DATA SUMMARY

 Data are collected on the specific characteristics of each subject, and groups are formed to
be compared.

 These characteristics are called variables, because they can change from each subject.

PRESENTATION OF DATA This refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so
that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements. Data may
be presented in(3 Methods): - Textual - Tabular or - Graphical.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION KINDS OF GRAPHS OR DIAGRAMS

1. BAR GRAPH – used to show relationships/ comparison between groups

2. PIE OR CIRCLE GRAPH- shows percentages effectively

3. LINE GRAPH – most useful in displaying data that changes continuously over time.

4. PICTOGRAPH – or pictogram. It uses small identical or figures of objects called isotopes in

making comparisons .Each picture represents a definite quantity.

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Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. Data are usually collected in a raw format
and thus the inherent information is difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data need to be
summarized, processed, and analyzed. However, no matter how well manipulated, the information
derived from the raw data should be presented in an effective format, otherwise, it would be a great
loss for both authors and readers. each data set needs to be presented in a certain way depending on
what it is used for. Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the
method of analysis to be used, and the information to be emphasized. 

Text is the principal method for explaining findings, outlining trends, and providing contextual
information. If one wishes to compare or introduce two values at a certain time point, it is appropriate
to use text or the written language. By nature, data take longer to read when presented as texts and
when the main text includes a long list of information, readers and reviewers may have difficulties in
understanding the information. Reading lots of numbers in the text puts people to sleep and does little
to convey information.

A table is best suited for representing individual information and represents both quantitative and
qualitative information. a table is the most appropriate when all information requires equal attention,
and it allows readers to selectively look at information of their own interest. Tables, which convey
information that has been converted into words or numbers in rows and columns.

ADVANTAGE The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information that cannot be
presented with a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed in a table. Another
strength is that information with different units can be presented together. For instance, blood
pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered, and anesthesia time can be presented together in
one table. Finally, tables are useful for summarizing and comparing quantitative information of different
variables.

DISADVANTAGE However, the interpretation of information takes longer in tables than in graphs, and
tables are not appropriate for studying data trends. Furthermore, since all data are of equal importance
in a table, it is not easy to identify and selectively choose the information required.

FIGURE+EXAMPLE

A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at a glance, facilitates comparison, and can
reveal trends and relationships within the data such as changes over time, frequency distribution, and
correlation or relative share of a whole. Graphs allow readers to understand the overall trend in data,
and intuitively understand the comparison results between two groups. graphs simplify complex
information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or trends, and are useful for summarizing,
explaining, or exploring quantitative data. 

SCATTER PLOT

Scatter plots present data on the x- and y-axes and are used to investigate an association between two
variables. A point represents each individual or object, and an association between two variables can be
studied by analyzing patterns across multiple points. 

When the data are plotted, the more the diagram resembles a straight line, the stronger the
relationship. https://asq.org/quality-resources/scatter-diagram

FIGURE

BAR GRAPH AND HISTOGRAM

A bar graph is used to indicate and compare values in a discrete category or group, and the frequency or
other measurement parameters (i.e. mean). Depending on the number of categories, and the size or
complexity of each category, bars may be created vertically or horizontally. The height (or length) of a
bar represents the amount of information in a category. Bar graphs are flexible, and can be used in a
grouped or subdivided bar format in cases of two or more data sets in each category. 

By comparing the endpoints of bars, one can identify the largest and the smallest categories, and
understand gradual differences between each category. It is advised to start the x- and y-axes from 0.
Illustration of comparison results in the x- and y-axes that do not start from 0 can deceive readers' eyes
and lead to overrepresentation of the results.

One form of vertical bar graph is the stacked vertical bar graph. A stack vertical bar graph is used to
compare the sum of each category, and analyze parts of a category. While stacked vertical bar graphs
are excellent from the aspect of visualization, they do not have a reference line, making comparison of
parts of various categories challenging

FIGURE

PIE CHART
A pie chart, which is used to represent nominal data (in other words, data classified in different
categories), visually represents a distribution of categories. It is generally the most appropriate format
for representing information grouped into a small number of categories.

