.

ndame11tc1_I co,nc~:p:ts
A Handbook on ir,f·surveylng-
Civil Engineering

m
Introduction
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on,
above or beneath the surface of earth by means of direct or indirect
measurements of distance, directions & elevation.

Plane Surveying
Surveying Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of
the earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected.

Geodetic Surveying
It is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into
account.

Scales
1. Fundamental Concepts of Surveying .............................................. 493 Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with
corresponding distance on the ground.
2. Linear Measurements ...................................................................... 496 Representative Fraction (RF)

3. Compass Surveying and Theodolites ............................................ 499 RF= Map distance

Ground distance
4. Traverse Surveying .......................................................... ... ... 502
(a) Plain scale: Plain scale is one on which it is possible to
5. Levelling ......................................................................................... 506 measure two dimensions only such as units and lengths and
diameters, miles and furlongs etc.
6. Calculation of Area & Volume ....................................................... 511 (b) Diagonal scale: On a diagonal scale it is possible to measure
three dimensions such as meters, decimeters and centimeters;
7. Tacheometric, Curve & Hydrographic Surveying ........................... 514 units, tenth and hundreds; yards, feet and inches.
8. The Tides ....................................................................................... 519
(c) The Vernier:
(i) Direct vernier: It is so constructed that (n - 1) divisions
9. Triangulation.................................................................... .... ....... . 522 of the main scale is equal to n division of the vernier.
In direct vernier, vernier scale moves in same direction
10. Field Astronomy ............................................................................... 526 of main scale.
where s = value of one smallest division of main
11. Photogrammetric Surveying ........................................................... 538
ILeast count=~ I scale
n = number of division on the vernier
v = value of one smallest division of vernier
 494 A Handbook dn Civil Engineering II MADEEAsy MA.DEEASY ■ Surveying

also I nv = (n - 1) s I Error D~e to Incorrect Length of Chain or Tape

(H) R_etr?grade ~ernier: l_t is so constr~~ted that (n + 1) (a) True length of the line, (/)
d1v1s1on of main scale 1s equal to n d1v1sion of vernier. Here, L = Designated length of tape/chain
In retrograde vernier, vernier scale moves in opposite L' = Actual but wrong length of the chain
direction of main scale. or tape

/ Least count=~/ also Inv= (n + 1)s I Ij !' = Wrong measured length of the line
I = Actual true length of the line

(d) Shrunk scale

~case (a): In case ~f Area
IA~ (LL') -A' I where, A= True area
J Shrunk scale = original scale x shrinkage factor

. k f t Shrunk length
Sh rin age ac or=------='--
Actual length
J

I .
I case (b): In case of volume
_ A' = Wrong measured area

L' )3 -V' I where, V = True volume

Type or purpose of syrvey Scale R. F. l
~(~a~)T=r-;o~p;-;::o:::;g-;:::ra;-;::p:;::h,;::ic:--;s::;-u;;::rv-;;:e::-;y-=-----t---------+--~------; I (
.V = -L . V' = Wrong measured volume

1
1. Building sites 1 cm= 10 m or less or less
1000
2. Town planning schemes, 1 1
1 cm= 50 m to 100 m --to--
reservoirs etc. 5000 100GO
1 1
3. Location surveys 1 cm = 50 m to 200 m --to - -
5000 20000 where E8 = Probable error of single observation
1 1 V = Difference between any single observation and the mean
4. Small scale topographic maps 1 cm= 0.25 km to 2.5 km - - to - -
25000 250000 of the series
(b) Cadastral maps 1 cm = 5 m to 0.5 km
1
-to--
1 Sn = Probable error of the mean
500 5000
n = Number of observation in the series
1 1
(c) Geographical maps 1 cm = 5 km to 160 km - - - to - - -

( d) Longitudinal sections
500000 16000000 •••
1. Horizontal scale 1 cm = 10 m to 200 m ___
1_ to _1_
1000 20000
1 1
2. Vertical scale 1 cm= 1m to 2m -to-
100 200
( e) Cross-secions
Both horizontal and ) 1 cm= 1 m to 2 m _1_ to _1_
( 100 200
vertical scales eaual J
Error Due to Use of Wrong Scale
RF of wrong scale
(a) Correct length = - - - - - = - - - x Measured length
RF of correct scale
2
(b) Correct Area= RF_of_wrong
_. : :scale ) x Calculated Area
(_ c___
RF of correct scale
 1

Linear Meilsurements II Surveying

If I Pm > Po I Length of tape ➔ Increases

⇒ Error ➔ Negative
⇒ Correction ➔ Positive
Tape Corrections
Length of tape ➔ decreases
(a) Correction due to standardization or (correction due to absolute ⇒ Error ➔ Positive
length)
⇒ Correction ➔ Negative
where, Ca= Correction for absolute length
(d) Sag Correction
L= Measured length of the line
I= Designated length of the tape w2,
C = Correction per tape length Csag = 24 p2 h
(b) Correction due to temperature L__ _ _ _:.:..:m-'(Subtractive) I

where p = Pull applied, W = Total weight of tape = w/

[ CT = La (Tm - To)/
, : = Weight per meter length, I= Length of tape
where, Tm = Temp. at the time of measurement • Case: Normal Tension p ) ull correction and sag
T0 = Temp. at the time of standardization of the tape
a = Coeff. of thermal expansion :~r~!~~~c~~a~t:a~:~: :~!u~t~:~~~:;al~e i~ :alled normal tension·
L = Measured length
{Pm - Po)!= w2, Ip2 {P - Po)= w2AE I
AE 24P~ ➔ . m m 24 ·
Length of tape ➔ Increases
(e) Correction due to slope
⇒ Error ➔ Negative
⇒ Correction ➔ Positive
~(Ssb"aobse)
Length of tape ➔ decreases
where, .
⇒ Error ➔ Positive h = difference in elevation
⇒ Correction ➔ Negative between the ends
( c) Correction for pull or tension L = Inclined length measured
I = Horizontal length
c s = Correction due to sag
(f) Correction due to wrong alignment
where, CP = Correction for pull
Pm = Pull applied at the time of measurement ~SoW,ob,e)
P0 = Pull applied at the time of standardization where, ,
L = Measured length L = Length measured
A = Cross-sectional area wrong alignment
E = Young's modulus of tape I = Correct length
h = Error in alignment
Limiting Length of Offset
(a)
A Handbook o~ Civil Engineering

Effect of error in laying out

II MADE EASY
-
direction only
Units of Angle Measurement Systems

I1 = 40 ~ine I (i) Sexagesimal system

1 circumference= 360° degree
where, I = Limiting length of offset 1 degree = 60 minutes
S = Scale (1 cm= S meter) 1 minute = 60 seconds
e (ii) Centesimal system
I
1 circumference = 400 grades
A ____Q_ _________ Jp____ B
1 grade = 100 centigrades
1 centigrade= 100 centi-centigrades
-'@}~- Maximum allowed length of error on drawing = 0.025 cm.
✓ 1' (iii) Hour system
,,,,,..11,.,011,
1 circumference = 24 hour
1 hour = 60 minute
(b) Combined error in length and 1 minute = 60 seconds
direction Important Terms
0'I Fixed meridian
I (i) Bearing : Direction of a line w.r.t a fixed B
I
I
I
meridian is called bearing.
I
I
I (ii) True meridian and true bearing: True
I
I meridian is a line joining true north pole, true
where, I
I
south pole and point of reference.
I
x = error in length measurement. I
I
I
Angle measured for any line w.r.t true
S = Scale (1 cm= S meter) C' I
A----- ----------- ,0 ---8 meridian is called true bearing. A

(iii) Magnetic meridian and magnetic bearing: Line joining magnetic

••• north pole, magnetic south pole and point of reference is called
magnetic meridian.
Bearing taken w.r.t magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing.

N ™ MM N ™ A

s s
Western Declination
Eastern Declination
·soo '
A Handbook on Civil Engineering Ill MADE EAsy Surveying
(iv) Ma~il_etic declinatio~: At a~~ place horizontal angle betvve~
• Fore bearing and back bearings
meridian and magnetic meridian is called magnetic declinar e
For Eastern declination ion I B.B = F.B ± 180° I
Ia = 13 + eE I or IT.B = M.B + eE j Where,
Here, a = true bearing or T.B B. B = Backbearing
13 = magnetic bearing or M.B l
FB = Fore bearing A
~ = eastern declination !
0 = F.B. of line AB
For western declination
i
! <!> = F.B of line BA or B.B of line AB
/ a = 13 - 0w / or / T.B = M.B - 0w j ,! +ve sign is used when F.B < 180°
-ve sign is used when F.B. > 180°
Here,

Designation of Bearing
~ = western declination.

