
failed.
Coppicing power – Coppices vigorously; not certain up to what age or size this
happens. In Changa Manga coppicing is vigorous upto an age of 20 years. Trimming
the stools or bot makes no difference. Independent root systems are produced in either
case provided, felled near ground level.
Natural regeneration – Pods disseminated by wind non-riverain tracts and by
wind and water in reverain tract; reach the ground from the beginning of December till
end of April and lie until they get soaked when the monsoon rains commote in June –
July. Early heavy thunder storms results in earlier germination. Numerous seedlings are
found after rain in riverain tracts in places well above the leach of floods. The pod
valves open easily when moistened and seed tests being thin thee is no difficult about
securing regeneration after rains. In non-riverain tracts regeneration is easy on exposed
ground such as on new embankments, landslips, soil worked by pigs, abandoned
cultivated areas if free from weeds. Dense weed growth prevents establishment of
regeneration. Fire grazing are inimical to natural regeneration.
Artificial regeneration – Easily raised from seed, nursery seedlings, stumps
(2” of shoot and 12” of taproot) and cuttings.
Seed weight – 500 pods to an oz. or 1500 seeds to the oz. 1¼ lb pods give
1 lb clean seeds.
Seed collection – Collect when ripe (December to February) from selected
straight grown trees by lopping branches and from the ground. Pods turn black when
ripe.
Treatment of seeds – Pods dried in the sun after collection.
Storage – Dried pods can be kept in gunny bags in a dry place until the rains,
care being taken against damage by rats.
Sowing – Before sowing, soak pods in water for 2 days. There is not
considered necessary in some places and the pods are merely broken into small pieces,
1 or 2 seeds in a piece and sown without any further treatment.

Direct sowing
1) In Bengal sown in May thickly in lines 6’ apart. 30 lbs of pods are required per
acre. Direct sowing not considered desirable
2) U.P. – sown 10 days before or just at the break of monsoon, gives 90% success.
Need weeding and watering for 2 years. Seedlings 6” to 9” after one season and
3’ to 4’ after two seasons
3) According to Troup, direct sowings are preferable to planting and he
recommends line sowing for unirrigated sowings. He suggests lines 10’ to 12’
apart (required 1 lb pods for 200 ft of line). In the irrigated plantations of the
Punjab, sowing were done on the berms of parallel trenches (1’ x 1’ cross
section) dug 10’, 11’ or 15’ apart. The excavated soil is first thrown up in the
form of a ridge running along side the trench, a small berm 3 or 4” wide and
raised 1” to 2” is made between the trench and the ridge and on this berm the
 seed is sown. 60 to 80 lbs of seeds were used per acre. Subsequently 40 lbs
were found enough. Best results by sowing from March to May. Sowing may
continue till September, but later sowings produce much less vigorous seedlings.
These plantations have been raised in thorn scrup areas in the plains of W.
Punjab which had carried only Caparris aphylla, Salvadora oleoides and Prosopis
spicigera.
Nursery – P ods dibbled 3” x 3” in unshaded beds in March 1 lb pods are
required per Kamra (12 running feet x 6’ wide –72 sq.ft.)
Germination – In 7 to 15 days with 90% success
Treatment in nursery – Watered daily and constantly weeded.
Planting out – In Bengal planted out 4’ x 4’ entire with balls of earth round the
roots when the plants are small. In Bengal, stump planting from 2 years old nursery
plants has been found to be the best method. In U.P., one year old plants
recommended for stumping by Howard; for avenues basket planting with 2 year old
seedlings (roots cut at 1½’ depth) is in vogue.
In Assam best growth is said to have been obtained from cuttings, but timber
quality is not certain. Stump planting 2 year old seedlings at 6’ x 6’ has done well ad is
probably the best method; particularly so because planting is done usually in grassy
areas; weeded in first three years. Fire protection in first four years and afterwards
early burning may be attempted.
Should not be grown pure; ingured and badly damaged by parcupine and badly
brosed; also heavy damage from fungus in the case of irrigated plantations.
The irrigated plantations of the Punjab were worked under the system of coppice
with standards, seedling regeneration being obtained both naturally by cleaning the
ground and weeding the young crop. Mulberry came in as a valuable shade bearer for
mixture.
Treatment of unstable riverain forests present some difficulty. The only course is
to utilize all material as it becomes marketable by extracting all saleable deed and fallen
trees at frequent intervals and all growing trees when they reach exploitable size. The
riverain sissoo forests of the sub-Himalayan tract are worked for the most part either
under selection fellings or by simple coppice on a rotation of 20 years, belts being left
unfilled along the edges adjacent to the river. In managing the riverain tracts, unstable
and stable areas should be differentiated and in the stable areas species regeneration
measures should be adopted with regular cleanings and thinnings. The appropriate
system will be clear felling with artificial regeneration. The innings which will pay for
themselves may be done in unsuitable areas.
In the Changa Manga plantations, the yield had greatly increased in the 2nd
rotation because (i) the 2nd rotation was of coppice origin, (ii) larger admixture of
mulberry and (iii) general increase in the density of the crop and fertility of the soil in
the 2nd rotation.

Yield per acre per annum, stacked volumes

Age of felling
thick firewood only (s.c.ft.)
1st rotation 2nd rotation 1st rotation 2nd rotation
15.0 15 137 246
15.5 15 101 178
15.5 16 99 201
16.5 16 142 212
17.5 18 116 260

Santalum album (Sandal wood)