FIGURE

BOX AND WHISKER CHART

A box and whisker chart does not make any assumptions about the underlying statistical distribution,
and represents variations in samples of a population; therefore, it is appropriate for representing
nonparametric data. 

box and whisker chart consists of boxes that represent interquartile range (one to three), the median
and the mean of the data, and whiskers presented as lines outside of the boxes. Whiskers can be used to
present the largest and smallest values in a set of data or only a part of the data 

Text, tables, and graphs for data and information presentation are very powerful communication tools.
They can make an article easy to understand, attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently
present large amounts of complex information. Moreover, as journal editors and reviewers glance at
these presentations before reading the whole article, their importance cannot be ignored.

Inappropriately presented data fail to clearly convey information to readers and reviewers. Even when
the same information is being conveyed, different methods of presentation must be employed
depending on what specific information is going to be emphasized. 

Text, tables, and graphs are effective communication media that present and convey data and
information. They aid readers in understanding the content of research, sustain their interest, and
effectively present large quantities of complex information. As journal editors and reviewers will scan
through these presentations before reading the entire text, their importance cannot be disregarded. For
this reason, authors must pay as close attention to selecting appropriate methods of data presentation
as when they were collecting data of good quality and analyzing them.

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Data presentation is not just used to make your Independent Investigation look more aesthetically
pleasing – though good data presentation will also make the reading of the results more interesting to
the reader.

A bar graph compares values across categories or treatments. The x-axis gives the treatment values
(independent variable), while the y-axis depicts the values of the dependent variable. The values of the
bars can be raw data, totals or means

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Information that is collected during the process of the research by means of
questionnaire, clinical observations, and investigations constitutes the data of
the research.8 This is usually collected in a raw format and the accumulated
data set is usually huge and difficult to understand or analyze
further.6,9 Therefore to convert these raw data into meaningful information, they
need to be summarized, processed, analyzed, and presented in an effective
format, either as text, tables, or charts (graphs and figures) 
 The choice to present data as text, tables, or charts is determined by the
format of the data, the analysis method used, and the information that is to be
emphasized. One has also to take into consideration the advantages and
limitations of the different display methods for the particular type of data
(Table 9-3). This display of the data helps in efficiently presenting a large
quantity of complex information and its principal characteristics in a compact
and simplified format. This makes the article interesting, attractive, and easy
to understand and enables readers to form a quick impression and draw some
immediate conclusions; it also facilitates further statistical analysis. Whatever
method is being used, the presentation should be kept simple, clear, and
easily understandable.9
Text
Text, or the written language, forms the major method to present the
information of any research; the data are presented in sentences and
paragraphs. The text provides contextual information and can effectively
explain the results and trends of the research. It is the most appropriate way
of presenting or comparing quantitative data comprising one or two numbers.

The major limitation of textual presentation is that the reader has to go

through the whole text in order to grasp its meaning and implications; it takes
longer to read and is often difficult to understand.9

Tables
Tabular presentation is most appropriate when all information requires equal
attention; tables allow readers to selectively look at information of their
interest.9 In a tabular presentation, a large quantity of raw data, both
quantitative and qualitative, can be condensed, classified according to
suitable groups or classes, and arranged in a systematic way in rows and
columns.
Charts
Charts allow readers to understand the overall trend in data and the
comparison between the different groups.9 While tables can provide detailed
information from all types of data, charts are more suitable for simplifying
complex information from quantitative data so that the important components
can be summarized and highlighted. Although charts are effective means of
presenting large amounts of data, they can also be used in place of tables to
present small sets of data.