(i) WCB (whole circle bearing N

lI • · Local attraction
Direction of magnetic needle can be diverted due to presence of some
magnetic objects near the instrument set of a station. This will cause
system): 0
A
l
l local attraction due to which same error will be there in all measurements
l
All bearings are taken wrt north l taken from that station.
direction, going in clockwise. l
Bearing of line OA
Bearing of line OB = 08
Bearing of line OC = ec
= eA w----n+-:~H---¼---•E
I
J
If the difference between fore bearing and back bearing is
180° then the adjoining stations are free from local attraction.

Bearing of line OD = e0 c
• These bearing are observed by Prismatic compass.
s
B
•••
(ii) OSB (quadrantal system of
bearing) N A
• In this system, the bearing
of a line is measured
eastward or westward from
north or south pole whichever w-----::l!E------_. E
is nearer.
• These bearings are observed
by surveyor compass.
I
C I
• It is also called reduced
s B
I
bearing system. !
Baring of line 'QA' is N0AE
Baring of line 'OB' is S0 8 E
Baring of line 'OC' is secw
Baring of line 'OD' is N0 0 W
 l
ADEEASY ■ Surveying
Traverse Surveyi·ng ·. ·. . . ~ft;1ndependent Coordinate

Latitude and Departure

The latitude and departure of the
N
line AB of length I and reduced B
I
bearing 0 are given by a:,
CJ)
I
I

I
0
-8 : I+ ' +)
(+, -)
L= +tcose I'

D=+tsine
Latitude : Projection of a line on
A
I Coordinate of different point with respect to single origin is
N-S direction is called·latitude.
Departure : Projection of a line
on E - W direction is called
h-)

s
(-,+)

I called independent coordinate.

A=(L 1 ,D 1 )
B = [(L 1 + L 2 ), (D 1 + D 2 )]
departure.
C = [(L 1 + L2 + L3 ), (D 1 + D 2 - D3 )]
• Latitude and departure in various quadrants D = [(L 1 + L2 + L3 - L4 ), (D 1 + D 2 - D3 - D 4 )] ~ (0, 0)
For a closed Traverse

ILL = 0 I and / LO = 0 I
where, LL = Sum of all latitude
LD = Sum of all departure
Closing Error
If sum of latitude,
LL* 0 D
and sum of departure
s LD * 0
then there is a closing error
E C
Reduced Closing error,
Line Quadrants Latitude Departure
I e =AA'= ✓{LL) 2 + {LD) 2
Bearing
j A' 'O
OA NOAE I +/1 COS 0A +1 1 sin 0A LL \

OB direction of closing error (D) \

.sesE IV -/2 coses +1 2 sines Closing
I

oc S0cW Ill -13 cos 0c -1 3 sin 0c

error +A
i:D
B

OD Ne,..,w II +IA cos 0,-, -1,, sin On

Here, / 1 , 12 , 13 , and /4 are length of line OA, OB, OC and OD The sign of LD and LL will thus define the quadrant in which the
respectively. closing error lies.
 •
A Handbook on tivil Engineering

Adjustment of Closing Error

Sum of all internal angles of a closed traverse
= (2n-4) X 90°
D
--
Ii MADEEAsy

Here,
Surveying

LL = Total error in latitude

1:0 = total error in departure
L = latitude of a line
where n = no. of sides D = departure of a line
LT = sum of all latitude without considering sign
OT = Sum of all departure without considering sign.

• Sum of all deflection angles= 360°

II _'i@-:.
--~,
,,__..,
This method is suitable where angular measurements are more
precise than linear measurements.
i.e. J eA + 0s + 0c + 0 0 + = 360°
eE J

I ( c) Axis method

• Sum of latitude, J 1:L = 0 I I .!.closing error

Correction to any length = that length x 2 .

I
Length of axis
Sum of departure, / 1:0 = 0 I B
Balancing the Traverse l
iI
( a) Bowditch method
Error in linear measurement= .Ji I
j

where l = length of a line

. 1
I a,
Error 1n angular measurement oc .Ji
correction to a particular line

Ic, ~ ( f,) X EL I Here, I = length of a line,

CL = correction in latitude of a line
1
LL = total error in latitude, 2·aaa
I ~ f,)
Co ( x ED I C0 = correction in departure of a line
Lo = total error in departure
i.e. Correction of a 1t. aX

'"i:.l = sum of length of all lines --,,.,,, This method is used where angles are measured very
- ~'i'.:i ~
This method is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear ✓ ,;;'_( ' accurately, so correction are done in length of line only, bearing
and angular measurements have been taken with equal R""'""'tlu of lines are not changed.
precision.
(b) Transit method •••
Correction in lat;tude of all line, IC, ~ ( ~ ) x EL I
Correction in departure of a line, I ~ f,) I
Co ( x ED
 II SuNeying

Reciprocal Levelling

Definitions
(i) Reduced level: The elevation of a point with respect to either Mean
Sea Level (MSL) or with respect to a fixed point of known height is
called reduced level.
B
(ii) Bench mark: Bench mark is
Here, x = error due to inclined line of sight,
and
relatively permanent point of
reference whose elevation with
e = error due to curvature and refraction
respect to some assumed ~ - - horizontal line
line of sight
datum is known. It is used level line
either as a starting point for X
levelling or as a point upon B.M
which to close as a check. h's

(iii) Back sight: After setting up the instrument 1st reading taken is
called back sight. It is also known as plus sight. B
(iv) Fore sight: Last reading taken from an instrument station is called When instrument is set up at A
fore sight. It is also known as minus sight. Reading on staff at A = hA
(v) Intermediate sight: All readings ohter than back sight and fore Reading on staff at B = h8
sight are intermediate sight. When instrument is set up at B
(vi) Height of instrument: It is the Reduced Level (RL) of line of sight Reading on staff at A = h'A
of the instrument set up at different stations. Reading on staff at B = h' 8
IH. I = R.L + B.S I [tiA - h 8 = h~ - h~ I it instrument is correct.
IR. L = H.I - F.S I
Arithmetic Check
(i) For rise and fall method Here 'H' is the true difference of R.L between A and B.
True Readings
/ LB.S - LF.S = I:Rise - I:Fall = Last R.L - First R.L /
Instrument is at Reading of A Reading of B
(ii) Height of instrument method
A hA hA +H
/ LB.S - LF.S = Last R.L - First R.L I B h~ -H h~
 ,::

l c~

A_H_a_n_d_b_o_o_k_o_n_C_iv..:....i:..:..l.::E.:.:.n.::_g.:.:.in..:....e:..::e:.:..r.:.:in.:..:g~-_:•=--.:.:M_::A~D~E~EAsy
..::5::;;"jo::.:S:::.';;..:_ _ _ _ _ .MADE EASY ■ Surveying ;1ij{:j}~,
-- ':.:.:---------------=----=-------------e:.:=c!.Cl
Curvature Correction {Cc) sensitiveness of Bubble Tube

Ice =-~I
sensitiveness of the bubble tube is defined
as the angular value of one division of the
bubble tube.
Here, d = horizontal distance
a'= sensitivity of the bubble tube
between A and B
= angular value of one division
R = radius of earth
If R = 6370km
Ia' = ¾x 206265 seconds I R

I
R
than I Cc = -0.07849 d 2
I Cl(

here'Cc' is in meter and 'd' is in kilometer or J a'= nDs~n 1,, seconds J C

Here, S = difference between two staff readings.