Vernacular name – Chandan (Sans.), Chandan, Chandul, Sandal (Hind.),

Gandada, Gandha (Kan.), Suket (Guz.), Chandan, Tel, Santharan, Srigandan (Tam.),
Chandana (Coorg), Santap (Burma).
Habit – (tree, shrub or herb) – A small evergreen glabrous tree.
Neither sporadic nor gregarious. Found in fairly large groups in its habitat.
Maximum height – about 50’
Maximum girth – about 8’
Trees upto about 2 tons weight have not been known
Flowering period – Ordinarily May – June
Another variable flowering from February 15 to March
Fruiting period – Variable ordinarily October – December another fruiting
period in July and August.
 Leaf fall – True evergreen and there is no definite period of leaf fall.
Foliage gets thinner in monsoons and also in very dry season.
Leaf renewal – A flush of new leaves appears in May during the early showers
and again after the monsoon in October.
Habitat – General distribution – Indigenous to Peninsular India from Nasik
and Northern Cirears Southern towards. Principal tracts are parts of Mysore and Coorg
and certain districts of Madras. In Bombay the chief sandal region lies in the Dharwar
and N. Kahara district along Mysore border. Occurs mainly in open jungle, hedge rows,
lantana bushes, bamboo clumps and round the edges of cultivated lands.
Abandoned village and cultivation sites fairly level country continuous grazing –
Theory best formation – germination and growth of in the bushes. Javadi and Telegiris
(Salem and nearest D & S) – 2000 to 4000 and occasionally down to 1200’.
Flourishes best generally on red ferruginous loam of the underlying rock being
often metamorphic, chiefly gneiss. Found also on rocky ground stony or gravelly soil. Is
not exacting as to depth of soil. Grows best on moist fertile alluvium along banks of
stream. Those grown on proper soils are said to form more scented heartwood.
Required good drainage and does not stand water logging. Avoids saline and
calcareous soil and is not generally found on black cotton soil.
Climate – Rainfall in the chief sandal tracts varies between 25” to 65”.
Temperature 50o to 75oF.
Economic uses – V alued for its heartwood which is strongly scented. The
wood is used for carving and fancy work. Oil distilled and used in perfumery and
medicines for which it is the most valuable wood in India.
Light – In early stages the species in partial to shade and thrives under cover of
hedge rows and thickets of scrup growth. It shows a tendency, however, to free its
head from the surrounding growth. In its middle and later life it is intolerant of
overhead shade, but is found growing under comparatively light cover.
Frost – Frost is unknown in the natural habitat of sandal.
Coppice – Young trees coppice well. Older trees are stated not to coppice at all
except on ground along the banks of water courses.
Root sucker – Freely produced when root are exposed or out through or where
parent tree has been grubbed up.
 Drought – Capable of with standing moderate drought, but prolonged drought
kills it.
Fire – Extremely fire tender and may be killed out right or injured and rendered
unsound.
Grazing and browsing – Moderate grazing does not seem to heavy any
adverse effect. Grazing is in fact intimately connected with its occurrence to keep out
fires by keeping the grass low. It is readily browsed by cattle and deer and rabbit
particularly in the dry season when grass is scares and this constitutes the real danger
to which it is subjected.
Injury by man – Being very much prized for its scented wood, it is always
subject to heavy illicit backing.
Insects – The possible danger to the species is from same of the forest insects
of spike disease.
Spike disease – This disease is responsible for very serious loss year after year
as it ultimately kills the trees in all the stages. It is caused by a virus carried from tree
to tree by perhaps some forest insects. Experiments to isolate the insects concerned
and to present infection are in progress. The culprit is believed to be of the family –
cossidae. It is hoped that the ending of the viator-insect of insects measures to keep
these insects out from sandal areas will be taken.
Germination – Viability (i.e., seed fertility) is 25 to 40% upto one year – seeds
of 28 months gave 6% success. Depulped seeds give better germination per cent. Rate
eat away the seeds and so it is usual to roll the main red lead or in Acorus paste.
Germination takes place 1 to 3 months after sowing.
Natural operation – Found mainly under bushes hedgerows and scrub but not
as a rule in the open. This is due to the following reasons:
1) Birds sit on such growth and drop the seeds
2) Seedlings require protection from excessive heat of the sun and from
browsing animals and
3) In the later stages, a host is indispensable and this is not available
Natural regeneration is handicapped by the readiness with which the species is
browsed. Seed – dispersal is effected chiefly through birds. Even the areas where the
species is newly introduced, it has managed to spread itself freely on its own. Natural
regeneration is greatly encouraged by removing other weed growth including grasses
under parent trees and ranking up the soil. The seeds cast by the parent trees find a
suitable bed and germinate promptly.
Artificial regeneration – Numerous plantation dating from 1870 have been
found in Mysore, Coog, North Coimbatore and Nilgiris, partly transplanting and partly by
dibbling or sowing in situ. In the majority of eases they failed. One of the chief causes
of failure was the incomplete realization of the parasitic nature of sandal. Another
reason was the non-availability of shade in the early period, the sowing having been
done in the open. Again wrong tending, as by sudden reveal of the lateral covering,
which, in the case of young trees, accustomed to lateral shade, results in bark-
scorching. It commences with cracking and peeling of the bark in thin strips and later
develops in long, more or less triangular, blisters which extend to even 3 to 4’. In bad
cases wood is exposed considerably and death my result.
Browsing and in attention rust heave accounted for a number of failures.
Artificial regeneration may be brought about by
1. Direct sowings
2. Sowing in beds and planting out when 2 or 3 month old. Plant them when 4” or
5” high and have a taproot 6” to 8” long. Another way is to grow plants in
bastes in a nursery and after a year to plant them out
3. Stump planting upto 3 years – 2¼ to 3 years old
Sandal stumps are better than younger ones from the point of view of
storage stumps stored in tins with tight lids have spouted even when stored upto
20 days.
Stump – planting has shown as much as 99% success
4. Planting pieces of roots
5. Root suckers
Direct sowings cheap and best way – sown in April. Two recognized methods of
procedure (1) sow over a large area at very wide and irregular espacements. Supervise
and control difficult.
A better method is to concentrate sowing on area with alternate to protection
and trust to birds to spread the seeds from trees later. In both the methods make
numerous hole ½” deep with pointed stock without disturbing the soil unnecessarily and
put one seed in each.
Localities to be regenerated: 1) Open blanks – Hosts to be established in
advances, 2) Shrubby jungle – Together with hosts.
Hosts are suspected to be highly influential in conferring relative resistance,
against spike. E.g., Strychnes nuxvomia, Pongamia glabra, Azadirachta a n d Cassia
sames are stated to give high resistance. Lantana is good but is suspected to harbou an
insect vector.

Tending in earlier stages

1) Maintenance of good host plants and their tending
2) Provision for tree and natural expansion of the crown
3) Feeing of suppressed plants
4) Providing light lateral shade to avoid sun-scorth with free overhead light

In the later stages

1) Tending of hosts and
2) Climber cutting

Juglans regia (Walnut)

Family : Juglandaceae
Akkon, Khon, Krot, Akrot, Dun (W. Hindi)
A large deciduous tree
60’ – 100’ tall or more
10’ – 15 girth or more
(Stewart – 28’ in Kulu)
Distribution and habitat – The Balkans, through Asia minor, the Causasus,
Persia, Afghanistan, the Himalaya, Upper Burma hills and possibly in North China and
Japan, numerous cultivated varieties. In Himalaya, it is indigenous usually at 4500’ to
11000’.
Leaf shedding – September to November
Leaf renewal – March – April
 Flowering – March – April
Fruits – Ripen chiefly in September
Wood even grained, grayish brown with dark brown streaks, often beautifully
mottled, used for furniture, cabinet making are used for veneer. A light demander,
stands shade in young. Has a massive root system and is fairly wind firm, but avoids
generally exposed positions. Barked by deer rubbing horns. Coppice well.
Natural regeneration – Hampered by birds monkeys eating the fruit. Best
regeneration in moderate to gentle slopes on loose but seep fairly moist solid where
boulders and rock fragments and plentiful – good crops found on the recent detites
accumulations formed by the weathering of cliffs or the erosion of hill sides and on
deep, loose rubble on land slips in the open.
Planting – In Bengal entire plants with or without wells of earth are planted in
the firs cold weather in January and February seedlings planted out in the following cold
season, after rain – (the tap root being trimmed if necessary) and the planting holes
being filled with soil. If larger plants are required the seedlings should be pricked out
during the first winter with a spacing of about 1’ x 1’, ½”, the taproots being trimmed
and finally planted during the 2nd winter. Stumps and striplings are also successful.
Should be planted close in order to avoid branching 6’ x 6’ on gentle slopes and level
country and on steep slopes 5’ apart along contour and 8’ or 9’ along slope.
Artificial regeneration – Cultivated varieties best propagated by budding or
grafting. In the forest, raised either by direct sowings (nuts should be buried to a depth
of about 2”) or by planting out nursery stock. The former method has proved the most
successful in the Darjeeling hills and can be adopted elsewhere if nuts are not attacked
by varmin. In the latter case planting with nursery raised seedlings will be necessary.
Produces a long and stout taproot. Hence stumped to 1” of shoot and about 9” of root.
The species stands this treatment well. Two or more shoots come up from the base at
the end of the season, all but the best shoot must be pruned off. With some care,
young seedlings can be planted out during the first winter successfully without any
pruning of the stem or the root, or with very slight trimming of the root, such plants
subsequently developed much more rapidly than those which have been pruned down.
Collection of seed – Collected by shaking and beating branches. Fellen fruits
useless as they are usually insect attacked.
 Treatment of seed – Outer fleshy coat should be removed by hand or fruits
may be left to root in heaps for a few days until the pulp falls off. The seed should then
be dried in the sun for a 4 to 5 days.
Seed storage – Seeds selected by winter test stored in a well ventilated shed
by hanging up in bags or keeping in covered earthen jars. Also stored by digging a hole
in the ground and filling up with seeds upto 18” from the surface and then filling with
earth. Ground must be perfectly dry.
Sowing – In Bengal, sowing done in thalis 6’ x 6’ in February and March – 2
seeds per thali. It sown in nursery dibbled 2” deep (3” to 4” intervals in drills 9” aparr
or 3” x 3” or 4” x 4” in unshaded beds in war, situations. In Bengal the sowing is done
in March. Manuring of beds should not be done.
Germination – 5 to 7 weeks according to elevation – 70% pricking out not
usually done.
Silvicultural characters – In the Himalayas natural regeneration cannot be
relied upon to a sufficient extent so as to employ any systematic treatments. Clear
felling with artificial regeneration appears to be the only simple system.
Rate of growth – Lopchu Darjeeling Dn. 5300 MSL; 6’ x 6’ girth – 95’ and 107
cft timber down to 8 dia. in 53 years.

