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Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 1 : De Broglie Hypothesis of Mater Waves
Session 2 : Problems on De Broglie hypothesis
Origin of Quantum Physics

The concept of quantum physics was first used by Max Planck to explain the result obtained
black body radiation experiment. A black body is designed to absorb 99.9% of radiation incident
on it. This can be done with a hollow sphere with a narrow hole. Inner surface of this hollow
sphere s coated with carbon black. When radiation enters through a narrow hole, it hits the wall
of the sphere and get almost fully absorbed. Remaining radiation is reflected back. And collide
again with the wall. After number of reflections, almost all the radiation is absorbed.

Due to absorption of radiation, temperature of the body increases and it starts emitting radiation
from narrow hole. This radiation contains all wavelengths. It is called as black body radiation.

When intensity vs wavelength curve is plotted, it is found that radiation for longer wavelengths is
very low. For shorter wavelengths, intensity is more. For a particular wavelength, ,
maximum energy is radiated. This is called peak wavelength.

Even though all wavelengths are emitted, there is a maximum intensity only for a peak
wavelength. Black body appears of the colour corresponding to that wavelength.

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If we increase temperature of the black body, shifts towards left side and the colour of the
black body changes.

This shift in the peak wavelength was explained by Wien‟s displacement law as -

But taw could explain the part of the curve towards the lower wavelengths. Also, if the
temperature is close to zero, will be infinite. But when the temperature is lowered, the
radiation curve changes the behaviour which could not be explained.

Rayleigh and Jean also tried to explain this radiation curve using their Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
law ( ) based on classical statistics. As per this law, energy density is proportional
to square of the frequency i.e. inversely proportional to square of the wavelength. This law is
applicable to higher wavelengths. But fails at the lower wavelengths.

Max Planck suggested that radiated energy must be depending on the frequency of radiation. He
represented this energy and replaced the average energy kT in Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
law by calculated by him using Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

So Planck‟s radiation law is written as - ( ) ( )

This equation now, gives correct explanation for the black body radiation curve. Thus, while
explaining black body radiation, Planck introduced a revolutionary idea which says – “Energy of
radiation depends on frequency ( )” .

Einstein used idea of Planck to explain his photoelectric effect. He confirmed that light consists
of discrete units of energy known as photons carrying energy - . Thus photoelectric effect
confirmed the particle nature of light. Wave nature of light is already known due to phenomena
like interference, diffraction, polarization etc. This dual nature of light is known as wave-particle
duality.

Also, Motion of macroscopic particles can be explained by classical theory of Mechanics. But it
fails to explain the motion of microscopic particles like electron, proton etc. Quantum mechanics
was developed from Quantum theory to explain the properties associated with such particles. de
Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and Schrodinger‟s
equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and

Schrodinger‟s equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie Hypothesis

It states that - There is a wave associated with every moving particle moving with velocity v, and
the wavelength of this wave is given by –

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Proof of de Broglie relation

Let us consider the case of the photon. Energy of the photon, according to Plank‟s theory of
radiation is given by –
E  h  -------------------------------------------------------(1)
where h is Plank‟s constant and  is frequency of radiation.

If we consider a photon as a particle of mass m, its energy is given by Einstein Mass Energy
relation as –
E  m c 2 ----------------------------------------------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get,
h   m c 2 --------------=-------------------------------------(3)

As photon travels with velocity of light „c‟ in free space, its momentum „p‟ is given by –

p  mass  velocity  m c ------------------------------------(4)

Dividing equation (3) by (4) we get –

h m c2
  c
p mc
h c
 
p 
h  c 
 λ    λ
p   

de Broglie assumed that above relation holds good for all material particles like electrons,
neutrons etc. For such particles,

where „m‟ is the mass of the particle and „v‟ is the velocity of the particle.

Justification for De Broglie Hypothesis using Bohr’s Postulates

According to Bohr‟s Postulate, the angular momentum „L‟ of an electron revolving in a

stationary orbit is quantized.

nh
 L  n 
2

We may consider the stationary electron orbits in an atom to be analogous to the circular loop of
string. The stationary electron-wave pattern can form in the orbit if an integral number of
electron wavelengths fit into the orbit as shown in following fig.

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h h
Thus circumference of the orbit 2  r  n   n as   from De Broglie hypothesis.
mv mv
h
 m vr  n
2
 L  n  where L  mvr is angular momentum

Thus Bohr‟s postulate can be obtained using De Broglie Hypothesis. So if Bohr‟s postulate is
true, De Broglie Hypothesis is also true.

De Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

Consider a particle moving with velocity v. Its momentum p = mv and the de Broglie wavelength
of matter wave associated with it is given by –
h h
λ                   (1)
p mv
The Kinetic energy of the particle is –
1 1 1 2
E  mv 2  m2v2  p
2 2m 2m
 p 2  2mE
 p  2mE                     (2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we get –

h
λ 
2mE

Experimental Verification of de Broglie Experiment

(Davisson and Germer Experiment)

The first experimental evidence of de Broglie hypothesis came from the experiments performed
by Davisson and Germer. Following figure shows the experimental arrangement used by
Davisson and Germer.