Refraction Correction {CR)
f n = no. of divisions of bubble

lcR =~x~I
j,, If R is 6370 km
l also, J a'= ¾radian

where, I = length of one division

J or Ia'= Rsi~ 1,, seconds J

/ CR = 0.01121 d 2
meter / R = radius of curvature of bubble tube.
Here d is in kilometer. -'CJ'-
--~,
1
1 radian = 206265 seconds = --:---
,,
~ ,..,1111°'11 sin 1
Combined Correction Due to Curvature and Refraction {C)
Contouring

IC = -* ~ Ix If R = 6370 km
Contours: Contour is an imaginary line joining points of equal elevation
on earth surface.
Contour interval: Vertical distance between two contour is called contour
J C = -0.06728 d 2 meter J Here d is in kilometer. internal.
Some suitable value of contour intervals
Distance of Visible Horizon Scale of map Type of ground Contour internal (metres)
Large Flat 0.2 to 0.5
(1 cm= 10 m or less) Rolling 0.5 to 1
I d = 3.8553 ✓c km I Hilly 1, 1.5 or 2
Intermediate Flat 0.5, 1 or 1.5
Here 'C' being in meters. (1 cm= 10 m to 100 m) Rolling 1, 1.5 or 2

J 2, 2.5 or 3
(taking both curvature and refraction R Hilly
into accounts) Small Flat 1,2or3
R (1 cm= 100 m or more) Roling 2 to 5
~o Hilly 5 to 10
Mountaineous 10, 25 or 50
 A Handbook on dvil Engineering ■ MADE EASY

Contour internal for var-ious purposes are suggested as:

Purpose of survey
1. Building sites
2. Town planning schemes,
Scale
1 cm = 10 m or less 0.2 to 0.5 --
Interval (metres)

1 cm = 50 m to 100 m 0.5 to 2 General Methods of Computing Area

reservoirs etc.
3. Location survevs 1 cm - 50 m to 200 m 2 to 3 (a) By computations based directly on field measurements
- By dividing the area into a number of triangles.
25 . 1 1 ·c = -1 ca sin
'B
Contour interval = (metres) Area of~ = - be sin A= - ab sin
No. of cm per km 2 2 2 D

50 \ Areaof~=-Js(s-a)(s-b)(s-c) \
Contour interval = . (feet)
No. of inches per mile where s = semi perimeter
C

••• Is= a+~+c I

where a, b and c are length of sides.
A B
(b) Using offsets taken from a staight line

I
I
h1 01: h4 0 4:
I
I

I-- d - - - - d - . . . . i . . . - d - . . i . - - d ---+I
(i) By mid ordinate method
In this case mid ordinates are measured.
A = d(O 1 + 0 2 + 0 3 + .... On)
(ii) By Average ordinate method

A= (n _ 1)d[h1 + h~ + ...hn]

(iii) Trapazoidal rule (End area Method)

A=d [ -h1 +-+h2+

hn h 3+ ...h n-1 ]
2
(c) Simpson's rule
 · _ _ _ _ _ _A_H_a_n_d_b_oo_k_o_n_C_iv_i_l_En_g.:;_1_·n_e_e_ri_n""""g_ _ _■ M_A_D__:_E:_:::EAsy
C-"~'.5=-.1=2::.ci __ . IM::.,:_A_D_E_E_A_S_Y_■________s_u_rv_e....:y_in---'g'--------------~""''{$:.::l.=:c_.3<
·.,?#.'
--------------:-----~--:-:---------::----:-----:----:--:---._
d • The distance of mid point of a line w.r.t. a fixed meridian is
A= [(h, +hn)+4(h 2 +h 4 +h 6 + ... )+2(h 3 +h 5 +h 7 + ... )]
3 called meridian distance.
In this method odd no of offsets are needed. Area should be in • Here, L 1, L2, L3 and L4 are latitudes line AB, BC, CD and
pairs. DA. 0 1, 0 2, 0 3 and 0 4 are departure.

Note: Simpson's three point formula A= i[h 1 + 4h 2 + h3 ] (d) Area by Double Meridian distance
method
-ih"- • This rule is based on the assumptions that the figures are
I
I
I
/ ~, trapezoids. I L3
Total area, I
0
"""'"' " • The rule is more accurate than previous two rules.
• Simpson's one third rule may be stated as: The area is equal to the
I A I

sum of the two end ordinates plus four times the sum of even
intermediate ordinates plus twice the sum of the odd intermediate
ordinates, the whole multiplied by one-third the common interval
I [ Ll = ~ [(-L1 M1) + (L 2 M2) + (L 3 M3) + (-L 4 M4 )], -L,

between them.
• It should be clar that this rule is applicable only when number of
divisions of the area is even i.e., the total number of ordinates is
I D.M.D. of AB,
M1 = 0 + 0 1
D.M.D. of BC,
= D1

M2 = 01 + (01 + D2)
odd.
D.M.D. of CD
(c) Area by Meridian distance method: -0
4
-----------
D -03
-------,
M3 = 01 + D2 + (01 + 02 - D3)
Traverse,
I
I = M2 + 02 + (-03)
Area of the closed
: +L3
I
D.M.D. of DA
I
A I
C M4 = M3 + (-03) + (-04)
lll=I:L-ml I
: +Lz DMD of any line= DMD of previous line + departure of previous line+
I
I departure of this line
Or,
Volume Measurement
I Ll = (-L 1 x m 1) + (L 2 x m 2 ) + (L 3 x m 3 ) + (-L 4 x m 4 )1 (a) Trapezoidal formulae:
where 'm' is meridian distance, Volume (V) of earthwork between a number of sections having areas
A 1, A 2...... An spaced at a constant distanced.
D1
m1= 2

D1 + D1 + D2 . D1 02
I V= d[ A1 ; An+ A2 + A3 + .... + An-1] I
m2 = 2 = m1 + 2 + 2
(b) Simpson's formulae:
. 02 03 Volume (V) of the earthwork between a number of sections having
m3 = m2+2-2
Area A 1, A 2,..... An spaced at a constant distance d apart is
03 04 04
m4 = m3 - - - - = -
2 2 2
MD of any line= MD of previous line+ half of departure of previous line
+ half of departure of this line
•••
 l
Ill Surveying
.ra«::heometrlc, curve & 515

tlydrographic surveying Stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the
perpendicular to the base is constant in similar isosceles
triangles.

Stadia Method (ii) Distance and elevation

formulae for staff vertical
(i) Distance-elevation formulae for inclined sight
A
horizontal sights
Horizontal distance,
Horizontal distance between the axis
and the staff is I D == ks cos 2 0 + c cos 0 I

where
/ D ==ks+ c /

k = !I = Multiplying constant II Vertical intercept

/ V==k-s~+csine /
c
f
= (f + d) = additive constant
= focal length of objectives I Here, 0 = Inclination of line of sight from the horizontal
Elevation of the staff station for angle of elevation.

I
j
/ Elev. of staff station ==Elev.of instrument station + h + V - r
Elevation of staff station for angle of depression

I Elev.of Q == Elev. of P + h - V - r I
I

where f1 = Horizontal distance of staff from the optical centre of the

objective
f2 = Horizontal distance of the cross-wires from O
d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from O
ab = i = Interval between the stadia hairs of the diaphragm
AB = s = Staff intercept
A, C and B = The points cut by the three lines of sight corresponding
to the three wires.
'O' is the optical centre of objective of an external focusing (iii) Distance of Elevation formulae for staff normal
telescope. Case-(a): When line of sight at an angle of elevation 0.
D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of
/ D ==(ks+ c) cos 0 + r sin 0 I I V ==(ks+ c) sin 0 I
the instrument.
M = Centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical / Elev. of O ==Elev.of P + h + V - r cos 0 I
axis.
 .,
. ;'(,~DE EASY ■ Surveying
A Handbook on Civil Engineering II MADE EASY ,.,.
flydrographic Surveying
• Hydrographic surveying is that branch of surveying which deals
with the measurement of bodies of water. It is the art of delineating
the submarine levels, contours and features of seas, gulfs, rivers
and lakes.
• Soundings: The measurement of depth below the water surface is
called sounding.
• Equipment needed for sounding are:
(i) Sounding boat: A rowboat for sounding should be sufficiently
roomy and stable.
(ii) Sounding rods or poles: A sounding rod is a pole of a sound
Q' ,
straight-grained well seasoned tough timber usually 5 to 8 cm
r,-7,f~-J.1~-~~::.::~~~~-----------_-j:_--_LJ -~ in diameter and 5 to 8 meters long.
Lead lines: A lead line or a sounding line is usually a length of
(iii)
a:,
Cf) a such cord or tiller rope of Indian hemp or braided flax or a
0
0 brass chain with a sounding lead attached to the end. Lead
lines, areusually used for depths over about 6 meters.
:+------ 0 - - - - -.. j Sounding lead is a weight attached to the line. The weight is conical in
-----Lcos0-------'-r-=-si.:.:..n-=-e~ l shape and varies from 4 to 1°2 kg depending upon the depth of water
I D =(ks+ c) cos 0 - r sin 0 I f and the strength of the current.
l Leadline are marked in feet as follows:
I V =(ks+ c) sin 0 I Feet Marks
I Elev. of Q = Elev. of P + h - V - r cos 0 I 2, 12, 22 etc. Red bunting
4, 14, 24 etc. White bunting
Curve 6, 16, 26 etc. Blue bunting
• Length of curve, 8, 18, 28 etc. Yellow bunting
nRLl 10, 60, 110 etc. One strip of leather
l = 180 20, 70, 120 etc. Two strip of leather
where, Ll = the angel 30, 80, 130 etc. Leather with two holes
subtended at the centre in degree 40, 90, 140 etc. Leather with one holes
• Tangent length,
50 Star-shaped leather
Ll Star shaped leather with one hole
T = Rtan- I 100