Line Chart
Line charts are used to show the change in the value of a variable over time.
They usually represent time-series data, also known as longitudinal data. The
continuous variable, usually the time, is recorded along the x-axis and the
frequency of the observation of the variable on the y-axis (see Figure 9-3).
Line charts are especially useful for studying patterns and trends across data
over time, like the change in population of a country over decades, changes in
hospital admissions over months, or changes in the temperature of a patient
with fever during treatment. Line charts can also be used for data measured
over the progression of a continuous variable such as distance. If data are
collected at regular intervals, values between the measurements can be
estimated.9 Further, a single line chart can be used to represent multiple data
sets, for example, to compare the effect of two or more drugs on a clinical
parameter such as blood pressure or blood glucose over time.

Pie Chart
The pie chart is a good way of visually presenting nominal, ordinal, and
occasionally discrete data while comparing the frequency of each category
with the total frequency. It is generally the most appropriate format for
representing information grouped into a small number of categories, usually
not more than five.9 Data from a multicenter study showing the relative
proportions of different etiologies for chronic liver disease in India,11 for
example, can be shown in a pie chart (Figure 9-4). The main limitation of pie
charts is that they can present only one variable, otherwise the figure
becomes very complex. To show the relative proportions of different variables,
a bar chart is preferable.1 A common mistake is in presenting sex distribution
of study subjects in a pie chart, which can be simply stated in text form as
percentages of male and female subjects.6
 Bar charts are the
simplest and commonest type of charts used for visual presentation of
nominal and ordinal data, as well as for quantitative discrete data. In a bar
chart, the category is shown along the x-axis, while the frequency is along the
y-axis. The height of the bars should be in proportion to the magnitudes of the
items and represent the frequency or percentage of individual cases in each
category. Bar charts can be either vertical or horizontal, depending upon the
number of categories and the size and complexity of each.9
SIMPLE BAR CHART
This is used to represent only one variable, usually for nominal or ordinal data,
with the categories shown on the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis 
CLUSTERED OR MULTIPLE BAR CHART
This type of chart is used to compare two or more sets of interrelated data
items (groups). The total number of groups in clustered bar charts should not
be more than five or six, otherwise the chart loses its clarity

STACKED OR SUBDIVIDED BAR CHART

A stacked bar chart (Figure 9-9) is used to represent two or more sets of
interrelated data items—for example, the number of male and female patients
with various etiologies of chronic liver disease in India.

A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of continuous data

and resembles a bar chart, with the variable being divided into columns called
“intervals.” However, in contrast to bar charts, there are no gaps between the
adjacent bars because they represent continuous data. 
Scatterplot
Scatterplots present data on both the x- and y-axes and are used to find any
association between two continuous variables. A point represents each
individual or object, and an association between two variables can be studied
by analyzing patterns across multiple points. The independent variable (e.g.,
the intervention) is plotted on the x-axis and the dependent variable (e.g., the
outcome of the intervention) is plotted on the y-axis. From the scatterplot, one
can form a fairly good idea about whether or not the two variables are
correlated and what the correlation is (Figure 9-13). If the plotted points are
very close to each other, then the two variables are expected to have a good
amount of correlation between them. If the points are widely scattered, a poor
correlation is expected. Further, the more closely the points come to a straight
line, the higher is the relationship. A regression line is then added to the graph
to determine whether or not the association between two variables can be
explained
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A box is drawn with the top at the third quartile and the bottom at the first
quartile; quartiles are sometimes referred to as hinges in box plots. The length
of the box is a visual representation of the interquartile range, representing the
middle 50% of the data. The width of the box is chosen to be pleasing
esthetically. The location of the midpoint or median of the distribution is
indicated with a horizontal line in the box. Finally, straight lines,
or whiskers, extend 1.5 times the interquartile range above and below the
75th and 25th percentiles. Any values above or below the whiskers are called
outliers.
Maps and Cartograms
Statistical data classified according to different geographical regions can be
represented with the help of a suitable map, which is also known as a
“cartogram.”