Tectona grandis (Teak)

General description – A large deciduous tree with a rounded crown and under
favourable conditions a tall clean cylindrical bole which is often buttressed at the base
and sometimes flutted. Branches quadrangular, channeled with a large quadrangular
pitch. Leave opposite, large broadly elliptical or ovate usually 1’ to 2’ long but often
larger in coppice shoots and young plants, rough above, stalletely grey tomentose
beneath, with minute glandular dots which are red in young leaves, afterwards turning
black. Bark is 15” to 7” thick, grey or light grayish brown, fibrous with shallow
longitudinal fissures exploiting in long, win, narrow, somewhat corky flakes.
Wood moderate hard. Sapwood small whitish. Heart wood dark golden yellow
sometimes with dark streaks, turning brown with age, oily with a characteristic colour,
extremely durable and does not warp or split. It is the most important timber tree of
India and unique for ship building. Extensively used for bridges, building, wharfs, piles,
cabinet work, railway carriage, carvings, ordnance work, wheel spokes, general
carpentry, etc.
General distribution – Indigenous in Burma, India, Peninsula, Siam and Java.
In India, it occurs in M.P., Chennai, Coorg, Bombay and Travancore Cochin. Also occurs
in Orissa, U.P. and Rajasthan. Introduced in moist deciduous forests of U.P., W.Bengal,
Assam, Bihar, Orissa and the Andamans. Outside India it occurs in Indonesia, Japan
and Laos.
Climate – A. Southern India tropical moist deciduous forest (3 ACI) – Rainfall,
60” to 80”. Soil – Sandy alluvium to old red soils, excluding laterite soils. Associates –
Terminalia spp., Pterocarpus spp., Lagerstromia spp., Adina, Dalbergia latifolia a n d
Bambusa bambos. Dendrocalamus strictus appears at dry end.
Topography, geology and soil – Majority of forests are on hilly or undulating
country, growing on alluvial ground provided it is well drained.
Geological formation – Trap, basalt and other lime and base rich rocks;
sandstone, quartzite and other gondwana rocks which are usually non-calcareous.
Alluvial soils specially if derived from traps and lime bearing rocks. Soil moisture is an
important factor. Avoids waterlogged or very dry habitats. Occurs in soils of pH range
of 6.5 to 7.5; below 6.0 is practically absent. Beyond 8.5 suffers in growth.
Leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting – In dry situations and season leaves
fall from November to January. In moist localities leaves may persist till March or even
later. As a rule, trees are leafless for the greater part of the hot seasons new leaves
appear from April to June. In were seasons somewhat earlier, flowers appear during
rainy season (June to September). Fruits ripen for November to January and fall
gradually, some remaining on the tree for part of hot season. Fruit is hard, bony,
regularly globose nut, somewhat pointed at the apex enclosed a thick felty light brown
covering, usually 0.4” to 0.6” in diameter, continuing 1 to 3, readily 4 seeds. The nut is
enclosed in an inflated bladder like calyx 0.8” to 1.5” in dia. The fruit may be
conveniently collected by cleaning the ground under tree in January – February and
collecting fruits every few days, sometimes it may be lightly beaten off the tree with
sticks. For convenience in storage and transport, remove the bladder like calyx. This is
done by half filling a bag with fruit and vigorously rubbing and shaking it. There mains
of calyx are separated by winnowing.
Teak seeds almost every year, occasionally poor seed year occur. Fertile seeds
are produced at an early age (20 years). Coppice produces fertile seeds in about 9
years.
Germination percentage – Usually high in selected seeds. Seeds often fail to
germinate in the first year and may lie dormant in the ground for one year or more.
Seeds stored for a year germinate more freely than fresh seeds. Germination is
pigeous. Seedlings are decidedly sensitive to drought and frost particularly during the
1st year when they are killed, frequently out right. Young plants have wonderful power
of recovery from damage of fire. Young plants are not readily browsed by cattle and
other animals. Teak seedlings are into learnt of shade. In dry localities benefit in early
stage by side protection from direct rays of the sun. Very sensitive to suppression by
weeds.
Silvicultural characters – Does not tolerate suppression at any period of its
life and requires complete overhead light and fair amount of side room for proper
development. Produces a large, deep root system. At first a long, thick taproot is
formed. This may persist or disappear. In either case strong lateral roots are produced.
Requires to be planted in sheltered places with screen belts. Sensitive to frost and
drought. It has greater power of resisting the effects of fire than the majority of its
associates. Shows remarkable vitality in resisting effects of mechanical injury. Rate and
pigs grew and dig up the roots. Elephants break down or uproot poles.
Insect attack – The larvae of a moth (Duomitus ceramicus) bore into standing
trees causing large boles – erroneously termed ‘bee boles’. Another borer is Cossus
cadambae. It tunnels down the interior of young stems 1 – 2 years old. The caterpillars
of Hyblea purea and Pyrausta machaeralis are defoliators and skeletonizers respectively.
Hyblea eats up everything of the leaves except the main nerve. Pyrausta machaeralis
leaves all the veins. Another defoliator Padiga damastisales or the teak leaf borer does
considerable defoliation on dry hill side. Fungs does not appear to do any material
damage. In some places loranthus attacks teak.
Coppicing power – Coppices and pollard vigorously, sometimes retaining
coppicing power to a considerable size. The vitality of teak stumps is remarkable.
Natural reproduction
Factors Influencing Natural Reproduction
1) Spread of seed
2) Factors influencing germination
3) Factors influencing the survival and development of seedling
Spread of seed – On level ground germination takes place under mother trees.
In the hillside seed is washed down the slopes.
Factors influencing the germination – Sufficient degree of moisture,
temperature and soil aeration.
Factors influencing the survival and development of seedling – Light, soil
aeration, soil moisture, weed growth, grazing and fire and important factors. Grazing, if
not heavy, appears to favour reproduction of teak by keeping down weeds and grasses.
Fire, in drier types, has adverse influence. In moisture type indiscriminate fire
protection has adverse influence on reproduction by encouraging growth of inferior
species.
Artificial reproduction – Excepting for dry teak forest which are worken under
coppice system all areas in moisture places with adequate advance growth, which on
cutting back results in fully stocked new crops.
Availability – Occasionally seed crops are destroyed by storms but otherwise at
seeds well every year. The damage mainly occurs between flowering and fruiting.
Insects often destroy much of seed crop.
Storage – Not a serious problem. Stored it in gunny bags, seal it or even heap
upon the ground. Germination capacity is not affected for at least two years. Storage
forest year is beneficial.
Dormancy – Under natural forest condition 4 – 5 years is even 10 years.
Seed collection – From December to March depending on locality.

Pretreatment
1) Scorching in a light fire of leaves and grasses
2) Immersion in hot water for a few hours
3) Boiling water treatment, i.e., putting seeds in boiling water and allowing it to
cool
4) Immersion in cold water for a number of days
5) Alternate soaking and drying
6) Burying the seed for about a year near and hill so that white ants destroy part of
the testa
7) Placing seeds in a paste of cowdung and water
8) Weathering, i.e., exposing to sun and rain in the open for a few weeks or
months
9) Acid treatment
Nursery techniques – Commonest type is temporary dry nursery out
occasionally with watering facilities. Best situation is near plantation site. Watering is
necessary only in very dry zones or in cases of exceptional droughts. Side shade
avoided, soil well dug up and mixed with ashes resulting from slash burning. In
moisture localities buds raised to avoid water logging. In dry zones beds flush with the
ground or slightly sunken, 4’ width of bed considered best. Seed covered with ½ to 1”
layer of earth. Mulching is useful, in drier parts young seedlings require protection from
sun. Seeds sown between February and June.

Ailanthus excelsa (Maharukh)

Family : Simarubaceae
Indigenous in the Indian Peninsula and often planted in different parts of India.
Flowering – February – March
Fruits – Ripen in May – June. Coppices well and produces root suckers.
Required light porous soil.
Natural regeneration – Poor
Artificial regeneration – Raised early from seed or from cuttings. Large
cuttings strike early. Seed sown in May or June in well raised seed beds in drills about
9” apart, watered sparingly but regularly – germinates in 1 – 2 weeks, regular weeding
necessary. Should be protected against frost. Seedlings can be planted out during rains
of the second season.
Rate of growth – Plants from sowing in Dehra Dun produced plants 14’ high
and 12½” in girth at the end of 4th season.
Uses - Useful matchwood.
 Gmelina arborea (Gamar)

Family : Verbenaceae
A large moderate sized deciduous tree. Attains a height of 100’ and girth of 15’
under favourable conditions.
Distribution – Throughout the greater parts of India, Ceylon and Burma,
scattered here and there – upto 4000’ attains best growth in Eastern sub-Himalayan
tract – moist areas of Himalayan tract in Bengal and Assam. Found also in drier areas of
central India. Prefers moist fertile valleys – grows also on dry sandy or poor soils.

