1 Laboratory Equipment list

Sr. No Equipment details Experiment Cost Status

performed
1.
8 GB RAM
NO 5,500 Approx. Not available

2.

500GB/1TB HDD NO 3,500 Approx. Available

3.

Web Camera NO 400 Approx. Not available

4.

ARM Cortex M4/A5 NO 600 Approx. Not available

5.

Oscilloscope NO 21350Approx. Not available

6.

Signal Generator NO 5,000Approx. Not available

Laboratory Plan
Exp. Title of Experiment Session
No.

• Menu Driven Image Processing Operations I

 • Sampling a sign wave and reconstructing it using samples II

Mid semester assessment

• Generate a square wave of programmable frequency III

• To capture a signal and perform various operations for analyzing it. IV

• To grab Image from camera and apply aged detection algorithm V

End semester assessment

Mock oral XIII

EXPERIMENT NO.1

Menu Driven Image ProcessingOperations

Title:Menu Driven Image Processing Operations

Objectives:To understand & implement various image processing operations on a remotely

captured image.

Aim: Write C++ Program with GUI to capture using remotely placed camera and read
uncompressed TIFF Image to perform following functions (Menu Driven) Use of
Overloading and Morphism is expected. Image Frame1 is used for displaying Original
Image and Image Frame 2 is used for displaying the action performed.

• Sharpen the Image

• Blur the Image (Programmable rectangular Seed)
• Programmable image Contrast and Brightness
• Rotate image by programmable angle
• Convolution (overloading: FFT, Other)
• Histogram
• Mean and Standard Deviation of image
 • PDF of a Signal acquired through ADC

Requirements:
H/W Requirements:

• 8 GB RAM
• 500GB/1TB HDD
• Web Camera
S/W Requirements:

• Latest version of 64 Bit Operating Systems Open Source Fedora-20.

• Windows 8 with Multicore CPU equivalent to Intel i5/7 4th generation
onwards supporting Virtualization and Multi-Threading

Theory:
• TIFF (Tag Image File Format)

TIFF (Tag Image File Format) is a common format for exchanging raster graphics (bitmap)
images between applications programs, including those used for scanner images. A TIFF file can
be identified as a file with a ".tiff" or ".tif" file name suffix. The TIFF format was developed in
1986 by an industry committee chaired by the Aldus Corporation (now part of Adobe Software).
Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard were among the contributors to the format. One of the most
common graphic image formats, TIFF files are commonly used in desktop publishing, faxing, 3-
D applications, and medical imaging applications.

TIFF files can be in any of several classes, including gray scale, color palette, or RGB full color,
and can include files with JPEG, LZW, or CCITT Group 4 standard run-length image
compression.

Compression
Baseline TIFF readers must handle the following three compression schemes:[8]

• No compression

• CCITT Group 3 1-Dimensional Modified Huffman RLE

• PackBits compression - a form of run-length encoding

TIFF Extensions

Many TIFF readers support tags additional to those in Baseline TIFF, but not every reader
supports every extension.As a consequence, Baseline TIFF features became the lowest common
denominator for TIFF format. Baseline TIFF features are extended in TIFF Extensions (defined
in the TIFF 6.0 Part 2 specification) but extensions can also be defined in private tags.

The TIFF Extensions are formally known as TIFF 6.0, Part 2: TIFF Extensions. Here are some
examples of TIFF extensions defined in TIFF 6.0 specification:

Compression

• CCITT T.4 bi-level encoding

• CCITT T.6 bi-level encoding

• LZW Compression scheme

• JPEG-based compression (TIFF compression scheme 7) uses the DCT (Discrete Cosine
Transform) introduced in 1974 by N. Ahmed, T.Natarajan and K.R. Rao; see Reference 1
in Discrete cosine transform. For more details see Adobe document.

Image types

• CMYK Images

• YCbCr Images

• HalftoneHints

• Tiled Images

• CIE L*a*b* Images

Many used TIFF images contain only uncompressed 32-bit CMYK or 24-bit RGB images.
Image Trees

A baseline TIFF file can contain a sequence of images (IFD). Typically, all the images are related
but represent different data, such as the pages of a document. In order to explicitly support
multiple views of the same data, the SubIFD tag was introduced. [17] This allows the images to be
defined along a tree structure. Each image can have a sequence of children, each child being
itself an image. The typical usage is to provide thumbnails or several versions of an image in
different color spaces.

Other extensions

According to TIFF 6.0 specification (Introduction), all TIFF files using proposed TIFF
extensions that are not approved by Adobe as part of Baseline TIFF (typically for specialized
uses of TIFF that do not fall within the domain of publishing or general graphics or picture
interchange) should be either not called TIFF files or should be marked some way so that they
will not be confused with mainstream TIFF files.
Private tags

Developers can apply for a block of "private tags" to enable them to include their own
proprietary information inside a TIFF file without causing problems for file interchange. TIFF
readers are required to ignore tags that they do not recognize, and a registered developer's private
tags are guaranteed not to clash with anyone else's tags or with the standard set of tags defined in
the specification.

TIFF Tags numbered 32768 or higher, sometimes called private tags, are reserved for
information meaningful only for some organization or for experiments with a new compression
scheme within TIFF. Upon request, the TIFF administrator (Adobe) will allocate and register one
or more private tags for an organization, to avoid possible conflicts with other organizations.
Organizations and developers are discouraged from choosing their own tag numbers, because
doing so could cause serious compatibility problems. However, if there is little or no chance that
TIFF files will escape a private environment, organizations and developers are encouraged to
consider using TIFF tags in the "reusable" 65000-65535 range. There is no need to contact
Adobe when using numbers in this range.
TIFF Compression Tag

The TIFF Tag 259 (010316) stores the information about the Compression method. The default
value is 1 = no compression.
Most of TIFF writers and TIFF readers support only some of existing TIFF compression
schemes. Here are some examples of used TIFF compression schemes:

Overloading
It allows functions in computer languages such as C++ and C# to have the same name but with
different parameters.

For example, rather than have a differently named function to sort each type of array
Sort_Int(Int Array Type) ;
Sort Doubles ( Double Array Type) ;

Instead use the same name with different parameter types.

Sort(Int Array Type ) ;
Sort( Double Array Type ) ;
The Complier is able to call the appropriate function depending on the parameter HYPERLINK
"http://cplus.about.com/od/introductiontoprogramming/g/typedefn.htm"type

Morphism
In programming languages, polymorphism means that some code or operations or objects behave
differently in different contexts.

For example, the + (plus) operator in C++:

4+5 <-- integer addition
3.14 + 2.0 <-- floating point addition
s1 + "bar" <-- string concatenation!

In C++, that type of polymorphism is called overloading.

Typically, when the term polymorphism is used with C++, however, it refers to using virtual
methods, which we'll discuss shortly.
Procedure:

• Make connection between local machine and web camera.

• Capture TIFF Image with Web camera remotely.