I
2
The intermediate odd feet (1, 3, 5, 7, 9 etc.) are marked by white seizings.
• Length of chord= 2Rsin Ll (iv) Sounding machine: The sounding machine is mounted in a
2 sounding boat and can be used up to a maximum depth of
Q 100 ft.
• Mid ordinate M = R( 1- cos~)
 --
A Handbook on fivil Engineering
m MADEEAsy

Re.cording
dials

Definition
All celestial bodies exert a gravitational force on each other. These forces of
attraction between earth and other celestial bodies (mainly moon and sun)
cause periodical variations in the level of a water surface commonly known

II
as tides.

Assumpti9ns Made in the Equilibrium Theory of Tides

(v) • The earth is covered all round by an ocean of uniform depth.
Fathometer: Echo-sounding
A fathometer is used for t • The ocean is capable of assuming instantaneously the equilibrium
figure required by the tide producing forces.
ocean sounding where the Transmitter
depth of water is too much
Transmission
datum Receiver
It Lunar tide:
and to make a continuous
and accurate record of the
f Low water
depth of water be/ow the
?oat or ship at which it is
I
installed.

depth, (h) [ h = ~t ] '

I

I
where, V = speed of sound in water
Low water
t = time interval between transmitter and receiver
• There are two lunar tides at A and B, two low water positions of C
••• I
•
and D .
The tide of A is called the superior lunar tide or tide of moon's upper
I
j
transit, while tide at B is called inferior or anti-linear tide.
I Solar tide:

Earth ME

I
Ii
A
-----------~-
MM
Moon
I

IQ
I
I
I
2

I
I
 A Handbook Of! Civil Engineering

•
Ill MADEEAsy
Tide producing force FM of the Moon on unit mass at A is given by
• Surveying

{ ean es t a bl"shment
1 = Vu lg ar establishment - lagging correction
FM= kMM( ~;)
I Lagging correction - 26 M I
• Tide producing force Fs of the Sun on unit mass at A is given by Height of tide: (H)

Fs = kMs [ ~;) /H = h + ¾·r cos e /

Here, Ms = Mass of Sun where, h = height of mean tide level above datum
r = range of tide
MM = Mass of Moon
Interval from high water x 180°
OM = Mean distance from the centre of earth to the centre
of the Moon. 0 = Interval between high and low water

Os = Mean distance from the centre of earth to the centre Prediction of tide with Harmonic constants:
of the Sun.
R = Radius of earth. I v = f H cos(E g) I
K = Constant of gravitation . t t zero hour on the day
V = value of col~ts~~e(~al~

I
where, I
range) of the constituent at the port
· H - mean amp u ·t nd which
• [~ = 0.458] i.e. [ Solar tide= 0.458- Lunar tide] f : factor, the value of which is very near to uni ya .
varies slowly from year to year.

~ M,,] and [Ms =33100CJJihl

E _ angle (same for all ports) . ·
• / ¼, = g = constant, spec1a
- . I to the port and the constituent .
where
ME = Mass of earth I E(at zero hour) - m+d I
r of the first day of each month
The age of tide varies for different places, upto a maximum
where, m
d
= value of E at zero hou h
= increment in E from zero our
of the first day of the month
of 3 days, and is reckoned to the nearest 1/4 day. to the zero hour of the day. ·
The age of tide is one of the non-harmonic constants. Symbol for constituent Description or name Period
• Lunitidal interval is the time interval that elapses between ¼ Lunar semi-diurnal
1
Lunar day
2
the moon's transit and the occurrence of the next high 1
water. S;, Solar semi-diurnal Solar day
2
• The time of transit at the given place can be derived by adding 2 ~ Larger elliptic-semi-diurnal
1
m for every hour of west longitude and subtracting 2 m for every K2 Luni-solar diurnal
2
Sideral day
hour of east longitude of the place to the time of transit of K1 Luni solar diurnal Sideral day
Greenwich.
O; Larger diurnal (declinational)
P, Solar diurnal (declinational)
Vulgar Establishment 1
M• First overtake of semi-diurnal Lunar day
4
• Definition: Vulgar establishment is defined as the value of lunitidal MS4 Compound Iuni-solar ; diurnal
interval on the day of full moon or change of moon.

•••
 Surveying
■
Triangulation
where, R = D-C L[ oi + OA Os+ o§]
d = Pr~bable error of an observed direction in seconds
D = Number of directions observed (forward and/or back~ard)
0A = Difference per second in the sixth place of~ logarithms
Definition of the sine of the distance angle A of each triangle
The horizontal control in Geodetic survey is established either by triangulation Os = Same as oA but for the distance ~~gle B
c = Number of angles and side cond1t1ons
or by precise traverse. In triangulation, the system consists of a number of
inter-connected triangles in which the length of only one line is called the I C = (n' - s' + 1) + (n - 2s + 3)

II
base line and the angles of the triangle are measured very precisely. n = Total number of lines
n' = Number of lines observed in both directions
First order or Second order or Third order or ! s = Total number of stations
1° Triangulation 2° Triangulation 3° Triangulation I s' = Number of occupied stations
1. Average triangle closure -> < 1 seconds 3 seconds 6 seconds
2. Maximum triangle closure -> ?' 3 seconds 8 seconds 12 seconds (n' - s' + 1 )= Number of angle conditions
3. Length of base line -> 5 to 15 kilometers 1.5 to 5 km 0.5 to 3 km t
1, (n' - 20 + 3)= Number of side conditions
4. Length of the sides of triangles -> 30 to 150 kilometers 8 to 65 km 1..5 to 10 km
5. Actual error of base -> 1 in 300,000 1 in 150,000 1 in 750000
6. Probable error of base -> 1 in 1000000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
Signals and Towers
7. Discrepancy between two -> 10 mm Jkilometers 20mm ✓km 25mrn ✓km
• A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of an
measures of a section observed station.
8. Probable error of computed -> 1 in 60000 to 1 in 20000 to 1 in 5000 to A. Non Luminous Signals: Diameter of signal in ems =1.3 D to 1.9 D
distance 1 in 250000 1 in 50,000 1 in 20,000
9. Probable error in astronomic -> 0.5 seconds 2.0 seconds 5 seconds
Height of signal in ems = 13.3 D . .
where D = distance in kms (Length of sight) for non luminous signals
azimuth I
B. 'Lumi~ous or Sun Signals: Used when length of sight distance

~v:- •

n11 ... a,.,011•

When the shape of the triangle is such that any error in the
measurement of angle has minimum effect upon the lengths
of the calculated side, than such a triangle is called well
conditioned triangle.
> 30 Kms.
Phase of Signals: It is the error of bisection which arises, when
the signal is partly in light and partly in shade.
s
• The best shape of well condition triangle is Isosceles with base • Correction
(i) When observation is
angle equal to 56°14'. made on the bright
• The triangle having angle <30° and angle > 120° should be portion.
avoided. Phase correction,
• Criterion of strength of figure rcos 2 a
The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a f3 = ---=2~radians
D
triangulation system for which the computation can be maintained within a = Angle which the
a desired degree of precision. direction of sun
The square of a probable error (L 2 ) that would occur in the sixth place of makes with line of
the logarithm of any side, sight.
s,
r = radius of the ex

IL = ~ d R I
A
2 2 signal. Station
Station
D = Distance of sight. (a) (b)
 l
Surveying