Climate
Maximum - 100o to 118oF
Minimum - 30o to over 60oF
Rainfall - 30” to 180”
Leaf shedding – January – February
Leaf renewal – March – April
Fruiting – Ripens from end of April to July
Silvicultural characters – A light demander, can stand more shade than teak.
Does not stand bed drainage. Moderately frost hardy and has good power of recovering
when injured by frost. Does not stand excessive drought. Coppices very well. Root
suckers not observed. Saplings readily browsed by deer which do much damage in
young plantations. Cattle also browse young plants when fodder is scarce.
Natural regeneration – Germination takes place in rainy season after the fall
of fruits. Fruits eaten by deer and cattle but stones rejected after rumination.
Otherwise fleshy portion soon rots off on is extend by insects and the stones exposed.
Germination conditions are same as for teak viz., 1) alternate wetting and drying, 2)
stones should get buried to some extent 3) clear ground, particularly if broken up,
favours.
Germination – Seeds lying adidst weeds or grass usually fail to germinate.
Plentiful natural regeneration has been observed on abandoned taungya lands in Burma.
In the forest regeneration is not as a rule plentiful the germinating power of seed is
high.
 Artificial regeneration – Can be raised either by direct sowing or planting. 1 lb
of fruit yield 1 oz. of clean seeds wt. fresh seed (stone) 40 to the oz., dried seed (stone)
75 to the oz.
Storage – Stored in bags in dry, well ventilated shed until the tire of sowing.
Carefully stored, can be kept for a year, but this is not recommended as germination
percentage falls. Fresh seeds collected from forests is best.
Method of planting – Planted out without a handful of earth round the roots
not recommended except to fill up blanks. Planting with root and shoot cutting has
been very successful.
Tending – Weeding necessary in the first year only. Strapping of leaves and
branches in the first cold weather seems helpful.
Diseases and pests – Squirrels big up and eat seeds after sowing. In 1st two
years leading shoots badly browsed by deer and following this from 2nd year deer grow
the bark year after year girdling in effect – fencing necessary.
Rate of growth – Very fast
1st year - 5’
2nd year - 18’
rd
3 year - 25’ – 6”
th
4 year - 33’
5th year - 36’
th
11 year - 70’ – 8’ – 4” girth
79’ – 9’ – 5” girth
Stem analysis shows 8’ girth and 95’ height and volume 100 cft down to 8” in 40
years. Under sowing with Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Dichopsis and Polyalthia has been
extremely successful.
Silvicultural treatment – Coppice or coppice with standards.
Wood – Yellowish or grayish white, ever-grained, soft-light and strong, seasons
well without warping and cracking and is very useful after planting, paneling, carriages,
furniture, boxes and carpentry of all kinds. It has been pronounced very good even for
match manufacturer and also for plywood.
 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius (Mendane)

Family : Legumiunosae Caesalpiniese

Vern. Mandane (Napalese)
Large deciduous tree usually with buttresses at the base. Heartwood light red,
moderately hard, used for shingles, boxes, furniture and building. One of the largest
trees in India. As an outsize tree 200’ height 150’ to the first branch and 27’ girth above
buttresses have been seen by Gamle in S. India.
Distribution – Natural habitat is in the evergreen forests of the W. Ghats chiefly
on hill slopes upto 4000’, Sikkim upto 4000’ Duars, Assam, Chittagong and Burma. A
tree generally of higher rainfall area.
Flowering – November to January in S. India
Fruiting – Fruits ripe in April to June
A light demander, though capable of standing some shade in youth. Sensitive to
frost, browsed by deer.

Artificial regeneration
Seed time – seeds in April – May. Best seed is obtained from the last week of
April to the middle of May.
Weight of seed – One lb of fruit gives 2 ozs, of clean seed 500 fruits to the lb
900 to the oz.

Collection of seed
When pods turn back, they are collected from tree by lopping branches.
Sometimes collected from the ground.

Method of treating seed

Dry in sun for 3 or 4 daus on mats after collection of pods. Best the seeds out
with a stick.

Seed storage
Should not be stored long as they are liable to insect attack.
Sowing
Usually sown direct in lines 6’ apart or in thalis 6’5’. In Bengal is reported to be
sown mixed in equal parts with Chukrassia and toon (Cedrela microcarpa). Suitable for
broadcast sowing in burnt fuel coupes as it is tolerant of shade, grows vigorously and
hence requires little help against weeds and climbers.
In nursery, broadcast seeds in shaded beds as soon as possible after collection.
One lb of seed per kamra will suffice (kamra = 12’ x 6’ – 72 sq. ft.)
Germination – Good, 75% - complete in 2 or 3 weeks

Treatment in nursery
Watering should be done twice daily till germination take place and then on
alternate days. Beds should be well weeded after germination. Prick our 3” x 3” into
unshaded beds as soon as they are big enough to handle and plant out in June of the
same year.

Transplanting
Planted out in thalis 6’ x 6’ in June of the same year, large plants transplanted
successfully. Stump planting also successful. One year plants planted out successfully
in new forest when 3’ – 5’ high.

Treatment after planting

Tolerant of shade in youth and pushes its way up early. Therefore does not
require much weeding or cleaning.
Tending
Thinning is necessary when 3 to 5 years old and thereafter every 5 years.
Rate of growth – Fast
Adma (2000’) – Buxa Dn. 1st year 5’
2nd year 15’ – 8”
3rd year 20’
4th year 25’ – 6’
5th year 32’ – 4”
General remarks
Grows very rapidly and being an intensive light demander tends to become
widely spaced and so should be grown in mixture.
 Adina cordifolia (Haldu)

A large deciduous tree with a large crown; under forest conditions produces a
ling straight bole. Often buttressed and fluted.

Distribution
Scattered in deciduous forests through the greater part of India, Burma and
Ceylon. In the sub-Himalayan forests occurs along the lower slopes of the outer hills
from the Jamna eastwards and on the bhadar area – familiar trees in the sal forests of
Chota Nagpur and is stunted throughout M.P. and peninsula.
Also best development and also found frequently on well drained ground. Also
grows on alluvial ground provided drainage is good. Found sometimes in a scattered
form in heavier soils.

Climate
Max. temperature - 105o – 118oF
Min. temperature - 30o – 55oF
Rainfall - 35” to 150”
Leaf shedding - Shed about February – leaflets until about May-
June
Leaf renewal - May – June
Flowering - June – August
Fruiting - Formed about October, Ripen and shed their seeds
from April to June
Sil. Characteristics
Seedlings can spring up under moderate shade. From the sapling stage onwards
in a strong light demander. Saplings sensitive to the rubbing of the leading shoots by
overhead trees and their leaders tend to die when this takes place. Generally the
species is moderately drought hardy. Moderately frost – hardy after the seedling stage.
Young shoots and coppice shoots suffer badly from browsing by cattle, goats, deer and
nilgai – have good power of recovery. Bison and sambher do much damage in some
localities by barking saplings. Coppices upto a moderate size.
Natural regeneration
Minute seeds carried over good distances by wind. Germination takes place
early in the rainy season. Seedlings abundant but survivals few. Bar ground appears
essential for successful germination. Seeds washed to wall dried situations germinate.
Regeneration abundant in the following situations:
1. On small land slides on hill slopes
2. Loose earth and debris at the base of hills
3. Well drained alluvial ground near rivers
4. Abandoned cultivations
5. On the sides of walls, embankments and ditches
6. Round the edges of natural tanks and depressions
7. On the sites of old charcoal kilns, etc.
With availability of particle shade in early stages and later adequate light spacing
establishes itself successfully.

Artificial regeneration
Weight of clean seed – 3,00,000 to an oz
Weight of heads 36 to the oz
Number of heads gives about 16000 clean seeds. Seeds every year – heads
collection from tree when they have not shed their seeds. Heads are dried in the sun
and then broken up. Seeds separated from the empty husks by putting the mixed seed
and husks in a can of water when the seeds will sink – water and husk are decanted off.
Method of seed storage – Not done

Sowing
Howard days he has never succeeded in direct sowing.
Bengal practice – Excellent results obtained by direct sowing in line 6’ apart and
is probably the cheapest method. Seed should be mixed with ashes when sowing in
order contain the best results. Sow in May before heavy rains break out. About 16 lbs
of heads per acre required for direct sowing.

Germination
Slow, takes about a month to compete with 50% success.
Treatment in nursery
Choose coarse sandy soil and mix with sand and small stones. Spread straw or
dry wood over the bed and burn it. Thus seeds of weeds of are destroyed and ash is
left. Sow seeds immediately after collection under shade on the ash and water – water
with vary fine rose spray to prevent seeds being washed away.

Method of planting
Bigger seedlings may be planted out in August of the same year when 3” high.
Smaller seedlings left until the next June – July when about 10” in height and winter
planting of seedlings in their first and second cold weathers has given good results in
Bengal. Stump planting in 2nd and 3rd rains has also given good results.