• Display captured image in Image Frame 1

 • Perform Menu Driven Operations on Image Frame 2

• Apply different operations on image like

•Sharpen the Image

•Blur the Image (Programmable rectangular Seed)
•Programmable image Contrast and Brightness
•Rotate image by programmable angle
•Convolution (overloading: FFT, Other)
•Histogram
•Mean and Standard Deviation of image
•PDF of a Signal acquired through ADC

• Analyze the both Images of frame 1and frame 2.

Mathematical Model:

1. Let S be a system that describes the Different Operations on Image.

S = {…..}

2. Identify input as I

S = {I,N,…..}

Ii € I

Ii = The inputs to the system such compressed TIFF image.

N =Number of Images

3. Identify Output as O.

S = {I,N,O,…..}

O = Depend upon the respective operation selected.

4. Identify the process as P.

S = {I,N,O, P,……}

P ={Ps,Pb, Pc,Pr }
 Ps = The process of sharpening the image.

Pb = The process of Bluring the image..

Pc = The process of Contrast and brightness on the image.

Pr = The process of rotating the image.

5. Identify success as Su

S = {I,N,O, P, Su, F……}

Su = Success is defined when Proper operation takes place as on requirement.

F = When improper operation is done on image.

6. Identify Initial condition Si

S = {I, N, O, P, Su, Si,….}

The user will capture image properly and will be able to do menu driven operations on Image

S=IUNUOUP

Observations:

• Sharpening of the Image is done

• Blur the Image (Programmable rectangular Seed) is done
• Programmable image Contrast and Brightness is done
• Rotate image by programmable angle is done
• Convolution (overloading: FFT, Other) is done
• Histogram is done
• Mean and Standard Deviation of image is done
• PDF of a Signal acquired through ADC is done

Results:
• Sharpen the Image
•
 • Blur the Image

• Contrast and Brightness of Image

Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO.2

Sampling a sign wave and reconstructing it using samples

Title: Sampling a sine wave and reconstructing it using samples

Objectives: To understand & implement Sampling of a sine wave and reconstructing it using
samples

Aim: Write a C++/ Python program to generate a sine wave of Programmable frequency and
capture samples at programmable frequency (Max up as per Nyquist Sampling Theorem) and
reconstruct the sine wave using collected Samples using ARM Cortex A5/A9. Use oscilloscope
to calculate signal frequency. Write your observations .Store a Data file in SAN (BIGDATA)

Requirements:
H/W Requirements:

• 8 GB RAM
• 500GB/1TB HDD
• ARM Cortex M4/A5

• Oscilloscope

• Signal Generator
S/W Requirements:

• Latest version of 64 Bit Operating Systems Open Source Fedora-20.

•
• Windows 8 with Multicore CPU equivalent to Intel i5/7 4th generation onwards
supporting Virtualization and Multi-Threading

Theory:

Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem:

In the field of digital signal proces HYPERLINK

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"sing, the sampling theorem is a
fundamental bridge between continuous signals (analog domain) and discrete signals (digital
domain). Strictly speaking, it only applies to a class of mathematical functions whose Fourier
transforms are zero outside of a finite region of frequencies (see Fig 1). The analytical extension
to actual signals, which can only approximate that condition, is provided by the discrete-time
Fourier transform, a version of the Poisson summation formula.  Intuitively we expect that when
one reduces a continuous function to a discrete sequence (called samples) and interpolates back
to a continuous function, the fidelity of the result depends on the density (or sample-rate) of the
original samples. The sampling theorem introduces the concept of a sample-rate that is sufficient
for perfect fidelity for the class of band limited functions; no actual "information" is lost during
the sampling process. It expresses the sample-rate in terms of the function's bandwidth. The
theorem also leads to a formula for the mathematically ideal interpolation algorithm.

Sampling
So what is sampling, and what does it do? Sampling is the process by which continuous time
signals, such as voltages or water levels or altitudes, are turned into discrete time signals. This is
usually done by translating the signal in question into a voltage, then using Tim Wescott 1
Westcott Design Services. What Nyquist Didn’t Say, and What to Do About It

Figure 1: The results of Sampling an analog to digital converter (ADC) to turn this continuous,
analog signal into a discrete, digital one. The ADC both samples1 the voltage and converts it to a
digital signal. The sampling process itself is easy to represent mathematically: given a
continuous signal x(t) to be sampled, and a sample interval T, the sampled version of x is simply
the continuous version of x taken at integer intervals of T:

Figure 1 shows the result of sampling a signal. The upper trace is the continuous-time signal,
while the lower trace shows the signal after being sampled once per millisecond. You may
wonder why the lower trace shows no signal between samples. This is because after sampling
there is no signal between samples — all the information that existed between the samples in the
original signal is irretrievably lost in the sampling process.
Aliasing
By ignoring anything that goes on between samples the sampling process throws away
information about the original signal2. This information loss must be taken into account during
system design. Most of the time, when folks are designing systems they are doing their analysis
in the frequency domain. When you are doing your design from this point of view you call this
effect aliasing, and you can easily express it and model it as a frequency domain phenomenon.
To understand aliasing, consider a signal that is a pure sinusoid, and look at it’s sampled version:

xk= cos (w k T) (2)

If you know the frequency of the original sine wave you’ll be able to exactly predict the sampled
signal. This is a concept is easy to grasp and apply. But the sampled signal won’t necessarily
seem to be at the same frequency as the original signal: there is an ambiguity in the signal
frequency equal to the sampling rate. This can be seen if you consider two signals, one at
frequency f and one at frequency f + 1=T. Using trigonometry, you can see that the sampled
version of these two signals will be exactly the same:

This means that given a pair of sampled versions of the signals, one of the lower frequency
sinusoid and one of the higher, you will have no way of distinguishing these signals from one
another. This ambiguity between two signals of different frequencies (or two components of one
signal) is aliasing, and it is happening all the time in the real world, anywhere that a real-world
signal is being sampled.
Figure 2 shows an example of aliasing. Two possible input sine waves are shown: one has a
frequency of 110Hz, the other has a frequency of 1110Hz. Both are sampled at 1000Hz.
The dots show the value of the sine waves at the sampling instants. As indicated by (1) these two
possible inputs both result in exactly the same output: after sampling you cannot tell these two
signals apart. It is rare, however, for real-world signals to resemble pure sine waves. In general,
real world continuous-time signals are more complex than simple sine waves. But we can use
what we learn about the system’s response to pure sine wave input to predict the behavior of a
system that is presented with a more complex signal. This is because more complex continuous-
time signals can be represented as sums of collections of sine waves at different frequencies and
amplitudes. For many systems we can break the signal down into it’s component parts, analyze
the system’s response to each part separately, then add these responses back together to get the
system’s response. When you break a signal down into its component sine waves, you see that
the signal’s energy is distributed as a function of frequency. This distribution of a signal’s energy
over frequency can be shown as a plot of spectral density vs. frequency, such as the solid plot in
the center of Figure 3. When you have a signal such as the one mentioned above, and you sample
it, aliasing will cause the signal components will be replicated endlessly. These replica signals
are the signal’s aliases. The spacing between these aliases will be even and equal to the sampling
rate. These aliases are indistinguishable from ‘real’ signals spaced an integer number of sampling
rates away: there is no way, once the signal is sampled, to know which parts of it are ‘real’ and
which parts are aliased. To compound our trouble, any real-world signal will have a power
spectrum that’s symmetrical around zero frequency, with ‘negative’ frequency components; after
sampling these components of the original signal will appear at frequencies that are lower than
the sample rate. It shows this effect. The central frequency density plot is the signal that’s being
sampled; the others are the signal’s aliases in sampled time. If you sampled this signal as shown,
then after sampling the signal energy would appear to “fold back” at 1=2 the sampling rate. This
can be used to demonstrate part of the Nyquist-Shannon sampling
theorem: if the original signal were band limited to 1=2 the sampling rate then after aliasing there
 would be no overlapping energy, and thus no ambiguity caused by aliasing