---
A Handbook on Civil Engineering
Ill MADE EASY
(ii) When the Observation is made on the bright line:
rcos-
a D
1
= ~ = 3.8553.jh;
~D.0728
r:i.
P = 2 ra d'Ians
0 where D 1 is in km and h 1 is in meters, D 2 = D - D 1
h2 = 0.06728 D/ meters
Routine of Triangulation Survey
(c) Profile of the intervening ground: In the reconnaissance, the
The routine of triangulation survey generally consists of the foll • elevations and positions of peaks in the intervening ground between
operations: owing
the proposed stations should be determined. A comparison of their
1. Reconnaissance
elevations should be made to the elevation of the proposed line of
2. Erection of singles and towers
3. Measurement of base lines I sight to ascertain whether the line of sight is clear offthe obstruction
or not. The problem can be solved by using the principles discussed
4. Measurement of horizontal angles in the factors (1) and (2) above, or by a solution suggested by
5.
6.
Astronomical observations at Laplace stations, and
Computations

lntervisibility and Height of Stations

(a) The distance between the stations: If here is no obstruction due
I
ll
lI
Captain G.T. Mccaw. The former method will be clear from the
worked out examples.
Captain GT McCaw's Method
Let, h1 = height of station
A above datum
to intervening ground, the distance of the visible horizon from a h2 = height of station
station of known elevation above datum is given by lI B above datum
~ 02 I
where, h = h~ight of the stat_io_n abov~ datum
l
h= height of line of
I
_h - 2R(1- 2m). D = distance to the v1s1ble horizon.
R = mean radius of the earth
I sight at the
obstruction C
(b) Relative elevation of stations: If there is no obstruction due to 2s = distance between the two stations A and B
(s + x) = distance of obstruction C from A
. t . D2 (s - x) = distance of obstruction C from B
1n ervening ground, the formula h = R (1- 2m) may be used to
2 s
= zenith distance from A to B
get the necessary
The height h of the line of sight at the obstruction is given by
elevation of a station at
distance, so that it may be
visible from another h = 21 (h2 + h1) + 21 (h2 - h1) sX - ( s 2 - X
2)
cos ec s
2 ( 1 - 2m)
2R
station of known elevation
2
Let, h1 = k n o w n
elevation of station A cosec
2
s = 1 + (h ~~ 1 )
2
. The expression 1
1
~~m = 0.5 7 4 1.
above datum
If x, sand Rare substituted in miles, and h 1, h 2 and hare in feet.
h2 = required elevation of B above datum
D1 = distance from A to the point of tangency and 1
1
~~m = 0.067281
D2 = distance from B to the point of tangency
If x, s and R are in km and h 1, h 2 and h are in meters.
D = the known distance between A and B
then, h 1 = 0.06728 D/
•••
 Field Astronomy • Surveying

• Points on the ecliptic at which north and south declination is

max. are known as - Solstices.
21st June ➔ Summer solstices
21/22 December ➔ Winter solstice
Relationship between Coordinates l r ➔ first point of Aries (Vernal Equinox)
If Z == Zenith Il Q ➔ first point of Libra (Autumnal Equinox)
o = Declination (-ve-south + ve North equation) (ii) Latitude (8) : Angular distance of any plane north or south of the
0 == Latitude of the observer.
8 == o + Z
I Equator. Angle between zenith and celestial equator is called latitude'.
Then
0 == a - p ..... (If the star i~ north of zenith but above the pole)
I (iii) Co-Latitude : Measured angle between pole to zenith point for any
place is called colatitude.
= a+ ~-...... (If '.he star Is north of zenith but below
0
a = meridian altitude of star
the pole)
ll colatitude (c) == 90 - latitude= 90 - 0.
(iv) Longitude: Angle between meridian of a place from a fixed (prime)
P == Polar distance
meridian is called longitude universally adopted prime meridian is
• Latitude of Pole == Latitude of observer (always)
Greenwich angle is measured 0° to 180° East or west of prime

I
• Hour Angle of Equinox == Hour Angle of star + R.A. of star meridian.
where, Fl.A== Right Ascension
(v) Altitude (a): Altitude of any celestial body or star is angular distance
• 1 Tropical year== 365.24422 mean solar days
from horizon, measures on the vertical circle passing through the

,,I//
-r_·, -
✓
• 1 SIDEREAL days == 366.2422 sidereal days.

• 1 Solar day = 1+
1
365.2422
Sidereal days
l
1
body.
(vi) Co-Altitude (z): Angular distance of body from zenith also called
?-; ' zenith distance.
R11111t"1161,r
1 Solar days = 24h 3m 56.56s Sidereal time. z == 90 - a = 90 - Altitude.

To convert t~e mean solar time to the sidereal time, we will have to (vii) Azimuth (A): Angle between vertical circle passing through the
~dd a correction of 9.8565 second per hour of mean time this correction body from observer's meridian (z-p _line).
Is called the acceleration. (viii) Declination (6): Angular distance of a body from the plane of
(i) Frrst point of Aries and Libra: First point of Aries is the point celestial equator, measured along declination circle, declination circle
is great circle passing through body and celestial pole. Varies from
wher~ sun crosse~ the equator from south to north on 21st March.
0° to 90° (Nors)
On this day and nights are of equal direction.
First point of Libra is point (ix) Co-declination (p) or Polar distance: Angular distance of heavenly
where sun crosses the mer Solstice
body from Pole.
equator from north to
of Libra (21
First P June)
p == 90 - o = 90° - declination.
south on 21/22 Sept.
_________ --~--- _•• -· (Ecliptic)
Path of Sun
(x) Hour Angle (H): Angle between observer's meridian and declination
• 1st point of Aries - ,,.... . ....... circle passing through the body. But measured from south in
also known as - ........
westward direction.
vernal equinox.
• 1st point of Libra - (xi) Right Ascension (R.A.): Angular distance measured eastward from
also Autumnal first point of Aries is called right ascension. It is angle between
equinox. hour circle passing from body to hour circle passing from first point
of Aries, measured in east direction.
 :5:2$ A Handbook on'Civil Engineering
~~------..:_:__=-:..:..:::::~~~~~~~'.__~II MADE EAsy II Surveying
• Coordinate System z ------
(vi) The Dependent Equatorial -Pole
(i) Horizon System (Altitude and z
System
Azimuth system): In this
system, zenith is the reference __________________ Observer's Two reference planes are 1 : M

point, and plane of reference is s .----

horizon. 0
Meridian

N
1. Declination circle >;~~~::.·.·.·.·.:.-:::~t::i!.~~:::~_ ~----------.
2. Equator. S ------'-<::::-·--··~·J"·· -...::::··- N
• Angle E ..................... ............ ...
(i) Azimuth: Horizontal angle Two Angles:
between two great circle (,) 1. Declination: Same as above
2. Hour angle: Angle measured w
~~Me~v~rA's ~eridian an~ great circle passing from the point M A I
- 1s called Azimuth. · ng e between two great circles,
(ii) 1. observer's meridian and 2.
Al~itude: Angle above or below the horizon (LM' OM - ) . . bserver's
altitude. - ex 1s called great circle passing from the Z eridian
• Azimuth is the horizontal angle, whereas altitude is th . point and pole is called hour s ------··-•---- --
angle. e vert1cai angle. Hour angle is measured .
• This system of measurement is dependent on the pos·t· from south going towards west
the observer. 1ion of upto the declination circle angle
• Zenith di~tance (ZM) or ZOM, is the angular distance of the ob·
SOM is Hour angle. E
form zenith. Ject
Terrestrial Latitude and Longitude
Zenith distance == ZM == 90 _ a
This system is used for locating N
z position of any point on earth surface.
(iii) Declination: Angle above or
below the equator wrt to pole Axis of the Earth: Axis joining north
is called declination. -------''- declination and south pole of the earth.
circle
(8) == L MOM. Meridian: Any great circle whose
................ plane passes through axis of earth
\ is called Meridian or Terrestrial Equator
(iv) Right Ascension: Right
Meridian.
ascension is the angle
measured along the equator Equator: Great circle perpendicular
w.'..t. first point of Aries (r) to axis of earth is called equator. s
going towards east Latitude(8}: Vertical angle above or below equator is called latitude
R. A == Angle yOM'. (angle MOM 1 ). .