Weeding and cleaning

Requires frequent weeding for three rainy seasons. Lateral shade to be given.
So weeding is better not done clean, but so as to leave some lateral shade. Growing
under vary light shade of Boga (Teprosia candida) the next growth has given vary good
results in both as regards percentage and also healthy growth. But in N. Bengal a shade
crop is not found necessary.

Tending
Own grown with Boga, if the latter suppresses it, should be pruned below the
level of plants in May, Just before the break of rains.
Rate of growth - 1st year 2’
2nd year 4’
3rd year 8’
Treatment – Mostly under selection fellings.

Lagerstroemia lanceolata (Nana)

Family : Lythraceae
Large deciduous tree with smooth whitish bark exfoliating in large papery flakes.
Wood moderately hard, used for buildings, furniture, boxes, etc. A valuable timber,
liable to split and not durable in the open.
 Distribution – W. Coast of peninsula along and below E. Chats from Bombay
southwards to Travancore. Scattered in East Khandesh, Kolaba and Surat.

Climate
Maximum - 95o to 115oF
Minimum - 43o to 65oF
Rainfall - 30% to 180”
Grows well both on hill slopes and valleys. Not common on lateritic.
Leaf shedding – Leafless for a time in hot season
Flowering – April to June
Fruiting – Ripen in cold season
Small light seeds fall early in the hot season and germinate at the beginning of
rains.
Silvicultural characters and natural regeneration – A light demander but
less so than teak. Seedlings do not stand not season and benefit by slight shade.
Require a fair amount of moisture in the soil. Bare loose soil side natural regeneration
which appears freely on abandoned cultivations.
Fire does not do much harm to reproduction, but damages timber. Limited
amount of grazing found favourable as it keeps down weeds and helps natural
regeneration. Coppices well.
Treatment – Generally worked on selection fellings.

Lagerstroemia parviflora (Lendia)

A large or in a poor, location small deciduous tree.

Wood very hard, durable, used for building, agricultural implements, cart, boats,
shafts, axe-handles, etc. Apart from economic value is important silviculturally as a
common companion of sal, teak and other valuable species.
Distribution – Sub-Himalayan tract from Jamuna eastwards upto 3000’ and
Indian peninsula southwards to the Nilgiris. Dry and moist deciduous types of forests.
Not gregarious but quite plentiful. Maximum height about 100’. Ordinarily does not
exceed 6’ girth. Accommodates itself to a variety of soils and geological formations
including black cotton and trap – thrives best on deep porous loam. Although often
found on clay, it does not stand water logging.

Climate
Maximum - 100o to 118oF
Minimum - 30o to 50oF
Rainfall - 30” to 180”
Leaf shedding – Leaves brown towards and in cold season and shed in
February – March.
Leaf renewal – April – May
Flowering – April – June
Fruiting – Capsules ripen and open from December – February
Silvicultural characters – A strong light demander, gets suppressed under
shade. Fairly frost hardy. Drought hardy. Cattle avoid it. Sometimes occurrence of
pure crops may indicate heavy grazing. Coppices and pollards vigorously.
Natural regeneration – Fertility of seed low. Perhaps fertile seed not
produced every year. Loose, porous base soil appears to favour natural regeneration
which comes up ready on abandoned cultivation or well drained ground and on alluvial
gravel which has risen above river level.
Artificial regeneration – Very little has been studied about the artificial
regeneration of this species.
Silviculture treatment – Treated as an accessory to species of greater value,
the treatment is subordinated to that of the principal species. Eminently suited for
coppice working, a rotation of 30 years being sufficient for production of poles for
building purposes.

Anogeissu latifolia (Dhauna, Dhan, Dhawa, Bakli)

Family - Combretaceae
Wood very hard, strong and tough used for cart axles, shoulder poles, axe
handles, furniture, agricultural implements, poles and rafters, boat building and other
purposes. Leaves are rich in tannin and collected in some places for tanning purposes.
Bark also used for tanning and yields a form of gum used in calice printing.
 Distribution – Sub-Himalayan tract6, Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Central India and
throughout the greater part of Peninsula India, upto 4000’ (Not in E. Bengal, Assam and
Burma).
Characteristic of deciduous forests – usually dry type. Generally avoids moist
regions; grown on a variety of geological formations including sand stone, limestone
metamorphic, rocks trap and laterite; avoids swampy and badly drained ground,
requires good drainage.

Climate
Maximum - 102o to 118oF
Minimum - 30o to 60oF
Rainfall - 25” to 90”
Leaf shedding – Leaf turn coppery red to reddish brown about November and
fall chiefly in February remaining leafless until April – May.
Leaf renewal – April – May
Flowers – Flowering May – June – September
Fruit ripens – December – March
Is reported to be used as fodder in Dehra Dun and Saharanpur divisions.
Produces root suckers. Coppices and pollards well if cut at the right season; in the rainy
season unsuccessful; best time March – May.
Natural regeneration – Fertility of seed generally low and according to
Pearson fertile seeds are produced in drier years. Regeneration appears in even masses
differing by definite intervals. Regeneration favoured by a clean, bare soil (as after in
fire).
Artificial regeneration – The fruits are small, dry and indehiscent crowded in
globose heads 0.15 – 0.25” in dia. Compressed, with a narrow wing on each side,
yellowish brown, fairly hard. Fruits require to be collected when the heads commence
to break up. In fertility of seeds is a big problem 1 or 2 seeds on a thorn grow. Best
results would seem to be obtained after dry years when seeds are apparently more
fertile. Seedlings can be planted out from nursery.
 Terminalia arjuna (Arjun)

A large handsome tree evergreen or nearly so with trunk often buttressed. A

large crown and dropping branchlets. Bark smooth in thin irregular sheaths, green
when newly exposed, turning light grey, pink inside, young bark with chlorophyll. The
tree resembles Terminalia tomentosa, excepts for its smooth bark the narrower wings to
the fruit and its characteristic existence on banks of streams. Sometimes attains
enormous girth.
One area of 26’ and another of 30’ girth at 5’ from ground level at Jammu
(Manapur village). Wood brown, very hard, used for buildings, agricultural implements,
carts and boats. Bark used for tanning.
Distribution and habitat – Common throughout greater part of Indian
peninsula along rivers, streams, ravines and dry water courses, reaching large size on
fertile alluvial loam. Extends northways to sub-Himalayan tract, common Chota Nagpur,
Central India parts of Mumbai and Chennai, extending to Ceylon.

Climate
Maximum - 100o to 118oF
Minimum - 30o to 60oF
Rainfall - 30” to 70”
The occurrence depends on moisture supplied by strong and not climate alone.
Leaf shedding, flowering and fruiting – Faster than Terminalia tomentosa,
in the first season attaining a height of 3” to 12” under natural conditions and 1’ to 1 –
9’ in nursery. A long taproot develops early, about 1’, in two months of germination.
During the first few years assumes straggling or branching formation. Seedlings
somewhat sensitive to frost, decidedly sensitive to drought both during germinating
stages and subsequently. Grows well in full sunlight provided the ground is moist.
Stands moderate shade but not dense overhead shade.
Silvicultural characters – Can stand more shade than Terminalia tomentosa,
has more or less superficial root system and relies for its moisture chiefly in streams.
Somewhat tender to frost and drought. Produces root suckers and pollards well.
Coppices well upto a girth of about 2¼ beyond, which coppicing power is indifferent.
 Natural reproduction – Under natural conditions germination takes place early
in the rainy season and may commence with early showers before the monsoon proper.
Artificial reproduction – Transplants will during the first rainy season before
the taproot becomes too long. Nursery sowing about April – May, cover lightly and
water regularly. Irrigated weeded line sowing have been successful.

Terminalia bellerica (Bahera)

A large deciduous tree attaining height of 120’ and a girth of 10’ or more, usually
with a straight tall bole. Large trees often buttressed at the base. Bark bluish or ashy
grey with numerous fine longitudinal cracks, yellow inside. Leaves broadly elliptical 4”
to 8” long clustered at the end of branchless. Wood yellowish grey, hard not durable,
but lasts fairly well under warer. Used for planking, packing cases, boats and other
purposes. Fruits used for tanning but inferior to those of chebula.
Distribution and habitat – Found in deciduous forests throughout the greater
part of India and Burma but in arid regions. Common associate of sal, teak and other
important trees occurring more or less scattered and not gregariously. Occurs most
frequently in moist valleys in India. Fairly common in deciduous forests up upper and
lower mixed type with or without teak in Burma.