ARM® cortex®

ARM cortex-A5 processor is the smallest, lowest, and lowest power ARMv7 application
processor, ideal as a standalone processor within current and future generation of smart wearable
devices. It is capable of delivering the internet to the widest possible range of devices, from
smart devices like wearable, feature phones and low cost, entry-level smartphones, to a range of
pervasive embedded, consumer and industrial devices.

Overview

The Cortex-A5 processor is the most mature, most configurable, smallest and lowest power
ARMv7-A CPU. It provides a high-value migration path for existing ARM926EJ-
S™ and ARM1176JZ-S™ processor designs. It achieves better performance than
the ARM1176JZ-S processor, better power and energy efficiency than the ARM926EJ-S, and
100% Cortex- HYPERLINK "http://www.arm.com/products/processors/cortex-
a/index.php"A compatibility.

These processors deliver high-end features to power and cost-sensitive applications, featuring:

• Multiprocessing capability for scalable, energy-efficient performance

• Optional Floating Point Unit HYPERLINK

"http://www.arm.com/products/processors/technologies/vector-floating-point.php" (FPU) or NE
ON™ HYPERLINK "http://www.arm.com/products/processors/technologies/neon.php" units for
media and signal processing

• Full application compatibility with the Cortex-A8, Cortex-A9, and Classic ARM processors

• High performance memory system including caches and Memory Management Unit (MMU) 
Applications

The Cortex-A5 is designed for applications that require virtual memory management for high-
level operating systems within an extremely low power profile.

Product Type Application

 Entry-level Smart phones, Feature Phones, Mobile Payments,
Mobile
Audio

Home/Consumer Digital TV, DVD

Embedded/Industrial MPU, Smart Meters, IoT, Wearable Devices

Area and Energy Efficiency

The Cortex-A5 is the smallest and lowest power applications processor, delivering rich
functionality to high-performance wearable’s As ARM's most energy-efficient ARMv7
applications processor, the Cortex-A5 gets more work done per unit of energy. This corresponds
to longer battery life and less heat dissipation in wearable and mobile devices.

• The tiny size of Cortex-A5 offers the following advantages:

• Lowers manufacturing cost

• Allows more low-cost integration

• Reduces leakage

Compatibility

The Cortex-A5 processor provides full instruction and feature compatibility with the higher
performance Cortex-A8 and Cortex-A9 processors at one-third of the area and power. The
Cortex-A5 processor also maintains backwards application compatibility with Classic ARM
processors including the ARM926EJ-S, ARM1176JZ-S, and ARM7TDMI®.

Procedure:

• Generate a Sign wave of Programmable frequency.

• Capture samples at programmable frequency (Max up as per Nyquist Sampling

Theorem).

• Reconstruct the Sign wave using collected Samples using ARM Cortex A5/A9.

• Using oscilloscope calculate signal’s frequency.

 • Write observations.

Mathematical Model:

1. Let S be a system that describes the operations on sine wave.

S = {…..}

2. Identify input as I

S = {I,N,…..}

Ii € I

Ii = The inputs to the system such as frequency of sine wave

N= No. of samples.

3.Identify Output as O.

S = {I,N,O,…..}

O = Sine wave of specified frequency.

4. Identify the process as P.

S = {I,N, O, P,……}

P ={Ps,Pb, Pc,Pr }

Ps = The process of generation of sine wave.

Pb = The process of sampling of sine wave .

Pc = The process displaying sine wave.

Pr = The process of reconstructing of sine wave using samples.

5. Identify success as Su

S = {I, N, O, P, Su, F……}

Su = Success is defined when Proper operation takes place as on requirement.

F = When improper operation is done .

6. Identify Initial condition Si

S = {I, N, O, P, Su, Si,….}

The user will capture generate the sine wave of required frequency and pole-zero diagram.

S=IUNUOUP

Observations:

• The sine wave is generated of given programmable frequency.

• Using Samples reconstruction is done again.

Results:

Fig: Sine Wave

Fig : Sampling of sine wave.

Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO.3

To Generate a square wave of programmable frequency

Title:To Generate a square wave of programmable frequency

Objectives:To understand & generate a Square wave programmable frequency and also study
different function to generate Pole-Zero Diagram using multicore programming.

Aim:Write a C++/ Python program to generate a Square wave of programmable frequency.

Write a function to generate Pole-Zero Diagram using multicore
programming.
Requirements:
H/W Requirements:

• 8 GB RAM
• 500GB/1TB HDD
• Oscilloscope
• Signal Generator
S/W Requirements:

• Latest version of 64 Bit Operating Systems Open Source Fedora-20.

• Windows 8 with Multicore CPU equivalent to Intel i5/7 4th generation
onwards supporting Virtualization and Multi-Threading

Theory:
• Pole-Zero Diagrams:

In mathematics, signal processing and control theory, a pole–zero plot is a graphical

representation of a rational transfer function in the complex plane which helps to convey certain
properties of the system such as:

• Stability

• Causal system / anti HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticausal_system"-

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticausal_system"causal system

• Region of convergence (ROC)

• Minimum phase / non minimum phase

Stability:
In signal processing, specifically control theory, BIBO stability is a form
of stability for linear signals and systems that take inputs. BIBO stands for bounded-input,
bounded-output. If a system is BIBO stable, then the output will be bounded for every input to
the system that is bounded.

• A signal is bounded if there is a finite value   such that the signal magnitude never
exceeds  , that is

•  for discrete-time signals, or

•  for continuous-time signals.

Causal system / anticausal system:

An anti-causal system is a hypothetical system with outputs and internal states that

depend solely on future input values. Some textbooks and published research literature might
define an anti-causal system to be one that does not depend on past input values, allowing also
for the dependence on present input values. An causal system is a system that is not a causal
system, that is one that depends on some future input values and possibly on some input values
from the past or present. This is in contrast to a causal system which depends only on current
and/or past input values.[2] This is often a topic of control theory and digital signal
processing (DSP).Anti-causal systems are also casual, but the converse is not always true. An
causal system that has any dependence on past input values is not anti-causal.