Longitude(cp): Horizontal angle between great circle (Meridian) passing

through place and standard meridian is called longitude (<j>). Angle AOM 1
(v) ~a-declination: Angular distance from pole is longitude. For Earth, prime meridian or standard meridian is meridian
1s called co-declination. passing through Greenwich. All points on a meridian have same
angle POM is called co-declination == 90-8. longitude.
• This system is independent of position Parallel of latitude: Parallel of latitude through a point is small circle
of observer. passing through that point and parallel to equator. All the points on a
parallel of latitude hour have same latitude.
 .,.:.. ~ E EASY II Surveying .5~l··
A Handbook on Civil Engineering Ill MADE EASY
NP • a is the angle formed at centre of sphere by ----~~c
Zones of the Earth:
arc BC.
1. North frigid zone 1
Tropic of ' • A is the angle between two great circle passing B
2. North Temperate zone cancer
b
from AB and AC.
3. Torrid zone
Properties: The following are the properties:
4. South temperate zone Tropic of
• 0
1. Any angle is less than 2 x gQ (rc) A .
4
5. South frigid zone Capricorn 2. Sum of three angles is more than two right angles and less than six
ls Antarctic
Circle right angles.
SP
Nautical Mile 1t 1t
2 x 2 <(A+ B + c)::; 6 X 2
Nautical Mile = distance on arc of great circle by 1 minute angle at
centre of earth. n < (A+ B+ C)::; 3rc
3. Sum of any two sides > third side.
= 2rcR x _1_ = 2rc x 6370 = 1 _852 km 4. If some of any two sides is equal to two right angle (rc), Sum of
360 60 360 X 60
angles opposite them is also equal to 2 x goo or re
Celestial Latitude and Longitude System: Primary plane of If a + b = 2 x goo = rc
reference are: then A + B = 2 x goo = n
1. Plane of ecliptic - Horizontal plane. 5. The smaller angle is opposite the smaller side.
2. Great circle passing through • Formulae
Z N-Pole of ecliptic
first point of Aries and p sina sinb sine
perpendicular to plane of 1. - - - - - = - -
sinA sinB sinC
ecliptic. cos a - cosb. cosc
• Vertical plane 2. cos A= sinb.sinc
Coordinates are : cos a = cosb. cosc + sinb. sine.cos A
(i) Celestial latitude cos A+ cos B. cos C
3. cosa=
(ii) Celestial longitude sinB.sinC
cosA = - cos B. cosC + sin B. sinC.cosa
Celest[al latitude: Angle MOM 1 = 8 is latitude. It is the vertical angle
measured above or below arc of ecliptic. A sin(S-b)sin(S-c)
4. sin-=
Celestial longitude: Horizontal angle measured from first point of Aries 2 sinb. sine
to the east. This angle may be between 0° to 360° angle -yOM 1 is the A sinS.sin(S-a) a+b+c
COS-= S=
longitude. 2 sinb.sinC 2
North Pole of Ecliptic: Point on great circle that is perpendicular to A sin(S- b )sin(S- c)
tan-=
ecliptic and passes through first point of Aries. It is the point where all 2 sinS.sin(S-a)
great circles perpendicular to ecliptic meets in north of ecliptic.
a -cosS cos(S-A)
As per this system latitude of sun is always zero. So this system is 5. sin-=
2 sinB.sinC
very useful to fix the position of sun. This system is also independent
of place of observation. a cos(S-B)(S-C) A+B+C
COS-= S=
2 sinB.sinC 2
Spherical Triangle
a -cosS. cos(S-A)
• a, b, and c are the sides of spherical triangle. tan-=
2 cos(S :_ B) cos(S-C)
 ($32
==..o....._ _ _
A Handbook on ~ivil Engineering
__:_..:....:.._::~'.:'..::'...'.:~~~~~~~-~•~M.ADE EAsy
ADE EASY ■ Surveying
~
1
1 cos-(A-B)
6. tan2(a+ b) = 2 tan_!C z
cosi(A+B) 2

1 . 1(sin- A-B) ____ .......... ..,

tan (a-b) = 2 cot_!C
2
sin~(A+B) 2
·---~~~~~~::><:. -··
Napi~r's Rule (Applicable for right angled
spherical triangle):
sin (middle)= tan (adjacent1) x tan (adjacent ) z
2
When distance is maximum to the east of observer's
sin (middle)= cos(app. 1) x cos (app. ) meridian, it is called star at eastern elongation.
2
1. sin c =tan (90 - A). tan a And when distance is maximum to west of observer's
=cot A tan a meridian, it is called star at western elongation.
2- Applying Napier's Rule for Astrotriangle ZMP.

e
sin c =-cos (90 -- b ). cos (90 ..:_ c)
=-sec. b sec.C ·o··-·C _-
b C, (90-A),
Five parts of Napier's circle will
Spherical excesses (90--b\ (90 - a), (90 - A), 90 - (90 - 0) = 0 (90 - H), (90 - 8)
- (9C-cJ:a
E.~ (A +B + C)- 180 (i) Hour_AnglelH)
JS.. B
area of spherical triangle C .
sin (90 - H) = tan (90 - 8). tan 0
nR 2 xE cos H = cot 8. tan 0
~area = - -·--
180 (ii) Altitude (CY,)
• Astronomical Triangle sine = cos (90 - a).cos (90 - 8) = sina.sin8

Z 90-0 . sine . e ','.

so sin a= - - = sin xcosecu
sin8
(iii) Azimuth (A)

sin(90-8)=cos(90-A)cose} sin A= cos8

coso = sinA.cose ⇒ case

• Star at Culmination
Path of a star crosses the observer's meridian twice, in one revolution
Different Position of Star w.r.t to Observer's Meridian around the pole. A star is said to be at culmination, where it crosses the
• Star at Elongation _ · observer's meridian in above figure. M 1 is position of upper culmination
st and M 2 is position of lower culmination.
A ar is said ~o_be at Elongation, where it is at greatest distance from
sta~~ard meridian (Z--:-P line). fa,zimuth of the star is maximum in this
• Star at Prime Vertical
pos1t1on. · A star is said to be at prime vertical when it crosses the prime vertical.
At this position Azimuth of star i.e. angle at zenith is equal to 90°.
 Surveying
MADE EASY II
594 A Handbook on dvil Engineering 1\11 MADE EASY

Five parts of Napier's circle will be 1j

(90 - 0), (90 - H), 8, (90 _ M), (90 _ a)
Given are-8 and 0
l
'
(i) Calculation of Hour angle (H)
sin (90 - H) = tan 8. tan (90 _ 0)
cos H =tan 8. cot 0
(ii) Altitude (a)
sin 8 = cos (90 - 0) . cos (90 _ a) :vo~90--[})H p Arrow position, H is a circumpolar star above the horizon, and M 2 is
1
sin 8 = sin0 . sin a g ~'I
circumpolar star below the horizon.
~· ~ P'or circumpolar star, distance of star from pole PA 1 should be less than
sin a = sin 0 . cosec 8.
distance of pole from horizon.
• Star at Horizon M
PA < PH and or (90 - 8) < 0 so 8 > 90 - 0.
When star is at Horizon, it's altitude will be equal to zero 1
So declination of a circumpolar star is always greater than the colatitude
a =0 so ZM = 90° .
of the place of observation.
= 90 - Relation Between various coordinate
PM 8, ZP = 90 - 0 •
1. Latitude of place (0) and altitude of Pole (ap)
LP= H LZ=A. z
LZOA =0 = latitude of place
Azimuth.
LPON = ap = Altitude of pole
= cos(9O-8)-cos(9O-0).cosgoo As LZOP = LNOB. (from geometry)
cos A
sin(9O-0).sin9O° z So, LZOA = LPON
= cos(9O-8)-O 0 = O:p
2. Latitude of place (0), declination (8) and Altitude (a) of celestial
cos0.1
sin8
Body: z
= -- = sin 8. sec0 For M 1 , PM 1 = 90 - 8= p
cos0
Hour angle
M 1N =a
ZM 1 = Z = (90 - a)
cosH = cos90- cos(90- 0).cos(90- 8) M1 B =8
sin(9O-0)sin(9O-8) M 1 B = M 1 N + NB
8 = a + (90 - 8) or 0 = a+ (90 - d) =a + p
= - tan0 . tan 8 0=a+p
•
.
~I:~ ::i~:/:;a:
Circumpolar star
:~~ al;ays(above th e. horizon (or below the horizon)
. ny ,me when above the horizon) or do not rise
For star M 2
M 2A = 8.M 2 Z = Z ZA
ZA = ZM 2 + M 2A
=0

any time (when below the horizon), are called circumpolar star. ⇒ 0 = 8 + Z This equation covers all cases.
:·$.36;
= A Handbook on dvil Engineering
~--'---- ------------------ llll MADE EASY
------ ,AADEEASY ■ Surveying