Climate
Maximum - 97o to 115oF
Minimum - 38o to 60oF
Rainfall - 40” to 120” or more
Phenology – In North India, leaf fall commence in November, some trees being
almost leafless by end of the month while other remain in fully leaf till end of January.
Remains leafless until March to May when foliage appears. Spikes of small greenish
white flowers appear in April – May with the young leaves. They have strong honey like
smell which is almost over powering at times. Fruits ripen November, February and fall
both during hot and cold seasons. Fruits greedily eaten by monkeys, squirrels, pigs,
deer, goats and other animals and are never allowed to lie long on the ground before
being stripped off, their fleshy covering. During the cold and hot seasons small clusters
of light yellowish fruit stones may be found lying about the forest disposed by dder in
rumination. The partially of animals for flesh and ripe fruits spread the seed. But much
of the fruit crop is rendered ineffective by insects and animals. Immature fruits are
attacked by insects during rainy seasons. The hard nuts of fruits are bored by insects
while lying on the ground. The nuts frequently broken open by squirrels and other
animals for the sake of the kernel.
Seedlings stand fairly dense shade during the first two years. Frost affects the
leaves but ordinarily frost do not kill the seedling particularly in grass. Hail tears the
large leaves to pieces.
Silvicultural characters – Light demanders, can stand light a shade in youngh.
Decidedly sensitive to frost. Drought hard to some extend but does not grow in vary
localities. Coppices fairly well.
Natural reproduction – In addition to animal dispersal where the fresh is not
so consumed, it rots off or is eaten off by white ants. The nuts being wholly or partially
buried in the process. Successful germination greatly assisted if nuts are buried by
rains, white ants or otherwise, because the radicle of germinating seedling is liable to be
eaten by birds, insects or to dry up if exposed to sun.
Artificial reproduction – Direct sowing has not been tried to any appreciable
extent. Transplanting during the first rainy season before the taproot has become too
long has become successful. Nuts or the whole fruit should be sown in nursery in March
– April, covered with earth and watered regularly. Germination takes place about one or
two months after sowing. Transplanting should be done in wet weather either after
pruning the stems, roots or not. Pruning considerably checks the growth than
otherwise.

Terminalia paniculata

Large to very large deciduous tree, bark 4” to 6” thick, dark brown, rough with
numerous shallow longitudinal and transverse fissures. The lower part of the bole is
often much fluted. Heartwood light brown, very hard, wood canoes but not in demand
as that of Terminalia tomentosa. Bark contains much tanning. Tree reaches
considerable dimensions. Under favourable condition a height of 100’. Large trees
usually unsound inside.
 Distribution and habitat – Western regions of the Indian peninsula from
Mumbai southwards and Southern India in mixed deciduous forest with teak, Dalbergia
latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia tomentosa, Laterstroemia lanceolata and
Xylia xylocarpa. Extend southward through south Kanara and Travancore, Nilgiris,
Anamalais and other hills ranges of South India.
Frequently found in valleys and lower slopes. Preferring moist situation.
Requires well drained soil. In Western ghats grows quality well on laterite soil at the
foot of the ghats and decomposed crystalline rocks of the slopes.
Maximum temperature - 95o to 102oF
Minimum temperature - 55o to 65oF
Rainfall - 40” to 80” or more
Phenology – Flowering varies – July to December, sometimes April – May.
Flower small white or rusty pubescent particles spikes. Fruits ripen December to May.
Brick red 0.25” to 0.5” long with a long wing 0.5” to 0.75” brad and two smaller wings.
100 to 120 fruits per oz.
Silvicultural characters – Stands more shade than Terminalia tomentosa,
saplings and poles come up in small gaps. Does not stands heavy shade. Frost
unknown within its region and prolonged drought seldom occurs. Coppices well upto a
moderate size.
Natural regeneration – As a rule plentiful, newly exposed ground like
abandoned shifting cultivation is a favourable factor.

Eucalyptus (spp.)

An Australian genus comprising 140 species, most of which are found in Australia
and some in Tasmania, New Guinea and other islands. Eucalyptus are evergreen
species, all more or less aromatic and containing oil glands in their leaves, oil distilled
from leaves is of medicinal value. They contain several of the most important timber
trees of the Australian continent where they form large tracts of forest, some growing
pure and other mixed. Some of them reach gigantic size. Blue gum (Eucalyptus
globules) and Peppermint gum (Eucalyptus regnans) attaining heights of over 400’.
 Eucalyptus appear to have attracted attention in their home in the early part of
19th century. Then for the most part blue gum were planted in the S. Europe for
ornament. Then their economic was value was realized and plantations were formed
extensively in the Mediterranean countries, California, Florida. Hawaii and several other
parts of the W. Hemisphere in S. Africa and in several other sub-tropical and warm
temperature regions throughout the globe. Introduction in India probably dates from
1843 and when a few trees were planted experimentally in the Nilgiris to find out their
suitability as fuel. Regular plantations chiefly of E. globules, were commenced in 1956
and have since been extended on a large scale. Numerous species of the genus have
since been tried in all parts of India, on the hills and the plain. On the whole ame
species or other of Eucalyptus can be grown in any part of India except (i) very moist
tropical regions where seedlings damp off in spite of all precautions and (ii) elevation
above the winter snow-line where snow break is to be feared.
As timber trees Eucalyptus have not come up to expectations in India, but as
producers of fuel they are far superior to any indigenous species. The globe gum
conferred an inestimable boon on the Nilgiris. Numerous failures have occurred in
attempts to introduce Eucalyptus in India because the conditions suited for the different
species were not looked into. For low elevations in India only those species which grow
in warm tropical parts of Queensland and adjacent northern regions (which carry such
well known Indian trees as Bombax, Eugenia, Jambolana, Barraingtonia, Alstonia,
Mellotus, Frema, Ficus glomerata and Casuarina) would be suitable. For planting in
higher elevations species growing in Tasmania and the southern parts of Australia
should be suitable. Example of the latter is the blue gum which has succeeded well in
Nilgiris.

Silvicultural characters
Light – As a rule, intolerant of shade. Many species, however tend to branch in
the open. Also, in early young seedlings endure a little shade for a time. Many species
coppice well, the most vigorous probably being E. globules.
Root system – Spreading
Generally wind firm, but many species are liable to become bent, gnarled and
stunted in exposed situations. Species tried at higher elevations in the Himalayas are
found to suffer from snow break. Thick barked trees do not suffer much from fire but
thin barked ones and young trees suffer badly. Those with barks exfoliating in long, dry
strips, like blue gum suffer much as the fire ascends through the strips to the crown.
Most species have high power of recovery from fire damage. Those damage by produce
primordial leaves (e.g., blue gum plantation proofing silvery blue owing to such leaves).
The more aromatic Eucalyptus are not readily browsed by cattle. Two species E.
corynocalyx (whose leaves are sweetish) and E. gunnii (whose leaves are not strongly
aromatic) are browsed by cattle.
Deer – Has been responsible in Dehra Dun and elsewhere for rubbing against
young trees and causing damage. Fencing may be necessary where this form of
damage is prevalent. In the Changa Manga plantation, Nilgai browsed seedlings in
winter and gnawed the bark in the case of saplings and poles whose leaves were out of
reach.
The requirements of soil and climate for various species very considerably.
Generally speaking, most it not all Eucalyptus grow best on deep fresh soil with a fair
amount of subsoil moisture. Many however, accommodate themselves to unfavourable
conditions and in such cases their growth is affected.
Natural regeneration - To a limited extent noticed in the blue gum plantations
in Nilgiris. In Australia, regeneration succeeded by cutting under growth passing fire
over the area and there after giving protection from fire an grazing for the 1st few years.
Artificial regeneration – Planting more common than sowing. Coppice areas
which have gone through three rotations will roughly be planted in addition to new
areas. 3rd and 4th crops (if their yield fall by more than 15” of the potential outturn as
read from local yield tables). Preplanting will also be more where blue gum crop is over
40 years.
Eucalyptus globlus seed ripen from January or March. The ripe capsules fall to
the ground and are collected and dried for four days when they open. The open
capsules are then sieved in a basket. The small seeds fall through.
Nursery treatment – Vary considerably from place to place and local
experience alone should decide the practice. Best time for sowing about February –
March and even as early a January for June planting. This enables seedlings of the best
size doing obtained for planting early in the beginning of rainy season.
 Raised beds filled in with a mixture of leaf mound and soil surface is smoothed
well and moderately worked. Seed is sown broadcast on the surface and lightly covered
with a layer of fine earth. Cover must be given 12” above bed level from the beginning.
Shade should be removed during rains as seedlings are very susceptible to drip. Beds
should never be flooded. Flat boxes 4 or 5” deep are preferable to seed beds. For new
species with little seed, boxes should be adopted normally.
Whether raised in beds or in boxes, the seedlings should be pricked out 2” to 3”
apart either in nursery or in boxes when seedling attain a height of 2 to 4”. Pricking out
requires much care as seedlings are sensitive to any damage to root or stem. May
require pricking out on reaching 6” height, preferably this may be done by putting the
seedlings in baskets or pots made of stiff paper or bamboo tubes. In the Nilgiris the
system of mossing is in vogue, the roots of the seedlings being encased in a ball of
earth and wrapped up with mess. This is done when the seedlings are 8” height. This
enables retention of moisture. The mossed plants are placed on the ground under
partial shade, regularly watered and shifted every few days to prevent roots fixing in the
ground.
Planting – Best time in the beginning of rain when seedlings are about 12” –
winter planting is more successful than rain planting. Pits dug 2 or 3 months in advance
and the soil weathered. In Nilgiris, the area is burnt in April of the year following felling.
To ensure good burn removal of slash should be restricted. In low lying or swampy
ground, planting in mounds is desirable.
Spacing – For blue gum varies from 6’ to 9’ x 9’. 9’ x 9’ is better.
Subsequent tending – First one or two years frost protection is necessary for
backward plants in hollows by cowls of grass or bracken. This should be done as soon
as the N.E. monsoon rains stop and removed in March. Weedings necessary in 1st year.
Interfering coppice should be cut back. First thinnings needed in 6th to 11th year.
System – Nilgiris and Palnis in Chennai – simple coppice 1 to 15 years rotation.
Coppice with standards system was tried but abandoned owing to poor yield (coppice
growth on 10 to 15 years rotation for blue gum may range from 100 to 150 tons per
acre).
 Casuarina equisetifolia (Beaf wood)