An example of a causal signal processing is the production of an output signal that is

processed from another input signal that is recorded by looking at input values both forward and
backward in time from a predefined time arbitrarily denoted as the "present" time. (In reality, that
"present" time input, as well as the "future" time input values, have been recorded at some time
in the past, but conceptually it can be called the "present" or "future" input values in this a causal
process.) This type of processing cannot be done in real time as future input values are not yet
known, but is done after the input signal has been recorded and is post-processed.

Region of convergence (ROC)

In mathematics, the radius of convergence of a power series is the radius of the largest disk in

which the series HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_series"converges. It is
either a non-negative real number or ∞. When it is positive, the power series converges
absolutely and uniformly on compact sets inside the open disk of radius equal to the radius of
convergence, and it is the Taylor series of the analytic function to which it converges.

For a power series ƒ defined as:

Where,

a is a complex constant, the center of the disk of convergence,

cn is the nth complex coefficient, and
z is a complex variable.

The radius of convergence r is a nonnegative real number or ∞ such that the series converges if

And diverges if

In other words, the series converges if z is close enough to the center and diverges if it is too far
away. The radius of convergence specifies how close is close enough. On the boundary, that is,
where |z − a| = r, the behavior of the power series may be complicated, and the series may
converge for some values of z and diverge for others. The radius of convergence is infinite if the
series converges for all complex numbers z.

Minimum phase / non minimum phase

In control theory and signal processing, a linear, time-invariant system is said to be minimum-

phase if the system and its inverse are causal and stable.

For example, a discrete-time system with rational transfer function   can only

satisfy causality and stability requirements if all of its poles are inside the unit circle. However,
we are free to choose whether the zeros of the system are inside or outside the unit circle. A
system with rational transfer function is minimum-phase if all its zeros are also inside the unit
circle. Insight is given below as to why this system is called minimum-phase.

A pole-zero plots shows the location in the complex plane of the poles and zeros of
the transfer function of a dynamic system, such as a controller, compensator, sensor, equalizer,
filter, or communications channel. By convention, the poles of the system are indicated in the
plot by an X while the zeroes are indicated by a circle or O.
A pole-zero plots can represent either a continuous-time (CT) or a discrete-time (DT) system.
For a CT system, the plane in which the poles and zeros appear is the s plane of the Laplace
transform. In this context, the parameter s represents thecomplex angular frequency, which is the
domain of the CT transfer function. For a DT system, the plane is the z plane, where z represents
the domain of the Z-transform.

Continuous-time system
In general, a rational transfer function for a continuous-time LTI system has the form:

Where,

•  and   are polynomials in  ,

•  is the order of the numerator polynomial,

•  is the m-th coefficient of the numerator polynomial,

•  is the order of the denominator polynomial, and

•  is the n-th coefficient of the denominator polynomial.

Either M or N or both may be zero, but in real systems, it should be the case that ;
otherwise the gain would be unbounded at high frequencies.

Poles and zeros

• the zeros of the system are roots of the numerator polynomial:
such that
• the poles of the system are roots of the denominator polynomial:
such that .
Region of convergence
The region of convergence (ROC) for a given CT transfer function is a half-plane or vertical
strip, either of which contains no poles. In general, the ROC is not unique, and the particular
ROC in any given case depends on whether the system iscausal or anti-causal.
• If the ROC includes the imaginary axis, then the system is bounded-input, bounded-
output (BIBO) stable.
 • If the ROC extends rightward from the pole with the largest real-part (but not at infinity),
then the system is causal.

• If the ROC extends leftward from the pole with the smallest real-part (but not at negative
infinity), then the system is anti-causal.

The ROC is usually chosen to include the imaginary axis since it is important for most
practical systems to have BIBO stability.

Example

This system has no (finite) zeros and two poles:

and

Notice that these two poles are complex conjugates, which is the necessary and
sufficient condition to have real-valued coefficients in the differential equation
representing the system.

Discrete-time systems

In general, a rational transfer function for a discrete-time LTI system has the form:

Where,

•  is the order of the numerator polynomial,

•  is the m-th coefficient of the numerator polynomial,

•  is the order of the denominator polynomial, and

•  is the n-th coefficient of the denominator polynomial.

• Either M or N or both may be zero.

Poles and zeros

•  such that   are the zeros of the system

•  Such that   are the poles of the system.

Region of convergence

The region of convergence (ROC) for a given DT transfer function is a disk or annulus which

contains no poles. In general, the ROC is not unique, and the particular ROC in any given case
depends on whether the system is causal or anti-causal.

• If the ROC includes the unit circle, then the system is bounded-input, bounded-output
(BIBO) stable.

• If the ROC extends outward from the pole with the largest (but not infinite) magnitude,
then the system has a right-sided impulse response. If the ROC extends outward from the
pole with the largest magnitude and there is no pole at infinity, then the system is causal.

• If the ROC extends inward from the pole with the smallest (nonzero) magnitude, then the
system is anti-causal.

• The ROC is usually chosen to include the unit circle since it is important for most
practical systems to have BIBO stability.
Example

If   and   are completely factored, their solution can be easily plotted in the z-plane.
For example, given the following transfer function:

The only (finite) zero is located at:  , and the two poles are located at: 

, where j is the imaginary unit.

The pole–zero plot would be:

• What Is a Multicore?

A multicore is an architecture design that places multiple processors on a single die (computer
chip). Each processor is called a core. As chip capacity increased, placing multiple processors on
a single chip became practical. These designs are known as Chip Multiprocessors (CMPs)
because they allow for single chip multiprocessing. Multicore is simply a popular name for CMP
or single chip multiprocessors. The concept of single chip multiprocessing is not new, and chip
manufacturers have been exploring the idea of multiple cores on a uniprocessor since the early
1990s. Recently, the CMP has become the preferred method of improving overall system
performance. This is a departure from the approach of increasing the clock frequency or
processor speed to achieve gains in overall system performance. Increasing the clock frequency
has started to hit its limits in terms of cost - effectiveness. Higher frequency requires more
power, making it harder and more expensive to cool the system. This also affects sizing and
packaging considerations. So, instead of trying to make the processor faster to gain performance,
the response is now just to add more processors. The simple realization that this approach is
better has prompted the multicore revolution. Multicore architectures are now center stage in
terms of improving overall system performance. For software developers who are familiar with
multiprocessing, multicore development will be familiar. From a logical point of view, there is
no real significant difference between programming for multiple processors in separate packages
and programming for multiple processors contained in a single package on a single chip. There
may be performance differences, however, because the new CMPs are using advances in bus
architectures and in connections between processors. In some circumstances, this may cause an
application that was originally written for multiple processors to run faster when executed on a
CMP. Aside from the potential performance gains, the design and implementation are very
similar. We discuss minor differences throughout the book. For developers who are only familiar
with sequential programming and single core development, the multicore approach offers many
new software development paradigms.