Time Greenwich. All watches in a country shows the same standard time
Interval which lapses between any two instants, is termed as time. Following irrespective of the place.
type of time measurements are generally used by astronomers. Standard time (ST) = LMT ± difference of longitude converted to
time.
(i) Sidereal Time: Hour angle of first point of Aries (y) measured west
ward at any instant is called sidereal time of that instant. ·, Equation of Time .
Interval of time between two successive upper point transit of first Difference between apparent_ solar time and mean solar time at any
point of Aries is called sidereal day. instant is known as the equation of time.
Local Sidereal Time (LST): The interval of time which elapses Equation of time= Apparent solar time - Mean solar time.
since the upper transit of first point of Aries over observer's meridian ., Conversion of Time
is known as local sidereal time of the place.
LST = RA of a star + HA of star Longitude 360° 15° 1"C 15' 1' 15"
Time 24 hours 1 hour 4 minute 1 minute 4 second 1 second
= Right Ascension (RA) of the observer's meridian.
(ii) Apparent Solar Time : Measurement of time based on daily , Conversions
apparent motion of the sun round the earth, is known as apparent 1. Conversion of local time to standard time
solar time.
Interval of time between two successive lower transit (culmination)
of centre of sun over meridian of the place is called apparent solar
LMT = MT± diff. in longitude ( !)
day. 2. Conversion of local time to Greenwich time
(iii) Mean Solar Time: As the rate of movement of sun along the ecliptic
is not uniform, length of apparent solar day, throughout the year is
also not uniform.
LMT = GMT± longitude of place ( !)
3. Local Apparent time = Local mean time + equation of time.
To overcome this difficulty of recording the variation of apparent
solar time by a clock, a fictitious sun is assumed to move at uniform 4. Mean solar time
rate along the equator so that to have a solar day of uniform duration. =Sidereal time - retardation
Motion of this mean sun is the average of that of the true sun in
right ascension. =Sidereal time - 9.8296 seconds per hour of given sidereal time
Interval of time between two successive lower transit of mean sun 5. Sidereal time
is called mean solar day = Mean solar time + Acceleration .
Local Mean Noon: The instant when the mean sun crosses the = Mean solar time+ 9.8565 sec per hour of given mean solar time.
local meridian at its upper transit is known as local mean noon. 6. LST at LMM = GST at GMM
Local Mean time: (LMT): Hour angle of the mean sun recorded
westward from Oto 24 hours, is known as local mean time. The mean
w,
solar day begins at mid night and completes at next mid-night.
± 9.8565 sec. per hour of longitude (E ;"
(iv Standard Time: As local mean time of any place is taken from LST at LMN = GST at GMN
lower transit of mean sun at the meridian of that place. So local
mean time of different meridian will also be different for a country ± 9 _8 555 sec. per hour of longitude(:~-
having difference of meridian of different places, to avoid confusion,
a standard time is taken as per a central meridian of the country LST at LMT = LST at LMM + SI from LMM
called standard meridian.
?. SI (sidereal time interval) = LST at LMT - LST at LMM
Standard meridian of a country is generally selected such that it
lies at an exact number of hours from Greenwich. But Indian
Standard Meridian is at 5 112 hours (80° 30' longitude) east of
•••
 IVIADEEASY .II Surveying
·. J>hotogrammetric
H-h
·surveying where, X
a
= __
f
a .Xa

H-hb
~ = -f-.Xb
H-h
Scale a Vertical Photograph Ya= _f_a ·Ya

S= Map distance = H-hb

Scale Yb= -f-·Yb
Ground distance H- h
The length between AB is given by
H = height of exposure station (or the air plane) above the
mean sea level. L= ✓(Xa -Xb) 2 + (Ya - Yb) 2
h = Height of ground above MSL • Relief displacement on a Vertical Photograph
f = Focal length of camera When the ground is not horizontal the scale of the photograph varies
• If A and Bare two points on ground having elevations ha and hb above from point to point. The ground relief is shown in perspective on the
MSL, then Average scale of line joining A and B is given by. photograph. Every point on the Photograph is therefore, displaced from
true orthography position. This displacement is called relief
s= f displacement.
H-(~hb) where, ha + hb = h
2 av· • Relief displacement
• Datum scale Rfh
f d = H{H-h)
S = H
• Scale of a photograph
d=
rx h _ r0 x h
H - H-h
I
sh= L (i) The relief displacement increases as the distance from the principal
Photo scale Photo distance where, I= distance in Photograph point increases.
-----=
Map scale Map distance L = distance in ground (ii) da_]_
H
• Computation of length of the line between points of different
elevations from measurement on a vertical photograph. Scale of a tilted photograph
where, y' = -x sinq + Y¢ cosq + f tant
(i) If A and B be two ground point having elevations ha and hb above
MSL and coordinates (Xa, Ya) and (Xb, Yb) ish = f sec~-~~nsintl 0 = 180 - s
(ii) Let a and b be the position of corresponding points in photograph s = Swing
and (xa,Ya) and (xb,yb) be the corresponding coordinates. S _ f sect-y1 sint t = tilt
h- H-h f = Focal length
H = Flying height above datum
then
h = high of ground above datum.
It can be seen that the tilt and relief displacements tend to cancel in the
upper part of the photograph while they are cumulative to the lower
part.
 ----
A Handbook on Ci\ril Engineering
Ill MADE EAsy MADE EASY Ill Surveying
Overlap in the Photographs
• Interval between exposures
Longitudinal overlap = 55 to 65%
Lateral Overlap = 15 to 35% 0xL
__ 360V V = ground speed of airplane KMPH.
_.T
for maximum rectangular area, to be covered by one photograph, the I I
. L == ground distance covered by each photograph
in the direction of flight== (1 - P1) s.l ....... in Km
rectangle should have the dimension in the flight to be one-half th
dimension normal to the direction of flight. e Photogrammetry
w_ == 2~ W = 1.22H W= width of ground% overlap""' 60% in longitudinal (i) Terrestrial photogrammetry: Photographs are taken from a fixed
direction. position on or near the ground.
1 (ii) Aerial photogrammetry: Photographs are taken from a camera
I
Number of Photographs to Cover a Given Area l mounted in an aircraft flying over the area.
!
A = Total area to be photographed l Phototheodolite: It is a combination of "theodolite and a terrestrial
IN==: I a == net ground area covered by each photography I: camera. Important parts are:
N = number of photographs required. f (i) Camera Box of a fixed focus type.
a =LxW
L = (1 - P 1 )s./.
W=(1-Pw)s./.
a= l.ws 2 (1 - P 1 )(1 - Pw)
Il (ii) Hollow rectangular frame consist of two cross hair.
(iii) Photographic plate
(iv) Theodolite
Where, : • Important Definitions
I = length of photograph in direction of flight '
W = width of photograph. (i) Camera· Axis: Line passing through centre of camera lens
P1 = %lap in longitudinal direction perpendicular both to camera plate (Negative) and picture plane
Pw = lap in longitudinal direction (photograph).

.
S = Scale of Photograph = -
f
H
,,/
....../L
~7r--_.,,.,.,
---<2:~'o,\ \..~:'----
-:3_<:<:'----"---camera
If instead of total area A, the rectangular dimensions L x L (Parallel
1 2 Honzon axis
and Transverse to flight) are given then, the number of photograph line

required are given as follows.

K'
Let L1 = Dimension of area parallel to the direction flight
L2 = Dimension of area Transverse the direction of flight
N1 = Number of Photographs in each strip (ii) Picture Plane: Positive plane, perpendicular to camera axis.
N2 = Number of strips required.
(iii) Principal point: K or K' point on intersection of camera axis with
N = Total number of photographs to cover the whole area. either picture plane or the camera plate.
N = N, X N2
(iv) Focal length (f): Perpendicular distance from centre of camera
L1 lens to either to picture plane or camera plate. It satisfy the relation.
N1 == (1-Pi )SX/ + 1
1=-1+-1= u+v ⇒ f=~I
.f
1 U V U.V U+V .