Family - Casuarinaceae
Vernacular name – Chowku, Savukku (Tamil & Telugu)
General description – A large evergreen tree with a straight stem and feathery
foliage consisting of numerous long, slender, dropping, jointed, 6-9 angled leafless
branchlets arising from rough, woody branches. The jointed branchlets, which are
partly deciduous are green and function as leaves. In general appearance Casuarina
resembles a feathery conifer.
Bark – Brown, rough, fibrous, exfoliating in longitudinal strips.
Wood – Very hard, much liable to crack and split used some times for poles and
rafters, but chiefly for fuel for which purpose it is excellent. The purchasers on the
Bombay coast also use it as fishing rod in boats.
Size – Under favourable conditions attains a height of 100’ and over. Trees of
131’ have been measured in North Kanara.
Leaf fall – Evergreen, pieces of the jointed branchlets, re shade throughout the
year and in plantations from a thick layer on the ground.
Flowering – Ordinarily flowers twice a year from February to April and from
September to October. Flowers are unisexual and are arranged in spikes.
Fruits – Ripen in June and again in December. In Karwar, fruits from the 2nd
flowering are said to be ripe by September to October. Globose woody cones 0.75” in
diameter containing a number of winged achene’s each enclosing a solitary seed. The
seed is light brown, terminating in a membranous wing, 0.2” to 0.3” long. Achenes very
light about 2000 weighing one ounce, a gunny bag of 12 lbs fruits give 1 lb seeds. The
seeds retain their viability for a few months and if well stored to some extent for a year,
tests at Dehra Dun gave a fertility of 5% for seed kept one year but sown after 18
months the fertility was nil. Always desirable to use fresh seed. Trees on coast
commence bearing seed when about 4 to 5 years old, the seeds are very liable to attack
by ants.
Germination – Epigeous. In the nursery the germination is seen within 7 to 9
days. Growth is rapid in coastal regions and average height of 18” to 2’ being reached
in the first season, i.e. when about 5 months (14th February to 15th July). Seedlings are
very sensitive to drought and to excessive moisture.
Silvicultural characters – (a) Light – A strong light demander, suffering badly
from suppression, (b) Soil – Requires well drained sandy soil, grows poorly in heavy soils
and does not tolerate clay, (c) Water requirements – It is very sensitive to drought. On
the coast it survives a long dry season, but this apparently due to the high water table
in those areas, (d) Wind – Occasionally uprooted by wind or branches broken, but has
relatively high resistance to monsoon winds. On the sea coast it is usually to plant up
four rows closely as protection against winds, (e) Fire – Very fire tender. Removal of
the fallen twigs which is common tends to lessen the damage from fire though it
involves the removal of the only available source of organic matter in the soil, (f) Frost –
Seedlings of tropical literal species are ordinarily frost-tender, but Casuarina is quite
frost hardy, (g) Coppicing power – Generally poor but high stools sometimes produce
vigorous shoots. Excellent coppice re-growth has been noticed on the seaside in North
Kamara from trees which were 10 to 12 years old when felled. Vigorous shoots have
been obtained from layering and coppicing in the East coast also, (h) Root suckers –
Root suckers sometimes occur in profusion in coastal plantations, but this is not by any
means universal, (i) Trees also reproduce by natural layers from the branches, (j)
Actinomycetes nodules are characteristic of Casuarina. The nodular bacteria are known
as the Frankia. They live symbiotically with the species and help nitrogenous nutrition.
Where these are not present in sufficient numbers growth is habited and artificial
introduction of the will be called for.
Natural regeneration – Distribution of seed effected, to some extent at least,
by wind. The seed is produced in large quantities and it has been suggested that it has
been carried by seed originally from Australia to Java. Borneo and other islands and
thence to the coast of the Malay peninsula and Burma.
Natural regeneration by seeds is scanty or absent in the coast plantations of
India, but in N. Kanara natural seedlings appears in large quantities in open space along
the edge of old plantations towards the end of the monsoon. Natural reproduction is
facilitated by the following factors:
1) Abundance of light
2) Porous sandy soil free from weed growth
 3) Absence of heavy rain during germination and early life of the seedling
4) Sufficient moisture in the soil to prevent mortality from drought during
the first two or three years
5) Absence of serious damage by ants and other insects as well as crabs
Artificial regeneration – All the most important Casuarina plantations are
situated along the sea coast on the East and West of the Peninsula. Regeneration is by
transplants 18” to 24” tall and about 9 months old.
Seed collection – Collection in September/October from 8-10 year old trees by
shaking the branches.
Seed treatment – The ripe cones are evenly spread out in shade and covered
with gunny bags. After 3 or 4 days the fruits dehisce and the winged seeds come out.
The covering is then removed and the empty cones separated out. Healthy seeds are
dark brown in colour with slightly yellowish wings.
Seed storage – Seeds sown soon after collection. If storing is necessary, this
should be done in earthen pots after mixing the seed with wood ash and properly
covered up to keep off ants.
Nursery – This consists of germination beds and pricked out beds.
Germination beds – These are bamboos mats held up through fashion on stilts
in pools of water so as to keep of ants. Sand is filled to a depth of 9” to 1’ on the mat
and Casuarina seeds sown in October/November. Regularly watered by means of rose
cans. Germination starts after 5 – 10 days and is complete in three weeks. These
germination beds may also be erected on the ground, but in this case the stilts are
coated with tar.
Pricking out beds – When the seedlings are 4” to 6” high, i.e. about a month
old, they are pricked out 4” apart in lines of 6” apart into ground nursery beds which are
a little sunken. They are regularly watered every morning and evening. By monsoon
the plants are 1½” to 2’ high.
Planting – The area is aligned and staked 12’ x 12’ by the last week of may or
early June and the transplants put out as soon as the first showers of the monsoon are
received. Along the sea coast three or four rows are planted at 6’ x 7’. During the rains
the plants are liable to be bent and so they are tied on the stakes. During any long
spells of dry weather during the rains and after the Cessation of rains, from October till
the beginning of the rains, regular watering once a day is necessary. The cost of
formation (during the first 2 years) is Rs.110/-, watering along accounting for Rs.85/-.
Early tending – No weeds on coastal sand; elsewhere weeding may be
necessary. In the Padugais of Chennai, pruning is done when the crop is three years
old, this extends upto 6½” height and consists in removing the lateral branches, with a
slanting upward out leaving about 1’ from stem. After the pruning cattle are allowed to
graze. Thus pruning is done here primarily to minimize damage from grazing animals.
Thinning – When planting is done to 6’ x 6’ thinning is necessary at 4 years age
or even at 3 years. No thinning is prescribed in the Padugais, Karwar; 15 years rotation
– thinning in the 5th and 10th years; 20 years rotation – thinning in the 7th and 14th year.
Pests and diseases – Ants carry off seeds. Where the damage is serious it is
necessary to poison the seeds. Superficially copper sulphate may be tried. Spreading
ashes over the beds has some preventive affect on ants and other insects Cricket
(Brachyypes achnatus) another pest. They are destroyed by burning fires in the area at
height. The crickets are attracted to the fire and get killed. In Mumbai, a fence of 3’ to
4’ high is put up around the nursery and cleaned 20 years wide. These insects cannot
as a rule hopper the fence.
Arbela tetraoris, the bark eating caterpillar and Coelosterna scabrata a longicorn,
damage Casuarina, young plants in Madras have been much damaged by the grubs of
the rhinoceros beetle; Cryctes rhimoceres. Bruning all rubbish before planting has
proved a check. Crbas nibble at the seedling. In Karwar nursery beds are raised on
stilts in pools of water. These stilt beds, spread over with ash, give protection against
crabs and ants.
More serious than alkali the root fungus, Trichosporium vesciculosum which
appears to be favoured by excessive watering and congestion; thinnings commenced
early and continued regularly have a checking effect. Leaving old stools increases
chances of this attack. Hence stools are encouraged to be grubbed out by villagers.
Insects the fungus attacks are dealt with by removing affecting trees and
grubbing up the stumps, but even this is not fully effective.
Biological control by planting in mixture with other species like Azadirachta
indica, Inga dulce, Sapindus laurifolius, Eugenia jambolana, Anacarium occidentale,
Pongamia glabra and coconuts has been tried. These trees besides assisting in
segregation are useful in attracting insectivorous birds, for in a dense Casuarina
plantation bird life is remarkably scarce. Loranthus attacks Casuarina occasionally.
Infected trees should be removed in thinnings.
Treatment – The species is managed under clear felling with concentrated
artificial regeneration under rotation varying from 7 to 20 years. As an exception case,
it is worked on coppice in parts of Mysore.