Multicore Architectures
CMPs come in multiple flavors: two processors (dual core), four processors (quad core), and
eight processors (octa - core) configurations. Some configurations are multithreaded; some are
not. There areseveral variations in how cache and memory are approached in the new CMPs. The
approaches toprocessor - to - processor communication vary among different implementations.
The CMP implementationsfrom the major chip manufacturers each handle the I/O bus and the
Front Side Bus (FSB) differentlyAgain, most of these differences are not visible when looking
strictly at the logical view of an applicationthat is being designed to take advantage of a
multicore architecture. Figure 1 - 1 illustrates three commonconfigurations that support
multiprocessing.
 • Square wave of programmable frequency
Square wave
A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform(which can be represented as an infinite
summation of sinusoidal waves), in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between
fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. The
transition between minimum to maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave; this is not
realizable in physical systems. Square waves are often encountered in electronics and signal
processing. Its stochastic counterpart is a two-state trajectory. A similar but not necessarily
symmetrical wave, with arbitrary durations at minimum and maximum, is called a rectangular
wave (of which the square wave is a special case).

•
• Figure 2. Square waves

Figure 3.Square wave of programmable frequency

FIG. 3 shows again generator 13 generating square-wave signals at a programmable frequency,
decoder 14 associated with ROM 15, and the DAC 17. According to the invention, the output
signal S of DAC 17 is filtered by a switched-capacitor filter 20 with a control frequency, or
sampling frequency that is proportional to the frequency of the sine wave signal to be generated.
Thus, the cut-of frequency F0 of the switched-capacitor filter 20 is proportional to the frequency
of the sine wave signal. The components of filter 20 are selected so that the cut-off frequency F0
is slightly higher than the frequency of the sine wave signal. A signal provided by the
programmable generator 13 is used as the control signal of filter 20.In order that filter 20
operates correctly, the frequency of its control signal must be high with respect to the frequency
of signal S to be filtered, the frequency of signal S being substantially equal to the cut-off
frequency F0. To achieve this purpose, signal B8, which has the highest frequency, is chosen as a
control signal from among signals B8—Bll provided by generator 13. In addition, instead of
providing the outputs of the programmable generator 13 directly to decoder 14, the output signal
B11, which has the lowest frequency, is provided to a counter 22. Counter 22 provides values to
decoder 14 at a frequency sufficiently low with respect to the control frequency of filter 20. In
the given example, with a 4_bit (Bl2-Bl5) counter 22, a sufficient ratio (128) is obtained between
the frequency of the control signal B8 and the frequency of signal B15, which is the frequency of
the generated signal.
Mathematical Model:

1. Let S be a system that describes the operations on square wave.

S = {…..}

2. Identify input as I

S = {I,…..}

Ii € I

Ii = The inputs to the system such as frequency of square wave.

3. Identify Output as O.

S = {I,O,…..}

O = Square wave of specified frequency. And pole-Zero diagram.

4. Identify the process as P.

S = {I, O, P,……}

P ={Ps,Pb, Pc,Pr }

Ps = The process of generation of square wave.

Pb = The process of plotting of pole-zero diagram using multicore programming.

Pc = The process displaying square wave.

Pr = The process of displaying pole-zero diagram.

5. Identify success as Su

S = {I,O, P, Su, F……}

Su = Success is defined when Proper operation takes place as on requirement.

F = When improper operation is done .

6. Identify Initial condition Si

 S = {I, O, P, Su, Si,….}

The user will capture generate the square wave of required frequency and pole-zero diagram.

S=IUOUP

Observations:

• The square wave is generated of given programmable frequency.

• Using proper function pole-zero diagrams is plotted.

Results:

• Fig: Square Wave

• Fig. Pole-Zero Diagram

•
Conclusion:

Experiment No. 4

To capture a signal and perform various operations for analyzing it.

Title:To capture a signal and perform various operations for analyzing it.

Objectives: To generate a square/sine wave of programmable frequency and emulate a RC

filter and understanding the response curves.

Aim: Write a C++/ Python program to capture signal using ARM

Cortex A5/A9/M4 ADC and signal generator, generate/construct a Square/Sine wave of
programmable frequency and voltage Draw Voltage (y-axis) and Time (x-axis) graph. Write a
function to emulate simple RC filter with R being Trim-pot(GUI meter) of 10K and C = 0.1
microFarad. Write a program to generate a Voltage-Time response curve with reference to
change in R. Draw the resultant outcome graph. Store the data in SAN (BIGDATA)
Requirements:

H/W Requirements:

• 8 GB RAM

• 500GB/1TB HDD

• Signal Generator

• ARM Cortex A5.

 • SAN

S/W Requirements:

• Latest version of 64 Bit Operating Systems Open Source Fedora-20.

• Windows 8 with Multicore CPU equivalent to Intel i5/7 4th generation
onwards supporting Virtualization and Multi-Threading

Theory:

• ARM

Conceptually the Cortex-M4 is a Cortex-M3 plus DSP Instructions, and optional floating-point
unit (FPU). If a core contains an FPU, it is known as a Cortex-M4F, otherwise it is a Cortex-M4.
Key features of the Cortex-M4 core are:

• ARMv7E-M architecture

• Instruction sets

• Thumb (entire)

• Thumb-2 (entire)

• 1-cycle 32-bit hardware multiply, 2-12 cycle 32-bit hardware divide, saturated
math support

• DSP extension: Single cycle 16/32-bit MAC, single cycle dual 16-bit MAC, 8/16-
bit SIMD arithmetic

• 3-stage pipeline with branch speculation

• 1 to 240 physical interrupts, plus NMI

• 12 cycle interrupt latency

 • Integrated sleep modes

Silicon options:

• Optional Floating-Point Unit (FPU): single-precision only IEEE-754 compliant. This is

called the FPv4-SP extension.

• Optional Memory Protection Unit (MPU): 0 or 8 regions

C h ips

The following microcontrollers are based on the Cortex-M4 core:

• Atmel SAM4L, SAM4N, SAM4S

• Freescale Kinetis K

The following microcontrollers are based on the Cortex-M4F (M4 + FPU) core:

• Atmel SAM4C (dual core), SAM4E, SAMG

• Energy Micro EFM32 Wonder

• Freescale Kinetis K

• Infineon XMC4000

• NXP LPC4000, LPC4300(one Cortex-M4F + one Cortex-M0)

• STMicroelectronics STM32 F3, F4

• Texas Instruments LM4F, TM4C

• Spansion FM4F

• Toshiba TX04

The following chips have either a Cortex-M4 or M4F as a secondary core:

• Freescale Vybrid VF6 (one Cortex-A5 + one Cortex-M4F)

• Texas Instruments OMAP 5 (one dual-core Cortex-A15 + two Cortex-M4)

Square wave
A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform (which can be represented as an infinite
summation of sinusoidal waves), in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between
fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. The
transition between minimum to maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave; this is not
realizable in physical systems. Square waves are often encountered in electronics and signal
processing. Its stochastic counterpart is a two-state trajectory. A similar but not necessarily
symmetrical wave, with arbitrary durations at minimum and maximum, is called a rectangular
wave (of which the square wave is a special case).