The various constructional parts are shown in following fig. –

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i) Electron gun : It consists of a tungsten filament F. Electrons are emitted by thermionic

emission. Due to the action of electric field across the gun, a fine stream
of electrons emerges out of this gun.
ii) Anode (A) : It accelerates the electrons towards the target.
iii) Target (T) : It is a single crystal of Nickel. It can be rotated about its axis, which is
parallel to the axis of electron beam. The position of the crystal can be
adjusted. A thin pencil beam of electrons is allowed to reflect from the
crystal surface in different directions.
iv) Collector (C) : Collect the reflected electrons. It is a Faraday cylinder connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G. It can be moved along the circular scale to
locate the position of maxima and minima between the angle 200 and
900. The inner and outer walls of the cylinder are insulated from each
other and a retarding potential is applied between them so that only
fastest moving electrons can enter the cylinder.
v) Outer Chamber : The whole arrangement is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.

In this experiment, the beam of electrons was made to fall normally on the surface of a crystal
and then the collector (C) was moved to various positions on the scale. The galvanometer current
for each position was noted. This current is a measure of the intensity of the diffracted beam of
electrons. Graph of this current (intensity of diffracted beam) against the angle between the
incident beam and the beam entering the collector was plotted. This procedure was repeated for
different voltages and several curves were drawn as shown in following Fig.-

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In one set of experiment, Davisson and Germer found that when the accelerating potential is
raised to 54 volts, a maximum appears when the angle between incident and diffracted beam (=
) was 500 for the first order spectrum. This maximum confirms the existence of diffraction
phenomenon and hence the wavelike behavior of electrons. Hence, by using the de Broglie
relation, the wavelength of the wave associated with the electron can be calculated and is given
by – h  6.62  10 -34 Joules - sec, m  9.1 10 -31 Kg, e  1.6  10 -19 Coulomb, V  54 volts
h h 6.62  10 -34
λ   
p 2meV 2  9.1 10 -31 1.6  10 -19  54
 1.67  10 -10 m  1.67 A 0

The wavelength of the wave can also be calculated by using Bragg‟s relation which is
established result in optics.

From Bragg‟s diffraction law, we have

2 d sin θ  n λ
2 d sin θ
 λ 
n
where d  a sin   2.15  10 -10  sin 25 0  9.086  10 -11 is the inter - planar spacing
a  2.15  10 -10 m is the inter - atomic spacing

  90 0 -  90 0 - 25 0  65 0 is the angle between the diffracted beam
2
and atomic planes.
n  1 is the order of the spectrum
λ is the wavelength of the electron wave which is to be determined .

Substituting all these values in Bragg‟s law,

2 d sin θ 2  9.086 x 10 -11  sin 65
λ    1.65 A 0
n 1
This value matches with the wavelength calculated using de Broglie relation. This confirms the
correctness of de Broglie relation.

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Properties of Matter Waves

1. Waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves.

h h
2. Wavelength of matter wave is give by λ  
p mv
3. Wavelength of matter wave is inversely proportional to mass and velocity.
c2
4. Phase velocity of matter wave v p   c
v
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves and can be associated with any particle
whether charged or uncharged.
6. Matter waves can propagate in a vacuum, hence they are not mechanical wave.

Numericals based on De Broglie Hypothesis

1. An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V.

i) Calculate the associated wavelength.
ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 A0. At what angle of
deviating from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?

) 9 C
olt λ

ℎ
𝜆
√ 𝑚𝑒𝑉 √ 9

𝑚 𝐴

) d ord r

d θ λ

λ
∴ θ ( )
d
2. Calculate the wavelength of the wave associated with a neutron moving with energy 0.025eV. Mass of
neutron is 1.676 x 10-27 kg.

√ √

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3. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the proton moving with a velocity equal to th of velocity of

light. Mass of proton is 1.6 x 10-27 kg.

4. Calculate velocity and de Broglie wavelength of an of energy 1 keV. Mass of

is 6.68 x 10-27 kg.

√ √

5. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out of the enclosure.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He-atoms. Mass of He-atoms = 6.7 x 10-27 kg.

√ √
9 9
6. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with an accelerated by a potential difference of
100 kV. Mass of is .

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑞 𝑒 𝐶 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝜆 ,

ℎ
𝜆
𝑚𝑞𝑉

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7. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A 0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1

( )
∴
√ ( )

8. A bullet of mass 40 gm and an electron both travel with the velocity of 1100 m/s. What wavelengths can
be associated with them? Why the wave nature of bullet can not be revealed using diffraction effect?

𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 9 𝑘𝑔 𝑒 𝐶
𝑚
𝑣 𝜆
𝑠

ℎ
𝜆
𝑚𝑣 9

𝑚 𝐴

𝑖𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 𝑔𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑚
𝑣 𝜆
𝑠

ℎ
𝜆
𝑚𝑣
5
𝑚

As the wavelength associated with bullet is of the order of 10-35m, to reveal the
wave nature of wave associated with bullet, a diffraction grating having width
of the slit of the order of 10-35m is needed. Such diffraction grating is not
available. So the wave nature of the bullet can not be revealed.
9. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A 0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1

√
( )
( )

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10. An electron accelerated through 1000 volts and is reflected from a crystal. The first order reflection
occurs when glancing angle is 700. Calculate the interplanar spacing of the crystal.
9
C olt d ,

√ √ 9

Using Bragg‟s law, d

∴d

11. An electrons accelerated through 100 volts are reflected from a crystal. Calculate the glancing angle at
which the first order reflection occurs. Given lattice spacing = 2.15 A 0.
G 9 d
C olt ,

√ √ 9
9
Using Bragg‟s law, d
9
∴ ( )
d
∴

12. An electron and photon each have a wavelength of 2 A 0. What are their momentum and energy?

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Given:
o tro o l tro 9
l o t t
or l tro

o t

( 5 )
r = 6.038

or oto

o t

r = 9.945

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