Bambusa bambos (Thorny bamboo)

General – A large bamboo with bright green, fairly thick walled culms, attaining
a height of 80 – 100 ft or more and a diameter produce quantities of thorny branchlets
interlacing into a dense mass and rendering the culms difficult of extraction from the
clump.
Distribution and habitat – Found throughout the greater part of India, except
in the driest regions; particularly along river valleys and in other moist situations. It
occurs in ravines near water in the sub-Himalayan tract of Kumaon, but has probably
been introduced, it is not considered to be indigenous to the Indo-Gangetic plain or
north of it, but is largely cultivated in northern India and elsewhere. It is abundant in
the forests of the West Coast from North Kanara southwards, particularly on flat ground
near rivers and steams. In Burma, it is common in parts of Pegu and Martaban, in the
Moulms in neighbourhood and in the Salween and Thaungy in drainages, often along
the banks of rivers. Somewhat scarce in lower Assam, Eastern Bengal and Chittagong.
Probably found in its largest size and finest condition in the hills of the circars, especially
about the Godavari on the hill ranges of the eastern and southern and southern scraps
of the Mysore plateau and in the Nilgiris.
Flowering – Occasionally flowers sporadically but and is characterized by
marked gregarious flowering. Flowers at intervals of 32 – 34 years. Requires more than
20 years for the clump to reach full bearing, but culms large enough to float timbers are
produced in twelve years. Too heavy thinning results in bending or breaking of
remaining culms.
 Dendrocalamus strictus (Mala bamboo)

Family : Graminae
A densely tufted deciduous bamboo with strong thick walled or solid culms
varying much in size according to locality, usually form 20 to 50 ft high and 1-3 inches in
diameter. Culms glaucous green when young, losing their glaucous appearance in the
second year and often yellowish when old. Branchlets from the nodes are ordinarily
produced almost throughout the entire length of the culm; the lower few nodes often
produce rootlets. In dry localities, on poor soils, the culms, though small in size, are
solid or nearly so, whereas in more fertile localities, although they reach larger
dimensions, they are, as a rule, hollow. Extensively, used for building, furnitutre, lance
shafts, walking sticks, mats, basket work, axe handles and numerous other purposes.
Best known, commonest and most widely distributed of all Indian bamboos,
occurring in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India, except in northern
and eastern forests throughout Burma. Found typically on hilly country, ascending to
3500 ft and occurring gregariously, sometimes almost to the exclusion of tree growth,
but usually forming understorey to or mixture with deciduous trees, not uncommon in
certain type of sal forests in hilly country. Abundant in many parts of Siwalik tract and
outer Himalayan from the Punjab eastward to Nepal, occurring most plentifully between
the Ganges and Ramganga rivers. Also common in most of the hilly parts of the Indian
Peninsula, except in the very moist regions. In Burma, typical of drier types of upper
mixed deciduous forest with or without teak, also extends into ‘Indaing’ (dry
dipterocarp) forests.
Hardiest of all Indian bamboos, thriving in regions suffering, periodically from
excessive drought. With its habitat, is forest hardy.
Phenology – Commonly flowers sporadically, in isolated clumps or in small
groups, almost every year, also flowers gregariously over large tract at long intervals –
the gregarious flowering usually taking some years to complete – end often progressing
in a definite direction in successive years. Actually it is difficult to distinguish between
sporadic flowering on a plentiful scale and gregarious flowering – there being all stages
between the two.
 Flowers, in dense globular heads, appear from November to February, the ripe
seeds fall from April to June according to locality. 800-900 seeds to an oz. In years of
abnormal drought, flowering and fruiting may occur earlier. Old leaves fall, as a rule,
from December to March and new foliage appears from April to June. New culms are
produced in rainy season, in northern India, they do not, as a rule, attain full length until
September, but further south they develop earlier. In years of favourable rainfall, as
many twenty new culms may be produced from fair sized clumps.

Albizzia lebbeck (Siris)

Family : Mimoseae
Natural habitat is difficult to determine. Has run wild – Himalayan valley and
sub-Himalayan tact. Bengal, Chota-Nagpur, Peninsula, Burma and the Andamans upto
4000’.
Leaf fall – North India : October – November
Elsewhere from December end to February
Leaf renewal – April or early March
Flowering – April and May
Fruiting – Full sized by August, ripen by December or January. Ripe pods hang
on till blown about by wind in March and later. A light demander but is a moderate
shade bearer in seedling stage. Not exacting as to soil. Root system largely superficial
and therefore not wind firm – as a rule does not produce root sucker – may do so if
roots are exposed and injured. Seedlings frost tender. Coppices fairly well.
Natural regeneration – 400 pods to the lab, 350 clean seed to the ounce
collected in February from tree. Pods dried in the sun until they open. Seeds also dried
in the sun. Stored in gunnies, seeds sown direct thickly in lines 6’ apart in May
preferably after soaking in water for 48 hours which increases germination percentage.
Nursery – Sown in February 3” apart or broadcast thinly, cover seeds with leaf
mould. Germination 80%. Commencing in 4 days is complete in 2 months. Weeding
and watering is required. Not pricked out in the nursery. Planted out with a handful of
earth round the roots in early July of the 1st rains when about 1’ – 6’ high.
Tending – Fast growing and so requires very little of early tending.
 Albizia procera (Safed sisris)

Through the sub-Himalayan tract from Jamna eastwards, Assam, Bengal Chota
Nagpur, Peninsula, etc.

Climate
Maximum temperature - 98o to 115oF
Minimum temperature - 30o to 65oF
Rainfall - 40” to 200”
Leaf shedding – Leafless for a short time between April and June
Leaf renewal – Soon after leaf fall
Flowering – Fruit from October to January, ripen for February to May, falls
during the hot season viable for at least a year, germinates readily.
Silvicultural characters – A light demander, stands moderate shade in young.
Fairly drought resistant, is affected by very severe frosts. Throws up root suckers when
tree is felled and coppices fairly well.
Natural regeneration – Far more satisfactory than A. lbbeck, abundant along
streams and on alluvial ground.
Artificial regeneration – 550 to 680 seeds to the oz. Pods collected from the
trees – dried in the sun till pods open – seeds obtained by hand or by thrashing –
soaking seeds in hot water immediately before sowing quickens and increases
germination, stored in sacks in dry ventilated shed.
Sowing – Direct sowing in lines 6’ apart has given excellent results – M a y –
June. In nursery sown in May germination in 3-4 days and continued upto 3 weeks,
70% germination.
Planting – If sown in May plants are 5” to 6” in July and ready for planting out,
transplant entire with or without earth on wet days – direct sowing cheapest – stump
planting with one or two year old nursery stock has given cent per cent success and is
very useful for filling blanks.