Square waves are universally encountered in digital switching circuits and are naturally
generated by binary (two-level) logic devices. They are used as timing references or "clock
signals", because their fast transitions are suitable for triggering synchronous logic circuits at
precisely determined intervals. However, as the frequency-domain graph shows, square waves
contain a wide range of harmonics; these can generate electromagnetic radiation or pulses of
current that interfere with other nearby circuits, causing noise or errors. To avoid this problem in
very sensitive circuits such as precision analog-to-digital converters, sine waves are used instead
of square waves as timing references.

In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis
for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect
used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly
resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.

The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation.
It is named after the function sine, of which it is the graph. It occurs often in pure and applied
mathematics, as well as physics, engineering, signal processing and many other fields. Its most
basic form as a function of time (t) is:

The sine wave is important in physics because it retains its wave shape when added to another
sine wave of the same frequency and arbitrary phase and magnitude. It is the only periodic
waveform that has this property. This property leads to its importance in Fourier analysis and
makes it acoustically unique.

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated,
block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to enhance storage devices, such as disk
arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like
locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage
devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network (LAN) by other devices.
The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption
across both enterprise and small to medium sized business environments.

A SAN does not provide file abstraction, only block-level operations. However, file systems built
on top of SANs do provide file-level access, and are known as SAN filesystems or shared disk file
systems.

Sharing storage usually simplifies storage administration and adds flexibility since cables and
storage devices do not have to be physically moved to shift storage from one server to another.

Other benefits include the ability to allow servers to boot from the SAN itself. This allows for a
quick and easy replacement of faulty servers since the SAN can be reconfigured so that a
replacement server can use the LUN of the faulty server. While this area of technology is still
new, many view it as being the future of the enterprise datacenter.

SANs also tend to enable more effective disaster recovery processes. A SAN could span a distant
location containing a secondary storage array. This enables storage replication either
implemented by disk array controllers, by server software, or by specialized SAN devices. Since
IP WANs are often the least costly method of long-distance transport, the Fibre Channel over IP
(FCIP) and iSCSI protocols have been developed to allow SAN extension over IP networks. The
traditional physical SCSI layer could only support a few meters of distance - not nearly enough
to ensure business continuance in a disaster.

The economic consolidation of disk arrays has accelerated the advancement of several features
including I/O caching, snapshotting, and volume cloning (Business Continuance Volumes or
BCVs).

Procedure:-

• Generate a signal using signal generator.

• Construct a square wave of signal frequency.

• Plot the signal on a VT

 • Emulate a RC filter and trim by 10k

• Again plot the signal on VT.

• Store the observations in a SAN.

Mathematical Model:

1. Let S be a system that describes the generation of signal along with an emulated signal.

S = {…..}

2. Identify input as I

S = {I,N,…..}

Ii € I

Ii = The inputs to the system such as a square or sine wave of programmable

frequency.

N =Number of waves

3. Identify Output as O.

S = {I,N,O,…..}

O = VT response curve i.e. Graph of voltage (y-axis) and Time (x-axis) graph

4. Identify the process as P.

S = {I,N,O, P,……}

P ={Ps,Pb, Pc,Pr }

Ps = The process of capturing signals.

Pb = The process of plotting signals on VT.

Pc = The process of using a RC filter.

Pr = The process of storing observations on SAN.

5. Identify success as Su
 S = {I,N,O, P, Su, F……}

Su = Success is defined when Proper operation takes place as on requirement.

F = When improper operation is done .

6. Identify Initial condition Si

S = {I, N, O, P, Su, Si,….}

The user will capture signal and filter it and compare it while storing it in SAN.

S=IUNUOUP

Observations:

• Signal is generated of programmable frequency.

• RC filter is able to trim by 10K
• VT curve shows the changes in R
• Data is stored in SAN
•
•

Results:

• Fig: VT curve before RC filter

•
 •

• Fig: VT curve after RC filter

Conclusion:

EXPERIMENT NO.5

To grab Image from camera and apply aged detection algorithm

Title:To grab Image from camera and apply edge detection algorithm.

Objectives: To understand & implement various image processing operations on a remotely

captured image.

Aim:Write a Python program to grab the image from Camera and apply the edge detection
algorithm(overloaded with Sobel variants, Others) to find the edges use BBB / ARM Cortex
A5/A9/M4 Mobile Boards. Store the Images in SAN (for BIGDATA analitics)

Requirements:

H/W Requirements:

• 8 GB RAM

• 500GB/1TB HDD

• Web Camera
S/W Requirements:

• Latest version of 64 Bit Operating Systems Open Source Fedora-20.

• Windows 8 with Multicore CPU equivalent to Intel i5/7 4th generation
onwards supporting Virtualization and Multi-Threading

Theory:

The edges extracted from a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional scene can be

classified as either viewpoint dependent or viewpoint independent. A viewpoint independent
edge typically reflects inherent properties of the three-dimensional objects, such as surface
markings and surface shape. A viewpoint dependent edge may change as the viewpoint changes,
and typically reflects the geometry of the scene, such as objects occluding one another.
A typical edge might for instance be the border between a block of red color and a block of
yellow. In contrast a line (as can be extracted by a ridge detector) can be a small number of
pixels of a different color on an otherwise unchanging background. For a line, there may
therefore usually be one edge on each side of the line.
Although certain literature has considered the detection of ideal step edges, the edges obtained
from natural images are usually not at all ideal step edges. Instead they are normally affected by
one or several of the following effects:
• focal blur caused by a finite depth-of-field and finite point spread function.
• penumbral blur caused by shadows created by light sources of non-zero radius.
• shading at a smooth object
A number of researchers have used a Gaussian smoothed step edge (an error function) as the
simplest extension of the ideal step edge model for modeling the effects of edge blur in practical
applications. Thus, a one-dimensional image which has exactly one edge placed at may
be modeled as:
At the left side of the edge, the intensity is , and right of the edge it is
. The scale parameter is called the blur scale of the edge.
To illustrate why edge detection is not a trivial task, consider the problem of detecting edges in
the following one-dimensional signal. Here, we may intuitively say that there should be an edge
between the 4th and 5th pixels.

14 14
5 7 6 4 152
8 9

If the intensity difference were smaller between the 4th and the 5th pixels and if the intensity
differences between the adjacent neighboring pixels were higher, it would not be as easy to say
that there should be an edge in the corresponding region. Moreover, one could argue that this
case is one in which there are several edges.

14 14
5 7 6 41 113
8 9

Hence, to firmly state a specific threshold on how large the intensity change between two
neighboring pixels must be for us to say that there should be an edge between these pixels is not
always simple. Indeed, this is one of the reasons why edge detection may be a non-trivial
problem unless the objects in the scene are particularly simple and the illumination conditions
can be well controlled (see for example, the edges extracted from the image with the girl above).