(v) Nodal point: Nodal point is either of two points on the optical axis
of a lens so located that when all object distances are measured
 --
) Surveying
~:ADE EASY II
542 A Handbook on Civil Engineering ■· MADE EASY

from one point, and all image distances are measured from other Ob'= f sec ab
x = f tan aaYa= Oa' tanPa= f sec aa.tanPa
They satisfy the simple lens relation.
x: = f tan abyb= Ob' tanPb= f sec ab.tanpb

(vi)
l~=~+~I
Principal plane: It is a plane which contain principal line and optical
tanaa = -f
Xa tan A
1-'a
Ya
= -----=---
f sec aa
1

tanA Yb
=-_-=c.--
axis. j
I 1-'b fsecab
(vii) Oblique photograph: Photograph taken from air with axis of camera
tilted from vertical are called oblique photograph, these are of two
Ij Angle <!>1 is magnetic bearing of camera axis (or principal vertical plane.)
type
(a) Low Oblique photograph: An oblique photograph that does
I Azimuth of line Ok = <!>1
(QA is left to OK)
t Azimuth of line OA = <\> 1 -aa

(b)
not show the horizon is called low oblique photograph.
High Oblique photograph: If tilt is more upto such that horizon
!
!!
Azimuth of line OB = <\> 1 + ab
(OA is right to OK)

is shown in the photograph, it is called high oblique photograph. j So, [ Azimuth of a line = Camera azimuth + a I
(viii) Convergent photograph: Low oblique photographs which are taken
with two cameras exposed simultaneously at successive exposure
stations, with their axes tilted at a fixed inclination from vertical, so
I
-1
Elevation of a point by photographic measurement
Consider Point A
that forward exposure of first station from a stereo pair with backward
exposure of next station, these photographs are called 'Convergent l
Photographs·. l
l y
tanP = _a_=
ya Ya s
= -co aa.
Horizontal and Vertical angles from terrestrial Photograph
l If v
a Oa 1 fsecaa f
= Elevation of point A above Horizontal plane through camera
'l axis.
i From Similar triangle

I Ya
fsecaa
= V
D
~ I v
2k1
YaD
So, V = __cc-=--
f sec aa t a1 A1
14 ...
a a' x. K xb b' b
a Ya.D y.D f sec a.. D
=--=== 14
a Ya .Jf2 + x2
I
a'
b' a' yD - y.D
Kl b' V=-COSa- ✓ 2
b
So, f f + X2
Yb
b Elevation of point A.
h =He+ V + C
Photograph Plan Elevation
Where, He = Elevation of camera
Oa' = f sec aa
 ■_M_::.::._ADEEAsy
_~$_"4_'4_c_·_ _ _ _ _A_H_a_n_d_b_oo_k_o_~_C_iv_i_l_En_g~i_n_e_e_ri_n~g:___ _
Surveying
V = Elevation of point A -----=- (vi) Focal length: distance from front Nodal point of lens to plane of
C = Correction for curvature and refraction. photograph (OK)
[ h =He+ V +CJ (vii) Principal Point: Point where perpendicular dropped from the front
nodal point strikes the photograph (K).
• Determination of focal length of the lens
Take two points A and 8. Measure angle 0 very accurately from (viii) Nadir Point: Nadir point is point where plumb line intersects
theodolite a photograph.
LAOS= 0 (ix) Ground Nadir Point: Point on the ground vertically beneath the
ak = xa, bk = xb exposure station (Point N).
(x) Tilt: Vertical angle defined by the intersection at the exposure station.
tana = Xaf tana = xbf
a b LKON = t = tilt O(Front Nodal Point)
tane = tan ( aa + ab) (xi) Principal Plane: Plane
defined by lens (0) ground

l
tan aa + tan ab
= Nadir Point (N) Principal
1 - tan aa . tan ab
point produced on ground

II
(K).
Xa + 2<_1:2_ ( )
f Xa + Xb f
f Direction
= ~-~- = ~--- (xii) Principal Line: Intersection of gravity
-+ Direction of
1- Xa . Xb f2 - Xa .Xb of principal plane with plane -+
f f ' of photograph (line NK)
flight
._ Camera axis
2
= xa.xb tan 0 - =0
II'
f tan0 f (xa + xb) (xiii) lsocentre: lsocentre is the N

or t2 -t( Xa + xb
tane
)- X X -
a b - O
point in which the bisector
of angle of tilt meets the N K ➔ grand principal
point
photograph. Oi is the
Quadratic equation inf.
bisector and i is isocentre - distance ki = f tan 112 .
Arial Photogrammetry (xiv) Swing: Angle measured in plane of photograph from + y axis
Arial photograph are taken from a fast speed arial camera which have very clockwise to Nadir point.
high speed and efficient shutter, using high speed emulsion for the film. (xv) Azimuth of principal plane: Clockwise horizontal angle measured
about the ground nadir point from the ground survey north meridian to
Important Definitions
the principal plane of the photograph.
(i) Vertical photograph: when photograph is taken keeping camera (xvi). Horizon point (h): Intersection of principal line with the horizontal
axis vertical, coinciding with the direction of gravity, it is called a line through the perspective centre. Such as point h in figure is
vertical photograph.
horizon point.
(ii) Tilted Photograph: camera axis inclined at an angle from vertical.
(xvii) Axis of Tilt: Axis of tilt is a line in photograph plane perpendicular
(iii) Exposure station: Point in space, occupied by camera lens at the
time of exposure. to principal line at the isocentre such as i1 , i i2 in figure. The plane of
photograph is tilted about axis.
(iv) Flying height: Elevation exposure station above sea level.
(v) Flight line: Line drawn on the map to represent the track of the
aircraft.
--"5°'".4-'-'6::....·_ _ _ _ _ _A_H_a_n_d_b_oo_k_o_n_C_iv_i_l_En_g_i_n_e_e_ri_n_g_ _ _ll_MADE EAsy MADE EASY ■ Surveying
----~----
Relation between principal point, plumb point and isocentre
(i) NK = distance of nadir point from principal point. --------- o_________________ _

. l"RB = tant I=> INK= KOtant = ftant I i H

(ii) Ki = distance of the isocentre from principal point. i

I ~ = tan½ I => IKi = f tan½ I

j
.l A
I
j
(iii) Kh = distance of principal point to horizon point. j
l Different Scales A
8
K
I Kh = KO.cott IIKh = fcottl
j
1
(i) Datum scale: if all points are projected ;t mean sea l;vel.
Scale of a Vertical Photograph j ka ok f
il Datum scale Sd = -- = - =-
Scale varies for points of different elevation, scale will be constant on!y KA 0 OK H
when elevation of all points are same. i
!
If all the points are on the same elevation. !
·~
=>
Then
(ii) Average scale: If all points are projected on a plane representing
S= Map distance = ka the average elevation.
Scale
Ground distance KA
ka Ok
or s - -- - - f- H
- KA OK H-h
K

⇒
/s=~I hr Ko ______ ______ __ ___ ___
Computation of length of line between points of different elevation
Coordinate of point A and Bon ground in plan.
A- Xa, Ya
Case 2: If A and Bare two points having A,
elevation ha and hb respectively above mean sea level. B - Xb, Yb
Scale of photograph at elevation ha. Corresponding points on photograph
a - Xa, Ya 0

l&=~=H~ha I b - xb, Yb
For point (A) from similar triangles·.
Scale of photograph at elevation hb.
OK = ~ = ~ __f_
l~=~=H~hb I For Point B.
OKa Xa Ya H - ha H

So in general scale of photograph for different elevations (h).

Y,

/sh=~/ K ·-·--------------
• X, :
hb;
:_ ...-··
.,
+x ➔
This can be represented by representative fraction (Rn) also.
 1
r,,1ADE EASY II Surveying 549
A Handbook on Civil Engineering II MADEEASY

But R
H-h)
= (- f- r
So,

fh (H-h)
6 = H ~ hb .xb I lvb = H ~ hb -Yb I So, . d = H(H-h) x f .r

So, In general coordinate X and Y of any point. So, Id= ~I (iv)

(i) r H
--=--
from (ii) r0 H-h
Length between two points A and Bis given by
~
~
⇒

x•.
v.f .-··
f / 1~
X,
So relief displacement
Xa, Xb, Ya,Yb ➔ should be given with proper sign.

Relief Displacement
A
Id=~=~! (v)
If relief displacement is known then height of an object
Due to different elevation of different points, every point on photograph is
displaced from their original position. This displacement is called relief
displacement. o
lh = drHI
r = Ka
ro = Kao
•••
R = KOAO
aa0 is called relief displacement. H

1~
aa0 =r-r0
from similar triangle.
A
r f fR
-=-- ⇒ r=-- Ko R Ao (i)
R H-h H-h 14-14-....:..:.---.i~•

r0 =_r:_ ⇒ r.O= fR (ii)

R H H
So relief displacement

⇒
Id= H.(H-h)
f.R.h I (iiii