Approaches
There are many methods for edge detection, but most of them can be grouped into two
categories, search-based and zero-crossing based. The search-based methods detect edges by first
computing a measure of edge strength, usually a first-order derivative expression such as the
gradient magnitude, and then searching for local directional maxima of the gradient magnitude
using a computed estimate of the local orientation of the edge, usually the gradient direction. The
zero-crossing based methods search for zero crossings in a second-order derivative expression
computed from the image in order to find edges, usually the zero-crossings of the Laplacian or
the zero-crossings of a non-linear differential expression. As a pre-processing step to edge
detection, a smoothing stage, typically Gaussian smoothing, is almost always applied (see also
noise reduction).
The edge detection methods that have been published mainly differ in the types of smoothing
filters that are applied and the way the measures of edge strength are computed. As many edge
detection methods rely on the computation of image gradients, they also differ in the types of
filters used for computing gradient estimates in the x- and y-directions.
A survey of a number of different edge detection methods can be found in (Ziou and Tabbone
1998) see also the encyclopedia articles on edge detection in Encyclopedia of Mathematics and
Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Engineering.
John Canny considered the mathematical problem of deriving an optimal smoothing filter given
the criteria of detection, localization and minimizing multiple responses to a single edge. He
showed that the optimal filter given these assumptions is a sum of four exponential terms. He
also showed that this filter can be well approximated by first-order derivatives of Gaussians.
Canny also introduced the notion of non-maximum suppression, which means that given the pre
smoothing filters, edge points are defined as points where the gradient magnitude assumes a
local maximum in the gradient direction. Looking for the zero crossing of the 2nd derivative
along the gradient direction was first proposed by Haralick.It took less than two decades to find a
modern geometric variation meaning for that operator that links it to the Marr–Hildreth (zero
crossing of the Laplacian) edge detector. That observation was presented by Ron Kimmel and
Alfred Bruckstein.[10]
Although his work was done in the early days of computer vision, the Canny edge detector
(including its variations) is still a state-of-the-art edge detector. [11] Unless the preconditions are
particularly suitable, it is hard to find an edge detector that performs significantly better than the
Canny edge detector.
The Canny-Deriche detector was derived from similar mathematical criteria as the Canny edge
detector, although starting from a discrete viewpoint and then leading to a set of recursive filters
for image smoothing instead of exponential filters or Gaussian filters.[12]
The differential edge detector described below can be seen as a reformulation of Canny's method
from the viewpoint of differential invariants computed from a scale space representation leading
to a number of advantages in terms of both theoretical analysis and sub-pixel implementation.

Oth er firs t-ord er meth od s

Different gradient operators can be applied to estimate image gradients from the input image or a
smoothed version of it. The simplest approach is to use central differences:

corresponding to the application of the following filter masks to the image data:

The well-known and earlier Sobel operator is based on the following filters:

Given such estimates of first-order derivatives, the gradient magnitude is then computed as:

while the gradient orientation can be estimated as

Other first-order difference operators for estimating image gradient have been proposed in the
Prewitt operator, Roberts cross and Frei-Chen.
It is possible to extend filters dimension to avoid the issue of recognizing edge in low SNR
image. The cost of this operation is loss in terms of resolution. Examples are Extended Prewitt
7x7 and Abdou

T h res h old in g and l in k in g

Once we have computed a measure of edge strength (typically the gradient magnitude), the next
stage is to apply a threshold, to decide whether edges are present or not at an image point. The
lower the threshold, the more edges will be detected, and the result will be increasingly
susceptible to noise and detecting edges of irrelevant features in the image. Conversely a high
threshold may miss subtle edges, or result in fragmented edges.
If the edge thresholding is applied to just the gradient magnitude image, the resulting edges will
in general be thick and some type of edge thinning post-processing is necessary. For edges
detected with non-maximum suppression however, the edge curves are thin by definition and the
edge pixels can be linked into edge polygon by an edge linking (edge tracking) procedure. On a
discrete grid, the non-maximum suppression stage can be implemented by estimating the
gradient direction using first-order derivatives, then rounding off the gradient direction to
multiples of 45 degrees, and finally comparing the values of the gradient magnitude in the
estimated gradient direction.
A commonly used approach to handle the problem of appropriate thresholds for thresholding is
by using thresholding with hysteresis. This method uses multiple thresholds to find edges. We
begin by using the upper threshold to find the start of an edge. Once we have a start point, we
then trace the path of the edge through the image pixel by pixel, marking an edge whenever we
are above the lower threshold. We stop marking our edge only when the value falls below our
lower threshold. This approach makes the assumption that edges are likely to be in continuous
curves, and allows us to follow a faint section of an edge we have previously seen, without
meaning that every noisy pixel in the image is marked down as an edge. Still, however, we have
the problem of choosing appropriate thresholding parameters, and suitable thresholding values
may vary over the image.

E d ge th in n in g
Edge thinning is a technique used to remove the unwanted spurious points on the edges in an
image. This technique is employed after the image has been filtered for noise (using median,
Gaussian filter etc.), the edge operator has been applied (like the ones described above) to detect
the edges and after the edges have been smoothed using an appropriate threshold value. This
removes all the unwanted points and if applied carefully, results in one pixel thick edge elements.

Advantages:
• Sharp and thin edges lead to greater efficiency in object recognition.
• If Hough transforms are used to detect lines and ellipses, then thinning could give much
better results.
• If the edge happens to be the boundary of a region, then thinning could easily give the
image parameters like perimeter without much algebra.
There are many popular algorithms used to do this, one such is described below:
• Choose a type of connectivity, like 8, 6 or 4.
 • 8 connectivity is preferred, where all the immediate pixels surrounding a particular pixel
are considered.
• Remove points from North, south, east and west.
• Do this in multiple passes, i.e. after the north pass, use the same semi processed image in
the other passes and so on.
The number of passes across direction should be chosen according to the level of accuracy
desired.

Second-order approaches to edge detection

Some edge-detection operators are instead based upon second-order derivatives of the intensity.
This essentially captures the rate of change in the intensity gradient. Thus, in the ideal continuous
case, detection of zero-crossings in the second derivative captures local maxima in the gradient.
The early Marr-Hildreth operator is based on the detection of zero-crossings of the Laplacian
operator applied to a Gaussian-smoothed image. It can be shown, however, that this operator will
also return false edges corresponding to local minima of the gradient magnitude. Moreover, this
operator will give poor localization at curved edges. Hence, this operator is today mainly of
historical interest.

Differential edge detection

A more refined second-order edge detection approach which automatically detects edges with
sub-pixel accuracy, uses the following differential approach of detecting zero-crossings of the
second-order directional derivative in the gradient direction:
Following the differential geometric way of expressing the requirement of non-maximum
suppression proposed by Lindeberg,[4] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_detection"[13] let us introduce at
every image point a local coordinate system , with the -direction parallel to the gradient
direction. Assuming that the image has been pre-smoothed by Gaussian smoothing and a
scale space representationat scale has been computed, we can require that the
gradient magnitude of the scale space representation, which is equal to the first-order directional
derivative in the -direction , should have its first order directional derivative in the -
direction equal to zero

while the second-order directional derivative in the -direction of should be negative, i.e.,

Written out as an explicit expression in terms of local partial derivatives , ... , this
edge definition can be expressed as the zero-crossing curves of the differential invariant

that satisfy a sign-condition on the following differential invariant

where , ... denote partial derivatives computed from a scale space

representationobtained by smoothing the original image with a Gaussian kernel. In this way, the
edges will be automatically obtained as continuous curves with sub-pixel accuracy. Hysteresis
thresholding can also be applied to these differential and subpixel edge segments.
In practice, first-order derivative approximations can be computed by central differences as
described above, while second-order derivatives can be computed from the scale space
representationaccording to:

corresponding to the following filter masks:

Higher-order derivatives for the third-order sign condition can be obtained in an analogous
fashion.

Ph as e con gru en cy- bas ed ed ge d etect ion

A recent development in edge detection techniques takes a frequency domain approach to finding
edge locations. Phase congruency (also known as phase coherence) methods attempt to find
locations in an image where all sinusoids in the frequency domain are in phase. These locations
will generally correspond to the location of a perceived edge, regardless of whether the edge is
represented by a large change in intensity in the spatial domain. A key benefit of this technique is
that it responds strongly to Mach bands, and avoids false positives typically found around roof
edges. A roof edge, is a discontinuity in the first order derivative of a grey-level profile.[14]

Conceptually the Cortex-M4 is a Cortex-M3 plus DSP Instructions, and optional floating-point
unit (FPU). If a core contains an FPU, it is known as a Cortex-M4F, otherwise it is a Cortex-M4.
Key features of the Cortex-M4 core are:

• ARMv7E-M architecture

• Instruction sets

• Thumb (entire)

• Thumb-2 (entire)

• 1-cycle 32-bit hardware multiply, 2-12 cycle 32-bit hardware divide, saturated
math support

• DSP extension: Single cycle 16/32-bit MAC, single cycle dual 16-bit MAC, 8/16-
bit SIMD arithmetic

• 3-stage pipeline with branch speculation

 • 1 to 240 physical interrupts, plus NMI

• 12 cycle interrupt latency

• Integrated sleep modes

Silicon options:

• Optional Floating-Point Unit (FPU): single-precision only IEEE-754 compliant. This is

called the FPv4-SP extension.

• Optional Memory Protection Unit (MPU): 0 or 8 regions

Chips

The following microcontrollers are based on the Cortex-M4 core:

• Atmel SAM4L, SAM4N, SAM4S

• Freescale Kinetis K

The following microcontrollers are based on the Cortex-M4F (M4 + FPU) core:

• Atmel SAM4C (dual core), SAM4E, SAMG

• Energy Micro EFM32 Wonder

• Freescale Kinetis K

• Infineon XMC4000

• NXP LPC4000, LPC4300(one Cortex-M4F + one Cortex-M0)

• STMicroelectronics STM32 F3, F4

• Texas Instruments LM4F, TM4C

• Spansion FM4F

• Toshiba TX04

The following chips have either a Cortex-M4 or M4F as a secondary core:

• Freescale Vybrid VF6 (one Cortex-A5 + one Cortex-M4F)

 • Texas Instruments OMAP 5 (one dual-core Cortex-A15 + two Cortex-M4)

Square wave
A square wave is a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform (which can be represented as an infinite
summation of sinusoidal waves), in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between
fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. The
transition between minimum to maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave; this is not
realizable in physical systems. Square waves are often encountered in electronics and signal
processing. Its stochastic counterpart is a two-state trajectory. A similar but not necessarily
symmetrical wave, with arbitrary durations at minimum and maximum, is called a rectangular
wave (of which the square wave is a special case).

Square waves are universally encountered in digital switching circuits and are naturally
generated by binary (two-level) logic devices. They are used as timing references or "clock
signals", because their fast transitions are suitable for triggering synchronous logic circuits at
precisely determined intervals. However, as the frequency-domain graph shows, square waves
contain a wide range of harmonics; these can generate electromagnetic radiation or pulses of
current that interfere with other nearby circuits, causing noise or errors. To avoid this problem in
very sensitive circuits such as precision analog-to-digital converters, sine waves are used instead
of square waves as timing references.

In musical terms, they are often described as sounding hollow, and are therefore used as the basis
for wind instrument sounds created using subtractive synthesis. Additionally, the distortion effect
used on electric guitars clips the outermost regions of the waveform, causing it to increasingly
resemble a square wave as more distortion is applied.

The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation.
It is named after the function sine, of which it is the graph. It occurs often in pure and applied
mathematics, as well as physics, engineering, signal processing and many other fields. Its most
basic form as a function of time (t) is:

The sine wave is important in physics because it retains its wave shape when added to another
sine wave of the same frequency and arbitrary phase and magnitude. It is the only periodic
waveform that has this property. This property leads to its importance in Fourier analysis and
makes it acoustically unique.
A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated,
block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to enhance storage devices, such as disk
arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like
locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage
devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network (LAN) by other devices.
The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption
across both enterprise and small to medium sized business environments.

A SAN does not provide file abstraction, only block-level operations. However, file systems built
on top of SANs do provide file-level access, and are known as SAN filesystems or shared disk file
systems.

Sharing storage usually simplifies storage administration and adds flexibility since cables and
storage devices do not have to be physically moved to shift storage from one server to another.

Other benefits include the ability to allow servers to boot from the SAN itself. This allows for a
quick and easy replacement of faulty servers since the SAN can be reconfigured so that a
replacement server can use the LUN of the faulty server. While this area of technology is still
new, many view it as being the future of the enterprise datacenter.

SANs also tend to enable more effective disaster recovery processes. A SAN could span a distant
location containing a secondary storage array. This enables storage replication either
implemented by disk array controllers, by server software, or by specialized SAN devices. Since
IP WANs are often the least costly method of long-distance transport, the Fibre Channel over IP
(FCIP) and iSCSI protocols have been developed to allow SAN extension over IP networks. The
traditional physical SCSI layer could only support a few meters of distance - not nearly enough
to ensure business continuance in a disaster.

The economic consolidation of disk arrays has accelerated the advancement of several features
including I/O caching, snap shotting, and volume cloning (Business Continuance Volumes or
BCVs).

Procedure:
 • To grab the image from Camera.

• Apply the edge detection algorithm on image

• Store the Images in SAN.

Mathematical Model:

1. Let S be a system that describes that grabs the image and applies edge detection algorithm on
it..

S = {…..}

2. Identify input as I

S = {I,N,…..}

Ii € I

Ii = The inputs to the system such as a a image

N =Number of image

3. Identify Output as O.

S = {I,N,O,…..}

O = Edges of the grabbed image.

4. Identify the process as P.

S = {I,N,O, P,……}

P ={Ps,Pb, Pc,Pr }

Ps = The process of capturing image.

Pb = The process of applying edge detection algorithm

Pc = The process of displaying output image

Pr = The process of storing image on SAN.

5. Identify success as Su
 S = {I,N,O, P, Su, F……}

Su = Success is defined when Proper operation takes place as on requirement.

F = When improper operation is done .

6. Identify Initial condition Si

S = {I, N, O, P, Su, Si,….}

The user will capture image and finds edges using edge detection algorithm and store it in SAN.

S=IUNUOUP

Observation:

• Capturing the image successful.

• Edge detection algorithm detects all the edges of the images.

Results:

Conclusion: