INDEX

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1
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Ecosystems Around us 1

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21 Changes in Ecosystems 12

31 Waste and its Management 24

41 Biodiversity and Classification 36

51 Ecosystem Services - Food Production 47

61 Ecosystems Within Us - Health 60

71 Cell, Tissues and Organs 74

18 Life Processes Food: Synthesis and digestion 87

91 Respiration 100

10 1 Transportation 113

111 Excretion 126

12 1 Control and Coordination 139

13 1 Growth, development and Reproduction 152

14 1 Evolution and Heredity 166

 CHAPTER

1 Ecosystems Around us
The environment includes both living and non-living components as well as their interactions. In
order to survive in the environment all organisms must grow and reproduce. For this organisms must get
matter and energy from the environment. Their life is controlled by the environment and in turn they
influence the environment.

❋ Do organisms live in isolation? Why? Why not?

❋ Which conditions helps the camel lives in deserts, and penguins lives in cold conditions?

❋ What will happens to the herbivores and carnivores? If plants vanish from the earth.
The living organisms such as producers, consumers and decomposers forms food chain and web
by their food relations. They are present in all ecosystems. Living organisms has adaptations to adjust
themselves to diverse and distinct changes to their surroundings. Biosphere includes organisms living in
an area and their surroundings.
Let us discuss about the biotic, abiotic factors and their interactions in detail to study about the
biosphere.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains about Habitat, Ecosystem and Biosphere.
✰ Establishes relationship between Biotic and Abiotic components of an Ecosystem.
✰ Appreciates the role of decomposers in recycling of nutrients.
✰ Draws the Diagrams of food chain and food web.
✰ Prepares flow charts of the flow of energy in the Ecosystem.
✰ Gives reason for the formation of different type of Ecosystems.
✰ Appreciates the living organisms for their struggle for existance by having adaptations.

Earth's subsystems: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Biosphere and Atmosphere

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1.1 Ecosystem
1.1.1 Habitat and Ecosystem
❋ What do we mean when we say habitat?
❋ What do we call as an ecosystem?
We resides in house. House is our habitat, as well as pond is habitat for fishes, tree is habitat for
crow and desert is habitat for camel. Does forest, river and oceans are also habitats, which
contains many plants and animals?
Habitat: A Habitat is the type of natural environment and suitable place for organisms to live. Habitat
provides food, shelter, protection and conditions for reproduction of an organism.
Ecosystem: The living community together with the physical environment forms an interacting system
called the Ecosystem. An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. Large grassland
or a forest, a pond, a village, an aquarium can all be regarded as ecosystems.
The word ecosystem was first used in 1935 by A.G. Tansley (a British Botanist and Ecologist) to
describe a basic unit of nature. Tansley coined the word as reduction of the term ‘‘Ecological system’’
to Ecosystem. Now we can say that habitat is a part of ecosystem.

❋ What are the components of a dynamic ecosystem?

1.1.2 Components of Ecosystem

The Hyderabad Biriyani (Pride of Telangana) which is fabled all over world for its amazing taste,
is made of Basmathi Rice, vegetables, meat products, oil and different spices. The raw materials that
you will require to make this luscious biriyani comes from different plants and animals. Similarly, the
utensil that is used to make this biriyani can be made up of clay or metal. List out the components and
fill the table which are involved in the preparation of Biryani.

Sl.No Items What it is made up of Source Biotic/ Abiotic

1 oil Ground nut plant Biotic
2
3
4

Now pause for a moment here and think, just to make one meal of biriyani you must require so many
things around you, what about all the activities that you do in your daily life?
The interacting components of an ecosystem are divided in to Biotic and Abiotic factors.
Abiotic components are the non-living factors in the environment of an ecosystem. Ex: Air, Water,
Temperature, Sunlight, Soil etc.

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 Biotic components are the living organisms in an ecosystem. Ex: plants, animals and micro-
organisms

Activity
List out the components, and fill the table
Carnivores
AIR

Sunlight tiger
Sl.No. Abiotic components Biotic components
Herbivores
Producers Cow 1
2
Dear
3
Fish Water
4
1.1.3 Types of Ecosystems
Due to the occurrence and interactions of abiotic and biotic factors, different ecosystems develop
in different ways. Ecosystems made by humans may be grouped as artificial ecosystems. What do we
mean by natural ecosystems? Give to examples of natural ecosystems.
Ecosystem

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystem Aquatic ecosystem

Grassland Forest Desert Fresh water Marine water

ecosystem ecosystem ecosystem ecosystem ecosystem

Activity
Compare an artificial ecosystem like aquirum with forest (natural ecosystem).

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What kind of an ecosystem is an agricultural farm? What are the biotic and abiotic components
present there.
✤ Write the differences between Habitat and Ecosystem?

Cropland, garden, Aequarium are some artificial Ecosystems.

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1.2 Biomes
A part from habitat and ecosystem, we also use the term biome. The term was introduced to
represent biotic communities in specific climatic areas. A.G. Tansley added climatic and soil aspects to
it later, calling it an Ecosystem. Biome is larger than habitat. Any biome can comprise a variety of
habitats. We may say a biome is a large community of plants and animals that live in the same place, that
have common characteristics for the environment they exist in. To adjust themselves to diverse and
distinct changes in Biomes organisms have to adapt different means for better survival. They are called
adaptations. adaptation is a an evolutionery process.
Types of Biomes
Whittaker classified biomes into two groups, on the basis of abiotic factors: 1. Terrestrial
Biomes 2. Aquatic Biomes

1.2.1 Terrestrial Biomes and Adaptations in Biotic components

Terrestrial biome is a large community of plants and animals that live on the land.
❋ What are the different adaptations that we observe in terrestrial biomes?
Adaptions of Xerophytic Plants
Xerophytes are desert plants, well adapted to high temperature and
water shortages. They are adapted to store and conserve water. The
adaptations that xerophytes may exhibit are:

❑ Deep widespread root system caters to maximum water uptake. In Opuntia leaves are modified
into spines.
❑ Succulent, and fleshy leaves are found in Aloe veera.
❑ They have no or few leaves which fewer stomata to reduce water loss.
❑ Many desert trees and shrubs have thorns for protection from enemies.
Adaptations in desert animals:
❑ Most of the desert animals avoid being out in the sun during the day.
❑ Some animals live in burrows to escape the intense desert heat (Aestivation) and some animals
come out during the night when the temperatures are low.
❑ Long legs, thick eyebrows, fat stored hump are some adaptions in Camel.
❑ Some animals have scaly skin, resistant to drying.
❑ The Side-Winder snake crawls sideways with only a small amount of its body pressed against
the hot sand.
Adaptations to survive in extreme cold and scarcity of water:
❑ The animals which live in cold climates have very thick fur over the body to trap heat.They also
have a layer of stored fat under the skin to give additional insulation.

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❑ Some animals live in burrows to escape the winter (Hybernation).
❑ Penguins have a thick layer of densely packed feathers to reduce heat loss.
Aerial adaptations in animals:
Aerial animals include a small number of animals and birds. that are able to fly in the air. These
animals come to the trees land or water for safety and shelter. Ex: Birds and Bats. The adaptations
include.
❑ Streamlined body to steer through the air. Bones are hollow to make
them light.
❑ Forelimbs are modified into wings and strong flight muscles to help
them to fly.
❑ Bats have an extension of the skin between fingers of forelimb which help them to fly.
1.2.2 Aquatic Biomes and Adaptations in Biotic components
❋ What will happen if sunlight is absent in aquatic ecosystem?
Sunlight, of course, is necessary for photosynthesis, which brings energy
into an ecosystem. So, the availability of that sunlight has a direct impact on
the productivity and biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems.
❋ Do Aquatic living organisms have adaptations?
Aquatic adaptations in plants:
❑ Hydrophytes (Aquatic plants) have reduced root system.
❑ The stem may be long, slender and spongy, to prevent them from getting carried away by water
current e.g. lotus
❑ Floating leaves have stomata only on their upper surface. The submerged plants such as Vallisnaria
have no stomata in their ribbon shaped leaves.
❑ The broad upper surface of leaves are coated with wax which acts as water repellant, for example
lotus, water lily.
Floating plants such a as Pistia have balancing roots.
❋ Observe some aquatic plants in your surroundings and list out the adaptions found in them.
Aquatic adaptations in animals:
1. Smooth and streamlined body to move through the water.
2. Webbed feet in ducks, work like paddles for swimming.
3. Fishes have Flattened tail that serve as oar and Fins to swim.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ Mention the adaptations of living organisms found in Aquatic Biomes.
✤ Write the adaptations found in desert organisms?

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1.3 Ecosystem functions
Pranavi said that, the sun is the main source of energy for all living things. Shyam said that plants
are autotrophs; they prepare food for all living things.

❋ Do all organisms use the sunlight in the same manner?

All the organisms in an ecosystem derive energy from food to live. The sun is the main source of
energy for all living things. Plants trap this energy through photosynthesis and prepare food for all living
organisms. They are called as producers. Animals do not get energy directly from the sun. They are
called as Consumers. Many organisms eat plants, and get thier energy. They are called as Herbirvores.
Ex: Deer, Rabit, Elephant etc. Other animals that do not eat plants still indirectly depend on the energy
of sunlight as they eat other animals. They are called as Carnivores. Ex: Fox, Tiger, Lion etc. Some
animals eat both plants and animals. They are called as Omnivores. Ex: Human beings, Pigs, Crows,
etc.
Some living organisms break down the dead and decay matter, other wastes and release simple
inorganic molecules back to the envioronment. They are called as Decomposers or recyclers. Ex: Fungi
etc. So energy from sunlight is transmitted to all living things.

1.3.1 Food Chain- Food web

❋ What does the arow mark indicates in a food chain?
The diagramatic representation of the feeding relationships from one organism to another is
called food chain. They show how energy and matter move through ecosystems. Food chain includes
producers and Consumers.
Let us take an example to understand this -
The Indian Bison is found in the Jannaram Wildlife Sanctuary in Adilabad district of Telangana.
It feeds on grasses and other plants. The tiger, feeds on bison the relation can be shown as follows:

X X

Grass Indian Bison Tiger

We represent the food and feeding relations in an ecosystem by a food chain. It helps us to
represent the directin of flow of energy from an organism to the other.

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 In nature food chains are usually not simple and linear. They
are often branched, because at every stage or trophic level
consumers have several alternative forms of food to choose from.
Most organisms consume-and are consumed by-more than one
species.It includes many intersecting food chains and form a web
called Food web. Decomposers are the final or last link in the food
chain. Each and every living organism occupies a special postition
with in the food web, called Niche.

Food web
Activity
Construct a food chian by observing an ecosystem in your surroundings.

1.3.2 Ecological Pyramids

The graphical representation of the feeding level of an ecosystem in the shape of a pyramid is
called ‘‘Ecological pyramid’’. It shows flow of energy from one organism to another. It was first introduced
by a British ecologist Charles Elton. In the ecological pyramid the producers are represented at the
base; and other successive trophic levels are represented one above the other with top carnivores at
the tip.
There are three types of Ecological pyramids. Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass, Pyramid
of energy.

Pyramid of numbers
The number of organisms in a food chain can be
represented in a pyramid shape called as Pyramid of
Numbers. At each trophic level in the food chain, from the
first-order consumers to the large carnivores, there is
normally an increase in size, but decrease in number, so
the pyramid is upright.

Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of numbers

Any type of plant or animal material that can be converted into energy is called biomass. The
biomass of organisms in a food chain can be represented by a Pyramid of Biomass. In terrestrial
ecosystems, the biomass progressively decreases from producers to top carnivores. So the pyramid of
Biomass is upright.

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Pyramid of Energy
Plants (producers) converts solar energy into chemical energy
by the process of Photosynthesis. From the producers, the chemical
energy passes to the consumers from one tropic level to the next
through food. At each trophic level, organisms use most of the food
energy that they assimilate into their bodies to fulfill their metabolic
requirements.
Some energy is lost from a food chain mainly in the form of
heat. Only about 10% energy reaches to the next trophic level
Pyramid of Energy
Energy use diminishes from one trophic level to the other. Pyramid
of energy is always upright.
❋ Are the Ecological pyramids always upright?
In an aquatic ecosystem, the biomass of microorganisms that are producers (phytoplanktons) is
quite negligible as compared to that of the crustaceans and small herbivorous fish that feed on these
producers. The biomass of large carnivorous fish feeding on small fishes is still greater. This makes the
pyramid of biomass inverted.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Explain with exapmples, a fod chain and a food web.
✤ What are ecological pyramids?

1.4 Biogeochemical cycles

A constant interaction, between the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere, makes it a
dynamic, but stable system. These interactions consist of transfer of matter and energy between the
different components of the biosphere. The cycling of matter may be represented by nutrient cycles.
Though we may draw them separately for different elements, they
are usually very much interconnected. As we know, matter may be
elements, compounds and mixtures and thus, cycles may consists
of all of them. Here are some examples that are just representative
in nature.

1.4.1 Carbon Cycle

Carbon released in to the atmosphere by various methods
such as burning fossil fuels, respiration of living organisms, from
dead organisms and other organic materials decompose, volcanoes
eruption, heating of limestone etc. Photosynthesis plays an important
role in removing carbon from the atmosphere and place it back in
to living organisms.

❋ What will happen, if Carbon is not recycled? Carbon cycle

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1.4.2 Nitrogen Cycle
The Earth's atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen, but plants and animals cannot use it in this form
to make organic compounds for themselves. Nitrogen cycle has the following stages.

Nitrogen Fixation:
The process of changing atmosphearic Nitrogen into nitrate and adding to the soil is called as
Nitrogen fixation. We can see that nitrogen is an element while nitrate is a compound.
Nitrification: The Biological oxidation of ammonia Atmospheric N2

to nitrite followed by the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate

is called Nitrification. The transformation of ammonia
Thunder Denitrification Bacteria Nitrogen fixing Bacteria
to nitrite is usually the rate limiting step of nitrification. lightning

This is an important step in nitrogen cycle.

Soil Nitrogen
Assimilation: Nitrogen assimilation is the formation
of organic nitrogen compounds like amino acids from
inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the
Clays, Rocks,
environment. Nitrogen compounds are taken up from Detrivorous
Sediment
soil by plants are used in the formation of plant proteins
Plants
and as animals eat these plants, animal proteins are
synthesized. Consumers

Ammonification: Production of Ammonia from Nitrogen cycle

Nitrates and other Nitrogenous compounds is called
Ammonification. Ammonification also occurs when animals emit wastes, and the death of plants and
animals. the nitrogen in the organic matter reenters the soil and water bodies where it is broken down
by decomposer’s.
Denitrification: Solid nitrate is converted back to gaseous nitrogen through a process called
Denitrification. It occurs primarily in wet soils where water makes it difficult for microorganisms to get
oxygen. Denitrifying bacteria - will process nitrate to gain oxygen, leaving free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.
Thus, the nitrogen is recycled and remains in a perfect balance.

1.4.3 Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is an abundant element, next to Nitrogen, on our Earth. It is found in the elemental form
in the atmosphere to the extent of nearly 21%. Oxygen is vital for life in many ways. It is also an
essential component of most biological molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and fats.

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Living organisms utilized Oxygen in their respiration Atmospheric Oxygen O2
and releases Carbon di oxide. Dissolved oxygen
supports aquatic life. Organic Molecules
C6H12O6
Oxygen from the atmosphere is used up
mainly by the processes combustion, respiration
and in the formation of oxides of elements like OXYGEN
Photosynthesis Respiration
Nitrogen, Iron etc. Oxygen is returned to the
atmosphere in only one major process, that is,
Photosynthesis. CO2

Ozone
Ozone is a molecule containing three Oxygen H 2O

atoms. It is blue in colour and has a strong odour. Oxygen cycle

Oxygen having two atoms, colour and odour less.
Ozone layer protects the living organisms by absorbing the harmful ultra violet radiation from the Sun.

1.4.4 Water Cycle

Water is the most essential, abundant
substance in living things.
Earth’s water is constantly in motion. The
circulation of water into water vapour by
evaporation, water vapour to clouds and clouds to
rain by condensation is known as ‘‘water cycle’’
Water changes to water vapor by three
different processes, evaporation, sublimation and
Transpiration. Water cycle

1. Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
2. Sublimation: occurs when ice and snow change directly to water vapor by the heat of the sun.
3. Transpiration: occurs when plants release water vapor through leaf pores called stomata.

The content of biodegradable substances in water is expressed by a special index called

"biological oxygen demand" (BOD), representing the amount of oxygen needed by aerobic
bacteria to decompose the waste.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ How, Oxygen enters in to the atmospheres?
✤ Explain about the Nitrogen cycle.

KEY POINTS
z An ecosystem is Structural and functional unit of nature.
z The living organisms in a habitat are classified into Autotrophs, Heterotrophs, parasites, Saprophytes
and symbionts on the basis of their nutrition.
z Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent feeding relationships of organisms in an
ecosystem.
z Food chains and webs model how energy and matter move through ecosystems.
z Ecosystem requires constant inputs solar energy. Producers convert this solar energy into chemical
energy. This energy is transmitted to the consumers through food. The energy flow in an ecosystem
is unidirectional. The amount of energy is decreased from one trophic level to another along the
food chain.
z The graphical representation of the feeding level of an ecosystem is in the shape of Pyramid called
Ecological pyramid. It shows flow of energy from one organism to another.
z The cycles that involve the flow of nutrients on earth (elements essential for the living cell) from
environment to organism and back through certain pathways are known as biogeochemical cycles.
z A Biome is large community of plants and animals of all ecosystems of an area.
z Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or an animal to live in a particular habitat.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Draw the diagrams of Number pyramid and Energy Pyramid.

2. Draw the diagram of any one food chain.
3. Why food chains form a food web?
4. Mention any two adaptations of polar/cold region organims.
5. Write 3 biotic and 3 abiotic factors
6. What is your role in Nitrogen cycle and Carbon cycle.
7. Why does the wax coating present on the leaves of floating plant.
8. Mention any two adaptations present in aerial animals.
9. Who is present at the base of the ecological pyramid. ( )
A) producers B) Herbivores C) Carnivores D) Decomposers

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 CHAPTER

2 Changes in Ecosystems
Natural changes usually become evident when they are sudden like calamities or disasters. Cleaning
a forest area for agriculture purpose or for setting up factories are examples of large scale changes due
to human activities.
❋ How do changes occur in ecosystems?
❋ What is the impact of human activities on changes in ecosystems?
Interrelationship between biotic and abiotic factors are studied in any ecosystem. Several
ecosystems exist around us. They are constantly going either through gradual or sudden changes. Some
changes are natural, whereas some are due to human activity.
❋ The COVID-19 pandemic has also caused change. Is it a natural one or caused by human
activities? Give reasons for your answer.
❋ What will happen in the following situation?
There is a hundred year old tree in a forest. It serves as a habitat for a number of organisms. It
provides food for some, shelter and protection for some and shade for some others.
The tree collapsed in a strong storm:
❋ Put a tick mark on all options given here that you think are possible.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains changes in the ecosystem.
✰ Categorises environmental problems into natural and manmade and cite examples.
✰ Gives reasons for changes in ecosystems due to climate change.
✰ Distinguishes between sudden and gradual changes.
✰ Explains about disasters with their management methods.
✰ Applies knowledge of different types of changes in adopting and managing them.

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❑ All living organisms associated with the tree die.
❑ Some of the plants die while animals move out.
❑ Seeds or spores of plants grow again, some animals more out,
some fail to dose.
❑ Animals living in the shade of the tree lose their habitat. More
sunlight falls on the forest floor, which may lead to the formation
of colonies of new organisms or death of some organisms.
❋ We are cutting down thousands of acres of forests for industries.
What happens to the organisms living in that area?

2.1 Factors affecting changes in ecosystem

Here are somelines we come across over newspaper/ Telivision. These are some examples of
changes to ecosystems.
❑ Loss of property and life due to landslides.
❑ Eruption of volcanoes released lava, resulting in pollution.
❑ 16 people died in heat waves.
❑ Houses collapsed, hundreds died in the earthquake.
❑ Low lying areas submerged in water due to heavy rains.
❑ Ice melting in poles is resulting in rise in sea levels.
❑ Coastal area submerged due to the effect of tsunami.
❋ Do you think changes are only disruptive in nature?
❋ What impact do you think they could have on an ecosystem?
❑ Social Forestry Initiatives: Vanajeevi Ramaiah (Chetla Ramaiah) of Khammam district is well
known for his contributions to extending tree cover by planting more than one crore saplings in
and around Khammam district.
❑ Drought Prone and semi drought prone areas build the biggest reservior in the state: Rajanna
Siricilla district had achieved this with good governance along with people's participation. The
water table in the district raised by 6 meters in 3 years.
❑ Volcanic eruptions formed Galapagos Islands which are one of the most bio diverse areas on
earth.
Here is an example of how forest five affects the ecosystem of a forest?
A forest fire started suddenly in a forest. It takes a lot of time to control and stop the forest fire.
In the meantime, many herbs, shrubs, creepers, plants and trees are destroyed and reduced to ashes.
Animals living in this ecosystem (squirrels, monkeys, birds and snakes etc.) falls under threat. Some of
the animals die in the fire, other animals move to safer habitats. Other animals depending on these
animals may die due to non availability of food. Some of the organisms also migrate to other areas.
Science and Technology 13
 On return of the favourable conditions. Those plants sprout first the seeds of which rely on a fire
for sprouting. Grass starts growing in that area. Later herbs, shrubs and plants appear. It takes a lot of
time for the growth of trees and return of animals. New organisms also come to that habitat. Forest
usually grows back.
❋ The above forest ecosystem can't return to its original state. Do you a gree to this statement. Give
reasons.
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
Activity-1
Observe any tree ecosystem in your surroundings. Birds, monkeys, squirrels, ants, snakes, spiders,
caterpillars, house flies, bees, mosquitoes, moths, wasps are some organisms that you may find on a
tree. Try to classify them based on where you find them.
1. Name of the ecosystem : _____________________________________
2. Place : _____________________________________
3. Organisms at the base of the tree : _____________________________________
4. Organisms on the trunk : _____________________________________
5. Organisms on, between the branches : _____________________________________
6. Organisms on the leaves : _____________________________________
7. Organisms on flowers : _____________________________________
8. Herbivorous animals : _____________________________________
9. Carnivorous animals : _____________________________________
10. List out all abiotic factors : _____________________________________
❋ Is there any threat to the ecosystem? Yes/No ______________________________________
If yes, what? ______ ______________________________________________________
Suggest few remedial measures ________________________________________________

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Here is a list of several causes for changes in ecosystems classify them as natural
man made and both by filling in the table:
Floods, cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis, forest fires, landslides, heat and cold waves, volcanic
eruptions, photochemical smog, droughts, vehicles, power stations, pandemics, deforestation, mining,
more usage of fossil fuels, eutrophication, industrialization, urbanization, overpopulation, pollution, fossil
burnings, nuclear power stations, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, chlorofloro carbons.
It is necessary to observe the effects of human activities on ecosystems. Let us observe the
impact of human activities on ecosystems of our state.

2.2 Human Impact on Ecosystems

Case study of forest at Ramagundam:
60-70 years back Ramagundam had a dense forest with a rich heritage of wildlife. It was an
abode for wild animals like tigers, leopards, deer, hyenas (kondrigallu), foxes, wild pigs (adavi pandi),
bears, pythons, cobras, porcupines (mulla pandhi), owls, hares, monitor lizards (udumu) scorpions,
geremandals (like the desert spider) etc.
After the establishment of thermal power station at Ramagundam (using coal to produce power)
many other industries and human activities increased. This resulted in construction of many buildings,
roads and stone quaries. Forest area was cleared and so several organisms started disappearing.
While some others started inhabiting the area. People say peacocks have been sighted recently
Though an area near Mancherial (very close to Ramagundam) was once known as Tiger valley,
it shows no signs of tigers now. Presently the forest ecosystem was totally transformed into an urban
ecosystem a bunding in domesticated animals, humans, snakes, insects etc.
❋ What is the difference between the situation regarding types of animals present 70 years ago and
now? Give reasons.
❋ Peacocks have an omnivorous diet. How can this be beneficial to their existence in Ramagundam.
❋ The Ramagundam forest is an example of changing ecosystem? Do you agree? Why/Why not?

The sad story of our Musi river

Hyderabad is located along the banks of Musi river. It is a tributary of the Krishna river flowing
through Telangana. The river originates in Ananthagiri hills Vikarabad and flows into Krishna river at
Vadapalli in Nalgonda district.
A report of 1908 states that the river had become flooded to such an extent that it inundated its
banks causing the death of over 15000 people, rendering another 80,000 homeless. Heavy rains
aggravated by cloudburst in the month of September had been the main cause for the floods.

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 The modern era of the development of the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad began
soon after these floods in 1908. This necessitated planned, phased development. Sir Visvesvaraya, a
Civil Engineer of repute in those days was requested by the Nizam’s government for construction of
flood protection and drainage system for the city. Sir Visvesvaraya proposed the construction of storage
reservoirs of adequate capacity above the city, which proved effective in controlling future floods.
There were several other engineers of his time who assisted him in successfully carrying out the plan like
Mr. Ahmed Ali and Mr. C.T. Dalai.
Vishwesaraiya designed such a drainage system which if not clogged could help water flow into
the river and down its basin. Sewage waste was redirected to a separate area in order to keep sewage
from flowing into the river and clogging its outlets as well as causing depletion of water quality and
siltation of the river basin. A sewage farm was built and pipes laid to carry the city’s sewage there.This
also helped in destroying mosquito breeding grounds and reduced incidence of diseases for which
mosquitoes are vectors.
The first large reservoir came up as a dam was built in 1920 across the river, ten miles (16 km)
upstream from the city called Osman Sagar. In 1927 another reservoir was built on Esi (a tributary of
Musi) and named Himayat Sagar. These lakes prevented the flooding of the River Musi. They are
major drinking water sources for Hyderabad city today.
Due to the increase in population, Musi river has become polluted adversely. Sewage is being
dumped directly into the river. Water from it is being indiscriminately used over years. These have
reduced it to a stinking slurry. The banks of the river have become a dumping site of waste. The water
is worse than sewage water; its groundwater has become polluted as well by harmful chemicals from
factories around it. The waters of Musi show traces of harmful chemicals. These chemicals enter the
food chains and food webs affecting the health of livestock and crops in and around the area. Dissolved
oxygen values of water has gone down and increased the biological oxygen demand.
The structure and nature of river Musi was changed completely. Drinking water became sewage
water. Formation of silt has resulted in frequent floods. The water of the lake turned more alkaline in
nature, turbid and low in Dissolved Oxygen (DO). So there is a need for high Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD ), which affected aquatic organisms adversely.
Diseases like diarrhoea, typhoid, amoebiasis, arthritis, jaundice, skin allergies are common among
the local inhabitants. Vector borne diseases like malaria, dengue have also increased.
Cyclonic rainfall in October 2020 had caused flash floods in the city of Hyderabad. Experts have
attributed this to poor urban planning, a woeful drainage system and the pitiable condition of the Musi

16 Science and Technology

river. But along with all the perils, it has caused a rise in the volume of water in Musi, reviving it almost
to its full potential.
- Write two causes for the floods of river Musi in 1908.
- Write 4 causes for the floods of Hyderabad in October 2020.
- In what ways could the flood of 2020 be avoided?
- What ways of management of natural calamity does the Musi river case teach us?
- Should sewage waste be dumped into a drinking water body?
- What does the meaning of cloudburst appear to you? Tick the option of your choice
❑ Sudden heavy rain ❑ Slow steady rain
❑ Parting of clouds. ❑ Bursting of clouds by separating them.
- Flash floods are rapid flooding of low lying areas. Why do you think Hyderabad experienced flash
floods?
- How did flash floods help the Musi river condition?
- Write two beneficial and two adverse effects of human activity that impacted the Musi river.
Musi river, the Jeevanadi of Hyderabad is now transformed into a sewage water body on. How
does a freshwater ecosystem change into a sewage water ecosystem? Also suggest how it may be
revival.
The Musi River Reservoir Action Plan Project was undertaken to reduce the pollution levels in
the river. Pollution control activities under the project are:
❑ Solid waste management
❑ Installation of sewage treatment plant
❑ Provision of low cost sanitary facilities
❑ Development of riverfront
❑ Efforts to develop public awareness
❋ State how the example of Musi river shows a changing ecosystem?
Industrial wastes are causing water pollution in many rivers and ponds in our state. Pollution
gives rise to several major problems including a high incidence of diseases such as diarrhoea, skin
allergies, malaria, dengue, food poisoning etc.
❋ What measures do you think should be taken to prevent pollution of water bodies.
❋ What changes do you think occured in the Musi river ecosystem?

Science and Technology 17

 Changes in ecosystems that affect it negatively have become a global concern over the last few
decades. These changes include increase of some species, expansion of invasive species into new
areas (Parthenium, COVID-19 virus), loss of habitats, intermingling of formerly nonoverlapping species
etc.
The following changes are attributed due to human activities:( Impact on ecosystem). Do you
think it is purely due to human impact? Why/Why not?
❑ Rising temperatures,
❑ Melting of ice at poles,
❑ Rising of sea levels,
❑ Air, water and soil pollution
❑ Increase in atmospheric levels of Carbon dioxide etc..
❋ The earth is getting warmer (global warming)? Why?
Ecosystems can vary from a small plant to a dense forest. The biosphere is the largest ecosystem
present on earth. Terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem are the main ecosystems of the biosphere.
Climate change is happening on a global scale, but the ecological impacts are often local and vary from
place to place.
Since the 1950s, drought and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.
Extremely dry and wet events within the monsoon period have increased. Ocean warming, sea level
rise and ocean acidification may be caused as the result of these heat and cold waves.
Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as the expansion of
deserts. Low lying islands and coastal communities are threatened through hazards posted by sea level
rise. Some islands, coastal areas, and low lying areas are at risk of submerging. According to a study,
the east coastal areas of India are in danger of being submerged in the coming 100 years. Economic
damage, a consequence of climate change may be severe.
The following measures should be followed to control the changes in ecosystem.
1. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Increasing the use of electric vehicles and public transport.
3. Rapid development of renewable energy.
4. Policies to reduce fossil fuel emissions, chlorofluorocarbons, aerosols etc.
5. Following soil conservation methods
6. Soil management on crop lands and grasslands.

18 Science and Technology

7. Encouraging reforestation, forest preservation, water conservation.
❋ Mention some eco-friendly list of practices.

.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ How does an ecosystem change over fine? Is it always negative. Why/Why not?
✤ How do the changes in ecosystems show impact on living beings? Explain with an example.

2.3 India-Disasters
Observe the map and answer the
following:
❋ Name the states where we had earth
quakes after the year 2000.
❋ Name the states where we had floods.
What must have been the cause of floods
in those states?
❋ Make a list of all natural disasters
mentioned in the map.
❋ Find out if some disasters have not been included in the map. Write a detailed account of such
disasters.
Natural calamities are universal. Many disasters are a consequence of man-made activities, but
some disasters are natural. This happens because of the weather or the natural conditions and some by
human impact.

Major disasters in India

Here, a brief description of some disasters has been given.
India had faced the deadly disasters in its history. They are read the section and write in detail
about any one of them in your own words.
1. Great Bengal Famine, 1770: West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and
Bangladesh were the affected areas and the number of deaths
were around 1 crore. The reason was drought.
Nobel laureate, Indian economist, Amartya Sen describes this
famine as a man made disaster. This was started in 1769 which continued for four years.

Science and Technology 19

2. Super Cyclone, Odisha, 1999: Number of deaths were more than 15,000. This was the most
dangerous tropical cyclone in the North Indian ocean. Its speed was 260 km per hour. It affected
not only India but also Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand. Around 2.75 lakh houses were
destroyed and 1. 67 million became homeless.
3. Gujarat Earthquake, 2001: Number of deaths were
around 20,000, injured were 167000 and nearly
400000 became homeless. Suddenly an earthquake
of 7.6 to 7.9 on the richter scale lasted for 120 seconds.
4. The Indian Ocean Tsunami, 2004: India and
Andaman Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep Island,
Indonesia, Srilanka etc. , were badly affected and the
number of deaths were around 2.30 lakh people.
Overall it affected around 12 countries. The magnitude
of the tsunami was between 9.1 and 9.37 which was
very high. As per the research it was the third largest
earthquake in the world.
5. Bihar Flood Disaster, 2007: The Bihar flood disaster 2007 was described as the worst flood
in the living memory of Bihar by the United Nations. It affected 19 districts in Bihar. Bihar flood
had affected an estimated 10 million people in the entire state, about 29000 houses were destroyed,
about 44,000 houses were damaged, 1 crore hectares of farmland damaged
6. Uttarakhand Flash Floods, 2013: It affected 12 out
of 13 districts of the state. - number of deaths are 5700.
It was a sudden effect which was caused by heavy
rainfall and massive landslides. This is the most
disastrous flood in the history of India.
7. Kashmir Flash Floods, 2014: Number of deaths more than 550
No matter what disaster occurs, it brings a lot of changes in ecosystems that induces change in
social and environmental situations. The disasters can be broadly divided into following categories.
1. Hydrological related hazards: Cyclones, floods, photochemical smog, hailstorm, droughts
2. Technological hazards: Industrial, chemical and nuclear disasters
3. Geological hazards: Earthquakes, tsunami, landslides
4. Biological hazards: Epidemics, pandemics, COVID-19, bird flu, plague in Gujarat

20 Science and Technology

❋ Is India Disaster Prone? Which areas are disaster prone in our country? Let us know about the
disaster prone areas in India.

GROWING NUMBRS, DEPLETING RESOURCES

2.4 Disaster Prone Regions of India

India is prone to disasters to a number of factors both natural and manmade; adverse climatic
conditions, topographic features, environmental degradation, urbanisation, population growth,
industrialisation, non scientific development practices etc.,
India is a disaster prone country and its region wise details are as follows
1. Northern India: It is confronted by landslides, avalanches, floods, droughts and earthquakes
(area falls under seismic zone III to IV)
2. Eastern India: The area is prone to severe floods (due to Brahmaputra and Gangetic rivers),
droughts, heavy wind, heat waves, hailstorms, cyclones and earthquakes.
3. North eastern India: It is affected by floods, landslides, wind damages and earthquakes (area
falls and the seismic zone IV to V)
4. Western India: It is confronted with severe droughts, wind erosions, floods, cyclones and
earthquakes (Gujarat, Bhuj)
5. Southern India: Southern India is prone to cyclones, sea erosions, tsunami and landslides
6. Islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep: The area is prone to sea erosion, tsunami,
sea level rise etc.

2.5 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

Help Line Number: 011-26701728-1078
NDMA was established through the disaster management act enacted by the government of
India on 23rd December 2005 and is responsible for framing policies, guidelines and best practices. It
is headed by the prime minister of India and can have up to nine other members. NDMA coordinates
with the State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach
to disaster management. It creates awareness among people by conducting mock drills etc. regarding
disasters. Gives training at district and regional level, helps in reducing loss of life and property at the
time of disasters.

Science and Technology 21

 In addition a Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has been constituted in which union government and
state governments contribute in the ratio of 3:1. So far CRF of 11th Finance Commission has been
made eligible for disasters related with cyclone, drought, flood, earthquake, fire and hail storm, but in
12th Finance Commission CRF will also deal with landslides, avalanches, cloud bursts and pest attacks.
There is a need for increased awareness on the latest advances in ecosystem disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation/ecosystem based adaptation. - United Nations Environment Policy
(UNEP)
Ecosystem Disaster risk reduction - to achieve sustainable and resilient development.
Climate change adaptation/Ecosystem based adaptation - to help people adapt to the
adverse effects of climate change by using biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Telangana State Disaster Management Authority.

040-23442944, 23442955

Disasters: Do's and Don'ts

❑ We should follow the information and warnings issued through T.V. , radio, newspapers. Don't
spread rumours.
❑ Switch off electrical mains in your house.
❑ Keep ready the phone numbers of all emergency services like police, fire brigade and medical
centres.
❑ Pack essentials for yourself and your family to last a few days including medicines, food, water,
clothes etc.

Post disaster measures

❑ Do not drink contaminated water.
❑ Strictly avoid any loose and dangling wires.
❑ Don't go out to places where trees and buildings collapsed.
❑ Use and follow the advanced technology to follow the pre alerts.
❑ Cooperate and help your neighbours and friends.
In many areas man has changed the natural ecosystems to a great extent by damming rivers,
draining marshes, re-claiming land from the sea, cutting down forests, plough-ing up land and growing
crops, and by building towns, cities, canals and motorways. These changes have greatly altered the
communities of plants and animals living there.

5th June of every year is observed as World Environment Day.

22 Science and Technology

 Ecosystems provide important services that can address several risk factors. Well managed
ecosystems reduce vulnerability by providing food, water and resources and also saves biodiversity. If
we save nature, it saves us.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Explain the types of disasters
✤ Describe any two major disasters that occured in the past two decades in India
✤ What causes ice to melt at the poles?

KEY POINTS
z Ecosystems are constantly going through changes.
z Some changes in ecosystem are natural and some are due to human activity.
z Ecosystem changes affect the environment.
z Sometimes changes in the ecosystem lead to disasters.
z The National Disaster Management Authority was established for the management of disasters.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Write some slogans on climate change.
2. List out natural and manmade disasters.
3. What human activities could be reduced or curbed to save an ecosystem?
4. How does the changes in the ecosystem and climate changes affect human life?
5. How do you help people, If a disaster hits your area? What measures should be taken after the
disaster?
6. What are the responsibilities of the National Disaster Management Authority?
7. The following is not a natural calamity ( )
A) cyclones B) use of fertilizers C) floods D) Earthquakes
8. A pandemic ( )
A) COVID-19 B) Typhoid C) Jaundice D) Heart problem
9. Global warming leads to ( )
A) Land slides B) Melting of ice at poles C) Smog D) Depletion of fossil fuels
10. Matching
A. Hydrosphere ( ) 1. Global warming
B. Greenhouse gases ( ) 2. Pollution
C. Geological hazards ( ) 3. Fresh water eco system
D. Industrialisation ( ) 4. Earth quake

Science and Technology 23

 CHAPTER

3 Waste and its

Management
Different types of wastes are generated by various activities in our day to day life. The things not
useful for us can be useful for others. For example, old newspapers, used notebooks etc., are wastes
for us, but they are raw materials for paper mills. Similarly, plastic and cardboards that we throw away
are a source of earning for people who collect wastes. In India, nearly 62 million tonnes of waste is
generated every year and by 2050, it is expected that nearly 3.4 billion tonnes will be generated.
The lack of understanding and awareness of wastes had disastrous effects on the environment.
Resources will be depleted. Waste management should be done properly to protect our resources and
environment. Cleanliness should be an integral part of our life. Waste management should be given
importance in and out of our homes. Swachh Bharath - Swasthh Bharath should be our objective.

❋ What type of wastes are generated in our daily life?

❋ How can we reuse wastes?

❋ Why is proper management of wastes necessary?
❋ How are wastes disposed?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Classifies the types of wastes.
✰ Identifies the sources of wastes.
✰ Identifies about the need for waste management.
✰ Explains waste disposal methods.
✰ Gives examples for success stories of waste management.
✰ Applies the knowledge of waste management in day to day life.

24 Science and Technology

3.1 Wastes
❋ How much waste is generated in a day?
❋ What would happen if wastes generated accumulate at a place?

Activity-1
Take a medium sized bucket. Collect most of the wastes generated at home. This is the quantity
of waste generated by your family, per day.
Prepare a list of waste materials generated in a day. Classify them as wet and dry wastes with
the help of given examples.
Table-1
S.No. Wet Wastes Dry Wastes
1 Left over food hair
2
3
4
5
❋ Can you imagine how much wastes generate in a day?
Weigh the wet wastes generated in a day. Divide this total weight by the number of persons living
in your house. The result will be the per capita wet wastes produced in a day.

Total weight of wet waste materials

Per capita wet wastes produced =
Number of persons in your house

❑ Multiply it by 30 = ...................... per month.

❑ Multiply it by 365 = ................. per year.
You will be surprised to note this astonishing figure of the waste generated in a year.
Now, you may make an estimate of the amount of waste generated by all the people in your
locality/ colony/village/city.
❋ Is our surroundings clean?
❋ What are the reasons for unclean surroundings?
❋ What are the different problems that would arise out of this?
Anything which is unwanted or useless is termed as waste. With the increasing population, waste
generated is becoming unmanageable.

Science and Technology 25

 Observe the pictures.

Open dumps and heaps of garbage is the common sight. This unhygienic atmosphere leads to
problems related to human health and environment, because untreated, uncovered waste is a breeding
ground for flies, rats, mosquitoes and other insects which spread various diseases. The rainwater runoff
from such sites contaminates nearby land and water. So it is necessary to plan for waste management.
We are generating tonnes of wastes in our daily activities. We throw wastes wherever empty
places are found in villages, towns and cities. Some of the wastes rot and mix with the soil, but some
others not.

Activity-2
Let us do the following activity and observe for one month to know more about this.
Take a pot or bucket. Fill half of it with soil. Keep wet and dry wastes in it. (Wastes should
include vegetable peels, fruit peels, plastic, wood, paper etc.
Add some more soil and sprinkle water regularly. Tilt it and observe in 15 days intervals. Note
your observations. Some of these wastes decomposed but some are not.
You may have observed that most of your house hold waste is composed of vegetable or fruit
peels or any leftover food material.
❋ Why are some materials not decomposed?
These wastes can be divided into two types.
1. Biodegradable waste
2. Non biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste: includes substances that can be degraded by microbes into harmless and non
toxic substances.
Examples: vegetable peels, leaves, twigs, dung etc.
Nonbiodegradable waste: wastes cannot be easily degraded.
Example: aluminium cans, plastic, glass, batteries, e-waste, etc.
❋ What happens to non biodegradable wastes?

26 Science and Technology

 Usually we either throw away such house generated wastes or sell them. There are places other
than our homes from where wastes are generated in large amounts daily. These are industrial areas,
hospitals, commercial places, schools, colleges, and other government or private organizations
❋ What do you think the people who collect waste do with the waste they collect from our homes?

3. 2 Different types of wastes

While there are many different kinds of waste we can generally divide waste into 6 different
categories. Recognising the different types of waste can help us decide how to treat or manage it.
1. Dry/recyclable waste: Consists mostly of man made products or materials that cannot be
broken down or decomposed by natural organisms but can be recycled. Eg: glass, plastic,
metal, paper, wood, leather, clothes
2. Wet/biodegradable waste: Refers to organic matter or waste from natural materials that can
be broken down by microorganisms and fungi. Eg: fruit and vegetable peels, rotten fruits, left
over food, fallen leaves, cut flowers
3. Bio medical waste: A kind of waste containing infectious materials coming from hospitals,
clinics, testing centers etc. Eg: infectious waste includes discarded blood, used bandages and
dressings, discarded gloves, masks, gowns, used needles and syringes, operation theater wastes
etc.
4. Electronic waste/E- waste: Used electronics refurbishment, reuse, resale, recycling or disposal
are considered as e_waste. It includes discarded electrical or electronic devices. . Electronic
scrap components contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium etc.
affecting our health. Eg: sim cards, batteries, old televisions etc.
5. Construction/demolition waste: Consists of wastes produced during construction or demolition.
Eg: old tiles, cement, broken bricks etc.
6. Hazardous (chemical) waste: Wastes that are a threat to public health or the environment.
Eg: pesticides, acids, cleaning liquids, industrial wastes etc.
It is necessary to separate the wastes depending on
their type. Ambikapur stood second in Swachh Survekshan,
2019. 51 Metric tonnes of wastes are generated daily at
Ambikapur. It was successful in segregating wastes at domestic
level (100%), collecting dry and wet wastes separately by e-
rickshaws and following a three tier system (door to door
collection, solid and liquid waste management, segregation Ambikapur- waste collection
of wastes) for waste management. by e-rickshaws
Separate colour dustbins should be used for dry wastes and wet wastes. The Government of
Telangana had distributed two colours of dustbins to each house in all municipalities and corporations

Science and Technology 27

of the state. Awareness was created among people to use blue colour dust bin for dry waste and green
colour dust bin for wet waste.
Wet waste should be used to prepare compost at school and house level. Dry wastes should be
reused or recycled. If the above processes are not possible, dry wastes should be disposed properly

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Write the dry waste & wet waste generated at your home?
✤ What are the types of waste? Explain about them.

3.3 Waste Management

Waste management includes the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception
to its final disposal. This includes waste collection, transport, treatment, recycling and disposal of waste.
❋ What is waste management and disposal?
❋ How do you handle waste management?
Wastes can be solids, liquids or gases. Each type has different methods of disposal and
management. Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on environment. Proper
management of waste is important for sustainability.
Waste sorting is the process by which waste is separated into different elements.
The following steps are followed in waste management.
1. Curbside collection: collection of waste by special vans or trucks at regular intervals
2. Vacuum collection: waste is transported from home /commercial premises by vacuum
3. Waste minimization
4. Waste segregation
5. Waste sorting
6. Mandatory recycling
7. Waste disposal

4 R's towards Waste Management

By using the 4 R's we can effectively contribute to reduce the waste, such that less amount of
waste may go to landfills. Pollution of our environment and ground water resources can be reduced by
implementing 4R's

The aim of Swachh Bharath programme initiated by Central Government

is to achieve clean India by the year 2025.

28 Science and Technology

 1. R-Refuse : Avoid buying unnecessary materials, refusing the usage of waste
generating materials Eg: Packaging material, plastic straws.
2. R-Reduce : Less usage of resources and reducing the amount of waste production
at its source. eg:paper
3. R- Reuse : Reusing some materials without throwing away..
4. R- Recycle : The process of converting waste materials in to new materials and
objects.

Our School_ Waste Management:

We have NGC(National Green Corps) eco clubs in our school. The students of class VIII
were divided into five groups; 1. Biodiversity group, 2. Water management group, 3. Cleanliness
group, 4. Energy management group, 5. Soil management group.
Awareness was created to the students and elders regarding plantation, proper usage of
water, electricity, waste management, cleanliness etc. with the help of teachers.
Two dustbins were provided in each classroom. Awareness was created to use blue dustbin
for dry waste, and green dustbin for wet waste. Wet wastes are converted into compost and
used for plants in our school. We are sending dry wastes to recycling units without burning.

❋ What programmes are organized to protect the environment at your school/locality?

❋ What is the need for waste management?
❋ How can you preserve natural resources by following waste management?

3.4 Waste Disposal Methods

At present, the common methods adopted in
waste disposal are as follows.
1. Manual component separation: Reusable
articles are manually separated for recycling or
resale, Eg: card boards, paper, news paper, glass
etc.
2. Compaction: After separation, volume of wastes
is mechanically reduced by compactors. Mysore - Waste segregation
3. Incineration: The combustible wastes are subjected to incineration, It is used when suitable
dumping land areas are not available. Incineration is a process of burning of waste after segregating

Science and Technology 29

 the recyclable material. The end product of the process is called ash which is then disposed of in
landfills. Unfortunately incineration produces toxic gases which cause air pollution. Eg: rubber,
wood, scrap, plastics
4. Open dumping: Some wastes are directly dumped in low lying areas of the earth or open areas
in and out of the locality/village. Environmental problems arise from this method.
5. Sanitary land filling: It involves the disposal of municipal wastes on or in the upper layers of
degraded areas.
6. Pyrolysis: It is a kind of destructive distillation in which the solid wastes are heated in a Pyrolysis
reactor (650-1000 degrees C) in oxygen depleted environment.
7. Composting: Decomposition by microorganisms. They convert organic components of the
municipal wastes into humus or compost and the process is known as composting, It is also
called bio degradation.
8. Bio remediation: It is a process of wastewater treatment of human sewage and manufacturing
industries.
9. Recycling: Waste materials are processed by some means
and converted into a product, we call the process recycling.
It helps in efficient management of wastes and also reduces
the load on natural resources.
Some examples of Recycling are:
❑ Recycling of plastics and paper, converting municipal waste
into manure converting rice husk into cardboard. Use of
cattle dung for the production of biogas production of energy
and electricity from biogas, energy and electricity.
Bio fertilizers are made by using aerobic and anaerobic processes from house hold wastes and
municipal wastes/village wastes
(Railway has set up a bio gas plant in Mumbai Central to use organic waste to make fire for the
railway kitchen.)
Waste disposal is a time taking major issue, as it has to be carried out with following objectives.
❑ Collecting solid wastes, transporting, and eco friendly disposal should be followed.
❑ Industrial wastes should be converted to less harmful substances by using biological, physical
and chemical methods.

30 Science and Technology

❑ It should not create any health hazard.
❑ It should not cause adverse environmental effects.
❑ It should involve opportunities for recycling of materials or waste utilisation.
❑ The process should be economical and eco friendly.
The Central government launched the Swachh Bharat Mission on 2nd October 2014.
Some objectives of the mission are given below:
❑ Elimination of open defecation
❑ Eradication of Manual Scavenging and usage of machines.
❑ Modern and Scientific Municipal Solid Waste Management
❑ To effect behavioural change regarding healthy sanitation practices
❑ Generate awareness about sanitation and its linkage with public health.
Waste is generated in an unmanageable way. The Swachh Bharat mission emphasizes on having
a functional waste management system in each and every gram panchayath, town and city.
Swachh Survekshan is an annual survey of cleanliness, hygiene and sanitation in towns and cities
across India. Indoor bagged first place in Swachh Survekshan survey for four consecutive years (2017,
2018, 2019 and 2020)
Let us know the practices followed by Indore to bag this award, 1115 metric tonnes of wastes
generated daily in Indore (Madhya Pradesh). Creating awareness among public, decentralisation,
development of infrastructure, 100% segregation of wastes at domestic level, seeking partnership of
N.G.O’s are some of the measures for cleanliness and waste management of Indore.
Let us know about how the waste management is going on in our state.

Success Stories
Village level- Ananthasagar
Ananthasagar of Chinnakodur Mandal, Medak district of Telangana is the proud recipient of
Nirmal Gram Panchayat award. It was like any other village previously, a place where all used to
defecate in open. Water borne diseases were very prominent. Let us know the steps taken by the gram
panchayat to overcome this situation to bag the award.
The gram panchayat took a stand that if they find anybody henceforth going in open defecation
would be charged with a penalty. In order to change the mindset of the community members, IEC
activities were taken up. Traditional folk media, kala Jatara, door to door campaign, wall paintings,
conducting parents meetings in school, rallies and other programs for generating awareness were carried
out.

Science and Technology 31

 In order to sustain the program, school waste management also started to create awareness
among students. The school sanitation committees for toilet complex, wash committees, environment
and health committees were also formed in schools.
We shall also make our village/town /city clean. Prepare a plan to achieve this.
Division level-Rajendra Nagar
Rajendranagar is one of the most populous
divisions in Hyderabad, generates a considerable
amount of waste every day, ranging from 25 to 30
tonnes.
The waste management mechanism in the circle
is such that despite the generation of so much waste,
it does not pile up. The waste is segregated and dealt with on a daily basis. Nearly all the households in
the circle segregate waste before handing it over to garbage collectors. The circle has a vermicompost
plant and two dry waste collection centres
City level-Warangal:
Warangal city (Telangana) bagged Clean Cities Championship award, 2012. It is the first city in
India to achieve 100% door to door municipal solid waste collection. Let us know the planning followed
by Warangal to achieve this award.

houses → Collection of wastes → Waste collecting → Seggregation

center of wastes

dry wastes wet wastes

degradable wastes recyclable wastes wet wastes

compost recycling proper disposal

District level - Peddapalli

Peddapalli district of Telangana was bestowed the award of top district of Southern India and
stood third in India - Swachh Survekshan, 2018. Continuing the spirit, Peddapalli has emerged as the
‘Over all Best District’ in the country in terms of sanitation and cleanliness. Swachh Survekshan. 2019.
The district had won Swachh Sundar Shouchalay (neat and clean toilets) award with the construction
and usage of 1.35 lakh individual sanitary latrines. (Open Defecation Free (ODF) district)

32 Science and Technology

 It is the first-ever district in India to be completely free of an open drainage system. Peddapalli
has achieved this distinction of being designated as the cleanest district in the country by a combination
of good governance initiatives, people's participation and prudent use of funds available.
Peddapalli: Novel ways of waste management:

In one year, IAS Officer turns a High-Risk Dengue

Area Into India’s Cleanest District. District collector,
A.Sri Devasena was personally involved in the campaigns
of swachh survekshan, involving Self Help Groups for
the beautification of toilets, creating awareness among
public, using cultural fests and media to educate people,
involving NGOs etc to achieve this. A community toilet in Peddapalli

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Write the importance of 4R’s of waste management.
✤ Write about the objectives of Swachh Bharath programme.

3.5 Waste Management - Our Initiative

We have observed how waste can be managed in different ways after collection. If we could
make an effort such that waste does not collect in large amounts, then it would be more helpful to
address the problem of waste disposal.
❋ How can we reduce the production of wastes?
Let us make a list of such materials in our house, that we throw away by using them just once
while we could have used such materials in their place that could be used over and over again.

Science and Technology 33

 Table 2
Sl.No. Non reusable Materials Reusable materials
1 Plastic glass Steel glass
2
You could take a meaningful initiative towards waste management.
Let us know how Individual/community/village/town/city level waste management can be done
Individual level:
➡ Use less and do not waste things.
➡ Find ways to reuse things
➡ Follow recycling of wastes
➡ Use cloth bags
➡ Conduct awareness programmes at schools/colonies
➡ Encourage all to participate in Swachh Bharath
Community level:
➡ Identify communal collection points for segregation and transfer
➡ Clean surroundings weekly once through clean-up drives (Swachh Bharath)
➡ Establish community based recycling centers
➡ Collect waste separately (dry/wet waste) (Separation of wastes should be based on the type of
waste)
Village/Municipalities/City level:
➡ Adopt zero waste policy.
➡ Setup facilities for proper E-waste management.
➡ Install biogas units in villages/municipalities/cities that can generate energy and electricity. NEDCAP
provide subsidies to establish bio gas plants under the central government guidelines.
➡ Establish a system for scientific disposal of municipal waste management.
➡ Develop strict policies for industrial waste management.

I am Shanthi, working as a waste collector. Collecting door to door wastes,

sending them to the dumping site is our work. We are doing our best in
keeping the surroundings clean and environmental protection. You should
also follow the methods to reduce waste.

34 Science and Technology

 KEY POINTS
z Anything which is unwanted or useless is termed as waste.
z Categorizing wastes helps in its management.
z Those wastes that are degraded by living organisms are called biodegradable and those that aren't
are called non- biodegradable.
z Most of the wastes generated at home are biodegradable.
z Waste reduction, disposal and management are essential.
z Manure produced by composting is very useful for agriculture
z We should use 4 R's for effective waste management.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Write your suggestions to make your village eco friendly.

2. Differentiate biodegradable wastes and non biodegradable wastes.
3. List and classify the wastes generated at home
4. Give some suggestions for wastes management in your locality.
5. How do you create awareness among people regarding plastics
6. What are the substances needed to prepare compost?
7. Which of the following method is used to sort out wastes?
A) At source B) Compost C) At landfill D) All the above
8. Which substances can be decomposed easily using microorganisms? ( )
A) Substances made of metal B) bio degradable substances
C) e-waste D) plastic wastes
9. The following is an example for bio waste ( )
A) Masks used for COVID-19 B) Radioactive waste
C) Industrial waste D) Construction wastes
10. Matching
A) plastic covers ( ) 1. hazardous/chemical waste
B) damaged computer ( ) 2. dry/recyclable waste
C) fruit peels ( ) 3. electronic waste/e-waste
D) used needles and syringes ( ) 4. wet/biodegradable waste

Science and Technology 35

 CHAPTER

4 Biodiversity and
Classification
Sunitha and Ramu went to their grandparents' village during the summer vacation. They were
surprised to see the sparrows coming into their house. They asked their grandfather why sparrows are
not seen in their house in the city. While going to the fields they observed several insects and birds. They
saw insects like grasshoppers and lightning bugs for the first time. As they went around the village and
the fields they observed many more organisms. Grandpa told them that he had observed 47 different
organisms in his field. He said the number was less this year than the previous year and it is alarming.
According to grandpa, all organisms have specific places where they live and reproduce, called as
habitats. Sunitha added that a habitat provides food and shelter as well. So, grandpa remarked, sparrows
may not be getting enough of food or shelter in the city.

❋ What would happen if only a few organisms stayed in a place?

❋ Should we preserve organisms in their natural habitat? Why/why not?

❋ What should be done to study all living things on earth and preserve them??
❋ How do we identify organisms?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains biodiversity and importance of its conservation.
✰ Identifies the endemic, endangered and extinct species.
✰ Gives reason for extinction of species.
✰ Classifies organisms on the basis of their characters.
✰ Draws the flowchart of classification for plant and animal kingdom.
✰ Appreciates the work of scientists who tried classifying organisms.

36 Science and Technology

4.1 What is biodiversity
No two living things on earth are alike.
While going to the fields, Sunitha and Ramu noted the names of some of the plants in their
notebook with the help of grandpa. They also made sketches of some of them. They found 18 different
organisms on their way to the paddy fields.

❋ How many types of animals are there in your surroundings?

❋ How many types of plants are present in your surroundings?
❋ Are there any organisms which are not visible with your unaided eye?
❋ How many different types of organisms do you think could be present on your body?
There are a large variety of organisms on our earth, from the single celled organisms which are
invisible to unaided eye to the largest red wood trees and the biggest animals like Elephants and Whales.
All organisms which live in a particular place are the biodiversity of that particular place. The biodiversity
on our body includes around 10000 species. We may find some species in particular places only. At the
same time there are differences between two organisms of the same species in the same place.

4.1.1 Diversity in Plants

In the paddy fields Sunitha and Ramu observed the workers removing plants other than the
paddy. They asked their grandfather why the people were doing so? Grandpa told them that those
were plants harmful for paddy production and are called weeds. The grandfather showed them that
some weeds like Asters, Euphorbias and Amaranthuses were being dug out from the paddy fields and
planted in pots. These pots would be carried away to another field where flowering and medicinal
plants were being grown.
As the plants were being uprooted, grandpa asked the children to look for two aster plants that
were same. Ramu went searching for them. Sunitha said she would look for two same paddy plants.

❋ What do you think, will Sunitha be able to do that? Why?

❋ Grow some mustard seeds/ avala ginjalu in a pot. Once the plants are around 5 to 6 inches in
height, find out the similarities and differences in any two of them.
❋ Let the plants grow taller, try to find out two same leaves on the plant.
❋ Can you find two same leaves on a mango tree?
Grandpa told the children that no two plants on earth could be same. Also, it was not possible to
find two same leaves on any plant. ‘‘But all ants are same’’, said Sunitha. Ramu added, ‘‘the aphids on
the leaves of rice plants were same’’. Next day, grandpa gave them a handlens to find out if that was
true.

Science and Technology 37

4.1.2 Diversity in Animals
Grandpa told grandma ‘‘Today Laxmi didn't give milk properly’’. Grandma asked ‘‘What about
Gouri?’’. Sunitha was surprised! All the cows in the dairy were white. How did grandpa and grandma
make the difference? Grandpa asked them to take a closer look. See the ears, tails, eyes etc. more
closely.

Observe animals in the pictures and make a list of all the characters that one may study to find out
differences and similarities of such animals.
We see that biodiversity is about the differences in species and communities of them.
Differences within species also add to biodiversity.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Is it useful to have diverse organisms in an area? How?
✤ Write differences between any two organisms from your surroundings.
✤ What is biodiversity?
✤ By removing weeds from an agricultural field, do we affect the biodiversity of the area?
How?

4.2.1 Extinct species

The most dangerous animal in the world is Man.
Man not only kills his fellow human beings using his
intelligence for his survival, happiness and comfort, but also
many other creatures all over the world.

❋ Have you ever seen the creatures present in this picture?

❋ Do we see anything similar? What are they?

These are called Dinosaurs. They once lived on earth. We do not see them anymore but organisms
similar to them like the lizards, crocodiles etc. inhabit earth now. We do not know for certain how they

38 Science and Technology

became extinct. Some say that resources
in their habitat had become less while
others say that natural calamities had
caused their extinction.
In the last 100 years around 500
species of animals disappeared from the
earth. Due to human activities like Pink-headed duck Northern Sumatran
rhinoceros
pollution, deforestation, hunting or due to
natural calamities like earthquakes, floods, volcanoes these species animals were extinct on earth.

4.2.2 Endangered species

Countries on the Indian subcontinent began banning diclofenac in 2006 and since then,
vulture populations in the region seem to have increased.
‘Diclofenac’ is a drug that was used till 2006 in our country. Till then its use for treating diseases
in cattle was most widespread and it would remain in the flesh of the animals even when they died.
Vultures eating dead bodies having diclofenac residues, would die for certain. This lead to a drastic
reduction in numbers of vultures to such an extent that, it was almost as if, they would go extinct.
Fortunately, we found these vultures in Adilabad and Hyderabad of Telangana after the ban on the drug
was imposed. An organisation SAVE (Saving Asiatic Vultures from Extinct) is putting good efforts to
safeguard these asiatic vultures in Indian subcontinent. And slowly their number is increasing.

The white-rumped cycas Fishing cat Loris

vulture
These pictures are of organisms that are in danger of being extinct, in other words, these are
called, endangered species.
WWF (World wildlife federation), IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
together publish the data of endangered and extinct animals in a form of document called as the RED
DATA BOOK.

Science and Technology 39

4.2.3 Endemic species

Identify and write the names of the animals under their pictures.
All of us have heard the word ‘pandemic’ in connection to the corona virus disease. We know
that it spread all over the world. As against a pandemic, ‘endemic’ relates to a specific area. We may
thus say that Kangaroo populations are endemic to Australia as Asiatic lions are to India (Gir Forests).
Purple frogs are endemic to the Western Ghats of India.
❋ How do species of organisms become endangered?
❋ Which organisms have more chances of becoming endangered, those that have a pandemic
spread or those endemic to an area? Why?

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are endangered species? Explain with examples.
✤ Write some endemic species of India.

4.3 Factors for biodiversity

The forest affected by wolf population.
In 1872 when ‘Yellowstone National Park’ was created in West America, it was mainly to
support the prey population there. The predators affected deer population were controlled by rampant
hunting. Numbers of gray wolves, bears and other declined rapidly. By the end of 1920, wolves had
disappeared from the Yellow national park. After that, the number of deer (antelopes) increased
drastically. These deers started eating the plants, even small bushes. And slowly the forest started
vanishing. The wolves were recognized as endangered species and from 1995 they were introduced in
the national park. They started hunting deers and slowly the forest was restored.
❋ Why were predators being removed from Yellow Stone National Park ?
❋ How was the biodiversity of the park affected as the population of wolves diminished?
❋ How was the biodiversity of the park restored?
The organisms in a place depend upon each other directly or indirectly. Every species in the
world is unique and every species is important for Nature. We have to protect all species and biodiversity
of nature.

40 Science and Technology

 COVID 19 pandemic has caused large scale destruction of human population. Do you think this
can affect biodiversity? How?
Depletion of biodiversity may be caused by humans as for example pollution, hunting,
deforestation, destroying habitats by converting them to areas for production of essential commodities.
It may also be depleted by natural calamities like earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, volcanoes etc.

4.3.1 Conservation of biodiversity

Allow food chains and food webs in nature to continue without interruption.
Every creature in the world is unique and they depend upon each other. Humans for sake of their
existence, destroy biodiversity. Biodiversity is changing due to deforestation, pollution, hunting. We
have to protect biodiversity. We established national parks and sanctuaries for the conservation of
biodiversity.
National park is a place for preserving organisms (both animals and plants) in their natural habitat.
Poaching, hunting, cultivation, construction, mining is prohibited and collection of forest produce is
restricted in these areas. Examples of natural parks are Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand),
Kasu Bhahmananda Reddy National Park (Telangana).
❋ Find out one national park each in the States around Telangana.
❋ Write the name of a National park that falls across two states.
Apart from national parks, there are wildlife sanctuaries as well that provide protection mainly to
animals endemic of that area. Here also, animals are present in their natural habitats and capturing,
killing and poaching of animals is strictly prohibited. Examples of wild life sanctuary are: Eturnagaram
Wildlife Sanctuary (Telangana). Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala).

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Every organism in the world is important. Why?
✤ What is the need of establishing the National Parks and Sanctuaries?

4.4 Classification
It is estimated that there are around 10 million species on the earth. We have so far been able to
identify and name only about 1.5 million species. Organisms are present everywhere from very cold
places to very hot regions and from the highest mountain peaks to deep under the oceans. We are trying
to know about the organisms which are so small that we can't see with our unaided eyes to the largest
of them like elephants, whales and redwood trees. To study these organisms, we have to organize them
in a proper way.

Areas with high biodivesity have been identified as ‘‘Biodiversity Hotspots’’,

recognizing the need to conserve them.

Science and Technology 41

 We look for different characters to organize the living organisms on earth into different groups
that facilitate their study.
Thousands of years before in India, it is said that Sushruta and Parashara Maharshi studied the
medicinal plants and classified them on the basis of characteristics of roots, flowers, leaf etc and the
nature of medicines that were obtained.
Ancient records suggest that nearly 2000 years ago Aristotle, a Greek philosopher classified
organisms into plants and animals for the first time. The basis of classification was movement. According
to him animals were the group of organisms that could move from one place to the other while plants
could not. A proper schema of classification beyond these two kingdoms was laid out around 300
years ago by Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish Naturalist. He observed different patterns in nature and described
them with examples.
❋ We have studied earlier that most food chains begin with plants. Why is it so?
❋ What make plants distinct from animals?

4.4.1 Bi-nominal nomenclature

In 1730 AD in the village Prasanna Khamkar of
Rajasthan, 363 Bishnois in the leadership of Amritha Devi
sacrificed their lives to save Khejri trees. This Khejri tree was
declared as the state tree of Rajasthan. The United Arab
Emirates (UAE) also declared this Khejri tree as their National
Tree and they called it as Ghaf.
Did you identify this tree ? This is the Khejri tree. Does
it look like our Telangana state tree ‘‘Jammi Chettu’’? Yes,
this is our state tree ‘‘Jammi Chettu’’ which is called with
different names in different places.

Telangana Maharashtra Rajasthan Gujarath Haryana Panjab UAE

Jammi Shami Khejri Khijro Janthi Jaand Gafa

It is difficult to identify the tree or animal with various names in the various regions. Thus, a
standard protocol of nomenclature is required. One such protocol was introduced by Naturalist Carl
Linnaeus nearly 300 years ago. According to him, each and every organism would have one scientific
name of two words which could makes it easy to be identified universally. In this system of nomenclature
the first name represents the Genus and second word represents the Species.
❋ But what is a genus or what do we mean by species?

42 Science and Technology

4.2.3 The hierarchy of classification
The word Species has a broader meaning. A species is the basic unit of classification. It includes
all organisms that are similar enough to interbreed or even individually reproduce. Organisms of the
same species share maximum similarities among themselves. Let us take an example to see how Linnaeus
made a classification schema.
Species-Genus-Family- Order- Class- Division/Phylum-Kingdom
Read the following text and complete the hierarchy of classification in the dogs. Household dogs
come under species familiaris. The wolf which shows similar characteristics to that of dogs is considered
as the species lupus. Linnaeus differentiated dogs to wolves on the basis of the presence of an upturned
tail in them. Wolves and dogs have flesh tearing teeth called cannies and hence the genus Canus. Thus
the scientific name of the dog is Canus familiaris and that of wolf is Canus lupus. The similar
characteristic, that is, having a long funnel -like mouth (muzzle) of Genus - Canus and Genus Vulpes
(consisting of animals like foxes), relates to the family Canidae. And the similar characteristic of
carnivorous habits / flesh eating habits of animals like cats, bears, tigers etc. of different families puts
them under the same Order - Carnivora. The different orders showing similar characteristics of females
producing milk for feeding (nursing) their young comes under one Class the Mammalia. All other
animals, of different classes, having vertebrae come under Division - Chordata of Kingdom Animalia.
The relation and similarities will be more in the organisms pertaining to the same species and when it
comes to genus, family, order, class, division / phyla, kingdom the similar characteristics decreases.
Classification is based on similar and different characteristics only.
Classification schemas keep changing as organisms keep evolving. It is tough to make one schema
to fit all organisms as biodiversity diminishes/ increases on earth. Initially all organisms were classified
into two kingdoms. But after new characteristics were found, it was observed that some characteristics
of some organisms do not match either of the two kingdoms. In 1969 Whittaker proposed the
classification of 5 kingdoms. Even this one fails to classify all organisms clearly.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Explain the classification of human beings based on the characteristics at different levels of
classification.
✤ What is the need of classification of organisms?

Carolus Linnacus authored a book ‘‘Sistema Nature’’

Science and Technology 43

 Organisms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

(Prokaryotic (Eukaryotic single (Eukaryotic mostly (Eukaryotic multi (Eukaryotic Multi
single cell) cell) multi cellular, cellular, Auto cellular,
Eg: Bacteria Eg: Ameoba saphophytes) tropic) Heterotropic)

Plant Kingdom (Plantae)

Non-floweating floweating

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

(No differentiation (No true (True roots, (No flowers, seeds (Flowering plants
of roots, body etc) roots, leaves) spore bearing naked and not fruits bearing
Eg: Algae Eg:Mass leaves) enclosed in fruits) seeds)
Eg: Ferns Eg: Pine

Monocots Dicots
(Single cotyledon or (Two cotyledons or
enbryonic leaf) embryonic leaves)
Eg: Maize Eg: Mango

44 Science and Technology

 Animalia

Non-chordata (without backbone) Chordata (with backbone)

Porifera Coclenterata Platy helminthes Nematoda Annelida Arthropoda Mollusca Echinodermata

(Limbs are
(Organisms (Cnidaria) (Three layers (Three layers (Segmented present, well (Open circula- (External skel-
with holes) (Two layered flattended body, bilated sym- cylindrical body, developed tory system, eton system,
Eg: Sponge and hallow bilateral symmetry) metry, True body carity) organ sys- less segmented) True coelom)
body cavity) Eg: Tape worm cylindrical Eg: Earth worm tem.) Eg: Snails Eg: Starfish
Eg: Hydra body) Eg: Spiders
Eg: Ascaris

e]ºÁuÒ{≤

Fish Amphibran Reptiles Brids Mammalia

(Gills present, (Can live on water (Skin with scales, (Feathers, warm (Produce milk for
cold blooded, and earth, cold blooded, blooded, feeding their young,
2 chambered 3 chambered heart, 3 chambered heart) 4 chambered warm blooded
heart) cold blooded) Eg: Snake heart) 4 chambered heat)

Science and Technology

Eg: Fish Eg: Frog Eg: Dove Eg: Goat

45
The pit Bull is the most dangerous dog in the world. This dog is banned in most countries.
 KEY POINTS
z In a particular place, the variety of plants, animals and other organisms live together. The enormous
variety of organisms is termed biodiversity (bios means life and diversity means variety)
z There are differences between plants and also between animals. There is diversity in two animals
of the same species. Means in the world any two organisms will not be exactly the same.
z Endemic species are those that are found in just one region and nowhere else in the world.
z We established National Parks and Sanctuaries for the conservation of biodiversity. National park
is a place for preserving animals by providing natural habitat and prey.
z Each and every organism would have one scientific name of two words is called binomial
nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus.
z Classification is the systematic study of organisms present in nature.
z Whittaker classified all organisms into 5 kingdoms. They are 1. Monera 2. Protista 3. Fungi 4.
Plantae 5. Animalia
z The animals which are capable of interbreeding and perpetuate or even individually reproduce
come under species.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What is biodiversity ? And why should we conserve biodiversity?

2. What are the causes for changing biodiversity ?
3. Write the differences between extinct and endangered species?
4. What is Red Data Book ?
5. What is the purpose of making National Parks and Sanctuaries ?
6. Who introduced binomial nomenclature? Why ?
7. Who introduced 5 kingdom at classification
A) Linneus B) Wittaker C) Aristatel D) Parashara
8. First word in the binomial nomenclature.
A) Kingdom B) Genus C) Family D) Species
9. Vultures
A) Endangered species B) Extinct species C) Endemic species D) Forest organisms
10. Match the following
A) Monera ( ) 1. Milk feeding
B) Mammalia ( ) 2. True coelom, external skeleton
C) Arthropoda ( ) 3. Prokaryotic, Unicellular
D) Echinodermata ( ) 4. Jointed legs

46 Science and Technology

 CHAPTER

5 Ecosystem Services -
Food Production
❋ What did ancient people eat?
❋ What was the first crop?
Before people began cultivating crops they would have spent their time wandering over a large
area hunting animals and birds, fishing, gathering shellfish and collecting fruits, nuts, vegetables including
tubers and grains in season. According to the information available so far, wheat is the first cereal crop
to be cultivated by human. Later they also harvested vegetables such as onions, cabbages, beans,
cucumbers and lettuce. They also reared several varieties of animals.
Agriculture is a composite term that includes all those activities which involve appropriate utilization
of earth's resources for fulfillment of human needs of food, fodder, fibre, fuel, etc. Agriculture includes
growing of crops, fruits, flowers and vegetables, on one hand, and animal husbandry and fisheries, on
the other. We all depend on agriculture. Today agricultural research and sustainable farming has placed
India among the top agricultural nations.
❋ So why are most farmers so poor in India?
❋ What are the methods to be followed to increase the productivity of land?
❋ How animal husbandary can meet food shortage?
In addition to all of these, in this lesson we will learn about the methods of food production and
animal husbandry practices which are being carried out in our country.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Discusses and elaborates present situation of crop production
✰ Classifies and compares Rainy season (Kharif), Yasangi crops (Rabi), short day and long
day crops for optimizing production
✰ Explains processes leading to food production, factors affecting food production
✰ The value of animal husbandry, poultry and fisheries as income generating activities;
✰ Describes the link between production, storage and distribution.
✰ Applies food production related scientific concepts in daily life connecting science and society.

Science and Technology 47

5.1 Increase crop production
❋ Can increasing area under cultivation help?
The only way to meet the food needs and rising demands of a growing population is to increase
agricultural production. This requires soil testing and adoption of modern techniques in crop cultivation.
As cities expand, agricultural land is encroached upon, we need to curb this. Efforts towards
turning barren or wastelands to agriculturally productive land can also help to increase production.
Crop rotation and multiple cropping along with a regular work force involved in agriculture is necessary.
We also need education that promotes knowledge of agricultural processes and practices.
❋ What can be done to increase the production in a piece of land?
Conduct a small survey in your locality (at least 20 households) to find out how many people
own farms. Also find out if the farms' produce is enough to bear food and other needs of the whole
family all through the year. Also find out the ways adopted to increase production.
Here is a table that you may use for your survey.

Name No. of Area of Farm- Crops grown What helps to Is agriculture

members land owned increase the only
(if any) productions? occupation?
Give a reason

S.Rao 8 4 acres Gourd, Drip irrigation, No, not enough

brinjal, good seed, for need of all
tomato, green manure,
cucumber, fertilizer,
fodder pesticide, crop
rotation, multiple
cropping

5.1.1 Selection of high yielding varieties of crops

❋ What is a high yielding crop?
High yielding varieties of agricultural crops are usually characterized by a combination of higher
crop yield per area, response to fertilizers, resistive to many diseases, early maturation etc.
Often seeds of hybrid varieties have such characters. Fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop
yield. We have heard about green revolution in India that took place in the 1960s in mainly the wheat
growing states of India. A high yielding wheat variety named Sharbati Sonora was used that raised
production manifold. But it brought with it the perils of overuse of fertilizer and pesticides. Also raised
questions on using high yielding varieties of crops. Soil in the areas that reported the high yield of wheat

48 Science and Technology

production by green revolution was damaged beyond repair. Soil being an important resource for
farming needs to be tested at regular intervals.

5.1.2 Soil testing

❋ What is the importance of soil testing?
A soil test commonly refers to the analysis of a soil sample to determine nutrient content, its
composition, and other characteristics such as the acidity or pH level. It is mainly done to optimize crop
production, to protect the environment from contamination of excess fertilizers, pesticides etc. and also
save money. It is useful to know which soil is suitable for which type of crop cultivation

5.1.3 Plant nutrients

Soil is a major source of nutrients needed by plants for growth.
❋ What are the most important plant nutrients? How do plants get nutrients?
❋ Why are nutrients important for plants?
For healthy growth, crops need nutrients. A total of 17 elements are needed by plants. Plants
receive carbon and oxygen from air, oxygen and hydrogen from water (present mainly in soil) and the
remaining 14 nutrient minerals are received from the soil. Out of the total number of essential nutrient
elements, six are needed by plants in larger quantity. These are called ‘macronutrients’. They are -
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur. The remaining 8 nutrients are
needed in smaller quantities. These are called ‘micronutrients’. These include Iron, Manganese, Boron,
Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine and Nickel. Different varieties of crops would require different
amount of nutrients and water. Need for both could vary on the basis of seasons as well.

5.1.4 Seasonal variation and crops

❋ What are the seasonal crops cultivated in India?
Based on seasons, crops grouped as; Rainy season crops (Kharif) and Yasangi Crops (winter
season crops-Rabi). Rainy season (Kharif) crops are sown in June-July when early rains begin. They
require lot of water and hot weather to grow. Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute,
groundnut, soybean, sugarcane, til (sesame), jute etc. crops are cultivated during this season. Wheat,
barley, millets, tobacco, potato, peas, gram, mustard etc. crops are cultivated during winter season.
❋ Why certain flowers bloom only in certain seasons?
❋ Why do we get certain fruits in one particular season and not the others?

Irrigation of crops is usually done through various systems like canals, tubes, pumps, and
sprayers. In our state one or two ponds are there in each village and crops are irrigated
through these.

Science and Technology 49

 Photoperiodism is the phenomenon of physiological changes that occur controls flowering in
plants. It is in response to relative length of day and night (i.e. photoperiod). The response of the plants
to the photoperiod, flowers are intiated in plants. Hence we get certain fruits in a particular season only.
Depending upon the duration of photoperiod, the plants are classified into three categories.
1. Short day plants: These plants require a relatively short-day light period (usually 8-10 hours) and
a continuous dark period of about 14-16 hours for subsequent flowering. E.g. Rice, coffee, soybean,
tobacco and chrysanthemum.
2. Long day plants: These plants require longer day light period (usually 14-16 hours) for subsequent
flowering. Eg. Wheat, radish, cabbage, sugar beet and spinach.
3. Day neutral plants: These plants flower irrespective of photoperiod. i.e. at any day length.
Eg. Tomato, cotton, sunflower, cucumber, peas.

5.1.5 Methods to increase crop production

a) Crop rotation, b) Mixed farming/ multiple cropping, c) Organic farming.
❋ Why is crop rotation important?
❋ Can we grow a combination of crops to increase yield? How?
❋ Why is organic farming important?
Read the section here and see if you can answer these 3 questions.
a) Crop rotation: Growing of crops in a predetermined sequence, at a particular time of the year, is
called crop rotation. An example is, growing rice at a time when the soil water content is highest in a
year, followed by a crop like gram that will require less water and help in adding nutrients to the soil as
removed by rice. Gram has nodules in its roots with nitrogen fixing bacteria that promotes replenishment
of nitrogen in soil. Similarly, first those crops are grown which require more fertilizers. Subsequent to
this, those crops are planted that require less fertilizer. For instance, first potatoes are grown then,
Moong (pulses) crop is cultivated. Similarly, firstly the deep rooted crops are grown and then those
with smaller roots. For example, cotton is planted first and then 'Methi' and jowar crop is cultivated
after harvesting the pulse crops like moong or urad.
Benefits of crop rotation
❑ Maintains fertility of fields and affords soil nutrition due to abundance of nitrogen
❑ Prevents soil erosion
❑ Effective use of available resources
❑ Controls the insects and diseases which are affecting crops
❑ Regular income throughout the year. Production of crops is economical and crop productivity
Increases.

50 Science and Technology

b) Mixed cropping/ multi cropping: Mixed Cropping is the growing of two or more than two crops
(2 - 4 crops) at the same time in the same field. For instance, mixed cropping of wheat with peas,
wheat with Mustard, groundnut with sunflowers, jowar with safflower, jowar with red gram. During this
process the crops are planted in separate rows as their maturation time and harvesting time are different.
The biggest advantage of mixed cropping is that the farmer gets two crops simultaneously at one time or
within a short interval of time from the same field. Mixed cropping also maintains soil fertility.
c) Organic farming: Organic farming is a method of cultivating crops by using naturally formed
manures. It also ensures that natural environment is not affected in a negative way. It targets high quality
crop yields.

5.1.6 Benefits of Organic manures and

fertilizers
❋ What are the disadvantages (risks) of chemical fertilizers?
❋ What are the naturally occurring organic fertilizers?
a) Organic manures make the top soil more fertile and increases
the crop yield. Depending on the type of soil and a kind of crop
farmers' use different fertilizers and manures. Organic manures Vermi-compost
are natural materials (such as grass, the droppings/urine of birds/
animals or parts of organisms etc) that help in increasing soil fertility. When these are mixed with the soil,
soil becomes porous, increasing the water storage capacity. Usually the nutrients in them are in small
quantities. Now-a -day's emphasis is being laid on a sustainable use of organic manure as a major
alternative to fertilizers. Some commonly used organic manures are; compost, vermi-compost, farm
manure (decomposed plant and animal waste / debris), green manure etc.
❑ Vermi-compost: Vermi-compost is also calleds earthworm manure or vermiculture. Earthworms
are termed ‘‘The True Friends of the farmers’’ or ‘‘The Natural ploughers’’. Earthworms feed on
cow dung, dry leaves, grass, remnants of rice plants and plant refuse in the fields and they leave
their excrements products in the form of vermin-composts. This is a complete natural, nutrients-
rich and balanced kind of fertilizers.
❑ Compost: Compost is the manure created out of household wastes such as vegetables refuses,
fodder, plants and animals debris which is decomposed in a ditch in the home backyard or
compost pit.
❑ Panchagavya It is an organic product which can be used as manure. Panchagavya is a concoction
of cow dung, cow urine, milk, curd and ghee. Along with the five constituents that come from the
cow, it also contains jaggery, banana, and coconut water.

Science and Technology 51

❑ Biofertilizer contains living micro-organisms. When it is applied
to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, it colonizes the rhizosphere of the
plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability
of primary nutrients to the host plant. Rhizobium, Azospirillum,
Azotobactor and blue green algae are used biofertilizers
Rhizobium inoculant is used for leguminous crops. Azotobacter Blue Green Alga (BGA)
can be used with crops like wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potato - CYANOBACTERIUM
and other vegetable crops.
b) Chemical Fertilizers contain one, two or three essential nutrients in large amounts. These fertilizers
are prepared commercially in a factory from chemicals. Nitrogen, phosphates and Potassium (NPK)
fertilizers are very important. Now-a-days potassium, urea, Super phosphate and ammonium phosphate
and Curate of Potash fertilizers are widely used

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How different types of organic fertilizers prepared?
✤ What are the benefits of mixed cropping and crop rotation?
✤ How many types of crop plants are there based on photoperiodism? What are they?
✤ What are the macro and micro nutrients needed by plants for their growth?

5.2 Crop protection

Crop protection is the science and practice of managing plant diseases, weeds and other pests
that damage agricultural crops.

5.2.1 Weeds
❋ Why weeds have to be removed?
Weed is an undesirable plant that grows along with crop plants. The weeds grow along with
crops and compete with the main crop for sunlight, water and space, and also take away nutrients from
the soil. Crop yielding is reduced due to decreased fertility of the soil. Hence, for better yield, weeds
should be removed from the fields in the beginning itself. These can be removed by using the plough or
harrow or can be removed manually.
Weedicides are the chemicals which are sprayed over field to get rid of weeds. They will not
show any effect on crop plants. Two popularly used weedicides are 2,4-D (2, 4 dichlorophenoxy
acetic acid- acts as a dicot weedicide) and Neem extract, spraying weedicides like Cemazine also
removes the weeds.

52 Science and Technology

5.2.2 Common plant diseases
❋ How do you identify the plant diseases? What are causative organisms of plant diseases?
❋ What are the signs and effects of plant diseases?
Most plant diseases around 85 percent are caused by fungi. And the remaining diseases are
caused by pests, nematodes, bacteria and viruses.
❑ Fungal disease: Rust of wheat, smut of sorghum, tikka disease of
groundnut, red rot of sugarcane, rice blast, late blight of potato, early
blight of solanum, root rot disease, leaf spot diseases etc.
❑ Bacterial diseases: Citrus canker, grown gall, scab, rice bacterial
blight, fire blight of apples etc.
❑ Viral diseases: Mosaic diseases of tobacco, tomato, cauliflower.
Tikka Disease
❑ Insect pests: Pest insects include surface feeders that damage foliage
by chewing, piercing, or sucking. Some pest organisms spread diseases. Some examples of
pests are mosquitoes, locusts, aphids. But not all insects are pests. Many kinds of insects are
beneficial which eat other harmful insects and some other insects help in pollination.
❑ Control of plant disease and pests: There are certain plant diseases that cannot be treated so
the prevention is better than cure. A variety of chemicals are available that have been designed to
control plant diseases by inhibiting the growth of or by killing the disease-causing pathogens.
Chemicals like pesticides, bactericides, fungicides, nematicides used to control pests, bacteria,
fungi, and nematodes may be applied respectively to seeds, foliage, flowers, fruit, or soil.

5.2.3 Storage of grains

❋ Where are grains stored? Why is storage of grains important?
❋ What are the safe methods to store grains?
After harvesting, grains need to be stored safely. If there is lack of proper storage facilities, then
the grain is vulnerable to attacks by insects, worms, fungi and various kinds of microbes. Following is a
list of some techniques that have been developed to prevent the grains from deteriorating as well as
maintaining their safe storage.
❑ By drying: Grains can be dried in the sun, or it can be dried by exposing it to hot air can be
stored for along period.
❑ Chemical treatment: Prior to storage, there is sprinkling of insecticides and fungicides chemicals
on the godowns and the storage vessels. Grains are also stored with neem leaves. It prevents
insects from ovulating.
❑ The godowns, sacks, tanks or vessels used for storage of grain, should not have crack or holes
in them. They should be clean. Cold storages are used commercially to store fruits and grain

Science and Technology 53

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ What are weedicides? Give example.
✤ Name some prominent fungal diseases crops.
✤ What are the safe methods of storage of grains in rural areas?

5.3 Practices used in crop production

Case Study-1: Paddy cultivation steps
Paddy cultivation involves the following steps;
❑ Preparation of Field: Before growing crops proper
ploughing of the soil is necessary. Ploughing loosens the soil
and it helps in easy transportation of air and water.
❑ Transplantation: Picking up seedlings from the nursery
beds and these seedlings are sown in the field in proper
distances. This is called transplantation.
❑ Field Maintenance (Applying manure, Irrigation,
Weeding): Applying manure and fertilizers at a specific time, watering crop plants in the field,
removal of weeds from the field and controlling pests and diseases by spraying/ dusting pesticides
are necessary steps to get maximum yield.
❑ Harvesting: Collecting grains from crop by cutting the matured rice plants is called harvesting. It
is done either manually or by machines.
❑ Threshing, Winnowing and Milling: Threshing is done
to separate the grains from rice twigs. Winnowing is to be
done to blow-off/remove chaffs, dust and husk from the
grains.
❑ Storage of grains: Grains are stored tins/ bags/ rooms/
cold storage units after drying them hot sunlight.
❋ Write the missing steps in the cycle of practices followed
for production of paddy.

Case Study-2
Steps in Cotton Cultivation
Cotton is the most important fibre crop not only in India but all over the world. It provides raw
material (cotton- fibre) for the textile industry. Its seeds are used in the vanaspathi (margarine) industry

54 Science and Technology

and can also be used in fodder for better milk production for dairy cattle. Cotton is a tropical and sub-
tropical crop. It requires 210 C - 300 C temperature range, with average annual rainfall of 50-100
cms. It is cultivated in black loam and loamy soils even in areas with low rainfall. There are different
stages in cotton cultivation.
❑ Soil preparation: It is necessary to plough the soil before harvesting for weed removal. Ploughing
loosens and loosens the soil. It helps to transport air and water easily. Due to ploughing of the
cultivable soil surface, the plant residues (litter) remaining in the field are incorporated into the soil
and becomes compost.
❑ Sowing of seeds: Seeds must be purchased from a certified company. Seed should be treated
before sowing. For this, fungicides @ 3 g / kg cotton seeds or with bio-fertilizers like Azotobacter,
Azospirillum @ 25 g / kg seeds are used. Cotton seeds are sown in rows and at certain distances
by manually or with the help of machines. In traditional cultivation methods, special equipment
fitted to a plough (plow) or tractor is used for planting. Cotton seeds are sown till the end of June.
Per acre, @ 1.25 kg hybrid cotton seeds or @ 3 kg domestic cotton seeds are required.
❑ Field Management (Fertilizer, Irrigation, Weeding, Diseases and Their Control): Cotton seeds
germinate in 10-11 days. About 6 - 8 weeks after planting, flower buds appear on cotton plants.
In another three weeks, bloom. After three days, they wither and fall off. Cotton nuts are called
‘cotton bolls’. When the boll is ripe, it turns brown and burst. White cotton is seen outside when
bolls burst.
❑ Irrigation: It depends on the nature Fertilizers Requirement (kg/acre)
of the soil and climatic conditions.
Varieties Urea DAP or SSP
The stages of flowering and the
formation of bolls are the critical Bt 65 27 75
stages that require irrigation. Crops
Non Bt 130 27 75
planted in summer require frequent
irrigation over a period of 8-12 days.
❑ Weeding: Weeds can be removed by manual, mechanical and chemical methods. Weeding is
carried out 5-6 weeks later or before the first irrigation. This should be done even after each
irrigation. Do not allow Parthenium to grow around cotton fields as they increase the chance of
melee bug insect infestation.
❑ Diseases and their control: Crop must be protected from diseases, because after flower bud
formation the attacks of diseases begin. Diseases such as Fusarium wilt, anthracnose, Alternaria
leaf spot, and American ball worm are common. There are many types of chemicals are available
in the market. Alternative methods should be adopted for these in crop care.

Science and Technology 55

❑ Border and intercrops: Border crops such as marigold, castor, maize, sorghum, red gram and
peas are grown in cotton fields, which serve as insect trap crops (mostly boll worms) and as a
barrier or guard crops. Green gram is an intercrop that not only provides extra income but also
helps in conserving soil moisture.
❑ Harvesting: Cotton can be harvested by humans or machines. The refined cotton is compressed
as bales for further storage and economic storage for transportation. After harvest (post-harvest)
sheep, goats and other animals should not be allowed to graze on the cotton field as these animals
may be at risk of getting sick from eating the leaves affected by the pesticides.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Compare paddy cultivation with cotton cultivation.
✤ How are trap or inter crops useful in cotton crop?
✤ What are the important stages of rice production?
✤ Draw the cycle showing important practices of cotton production.

5.4 Animal husbandry

❋ What are the food items that are obtained from animals?
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with tending and increasing production
of animals that are raised for meat, milk, eggs, or other products like honey and wool.
Here are some ways in which we acquire some products -

5.4.1 Dairy farming

❋ What is white revolution? What is the purpose of white revolution?
Dairy farming includes all those animals which produce milk
and meat. Species commonly used are cows, and buffalos, but
goats, sheep and camels are also used in some areas. The quantity
and quality of the milk produced depends on their diet and health.
Milch animals should be cleansed regularly; in case of illness
veterinary specialists should have consulted constantly.

Prof. J.K. Kurian, father of white revolution in India, worked a lot in

increasing milk production through cooperative societies to fulfill the needs
of our country. He proposed innovative activities in producing hybrid
varieties of cows and buffaloes, and achieved a great improvement in
production of milk under the scheme called - Operation flood.

56 Science and Technology

5.4.2 Poultry farming
Eggs and chicken meat are major sources of proteins, vitamins and minerals. Poultry farming not
only contributes to a better quality of food, but is also a major source of income for many farmers in the
country. Hens reared for eggs are called ‘layers’ and those reared for chicken meat are called ‘broilers’.

5.4.3 Aquaculture
❋ What is blue revolution?
Nowadays fish and prawn culture is a large scale industry. Sardines, mackerel, crustaceans,
tunas, mollusks, catfish, ribbon fishes are some of the marine varieties are cultured in fisheries. Besides
these, the sea weeds may be included which form an important living source from the sea. Prawns,
lobsters, and crabs together constitute the crustacean fishery also grown. Murrel (korramenu), katla
(jalla), katrana (bochalu), rohu (mosu), seer (Vanjiram) are the local varieties are cultured.

5.4.4 Bee farming (Apiculture)

Culture of Honey bees is called ‘apiculture’. Apiculture is not only for honey production but also
very much useful for crop pollination since honey bees are best pollinators of many agricultural crops.
Apiculture is the technique of scientific rearing of honey bees in specially designed wooden
boxes and honey and wax are collected from artificial hives.
Honey bee species are social insects which live in
colonies. A honey bee colony consists of three types of
bees. One queen, several thousands of workers, few
hundreds of drones. The life span of queen, bee is two to
three years, a worker has 5-6 weeks and the drone has
57 days. The primary function of a queen bee is to lay
eggs (800-1200 eggs per day). The worker bees in the
hive will attend the duties during first three weeks of their
lives such as secretion of royal jelly, feeding of the brood.
After 3 weeks they attend outdoor duties like collection
of nectar, pollen and water. Drones are the male members of the colony. Their main duty is to participate
in mating. Mating takes place in the open air when the queen is in flight. The Drone dies immediately as
their abdomen burst open during mating process.

NECC (National Egg Co-ordination Committee): An egg a day keeps the doctor
away. This is the slogan of National Egg Co-ordination Committee. Egg is a good
nutritious food which is easily available for all.

Science and Technology 57

 During 1968-1988 period Dr. M.S. Swaminathan Introduced high yielding
wheat and paddy varieties into our country and contributed for self-
sufficiency in food grain production. Hence he is called as father of green
revolution in India

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the benefits of animal husbandary?
✤ Which organisms are grown in aquaculture? Give examples.
✤ Differentiate green revolution and white revolution.
✤ What are produced in apiculture?

KEY POINTS

z Agriculture is a composite term that includes all those activities which involve appropriate utilization
of earth's resources for fulfillment of human needs of food, fodder, fibre and fuel
z In agriculture grow crops of cereals, pulses fruits, flowers vegetable etc on one hand and practise
animal husbandry on the other.
z Rainy season crops are called as Kharif and winter season crops are called as Yasangi Crops
(Rabi crops)
z Growing more than one crop on a piece of land during the year is known as multiple cropping.
z Along with hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides are used to increase crop yield.
z Methods like crop rotation; organic farming helps to increases crop productivity and maintains soil
health.
z The use of organic fertilizers like Vermi-compost, Farmyard manure, Panchagavya, Biofertilizer
has become very popular in recent times.
z Paddy is cultivated in areas where water availability is abundant and cotton in the areas with
average annual rainfall of about 50-100 cms.
z Hens reared for eggs are called ‘layers’ and those reared for chicken meat are called ‘broilers’.
z Fish and Prawns (shrimps) are cultured as a part of the blue revolution.
z Rearing of honey bees is called ‘apiculture’.

58 Science and Technology

 PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Name a crop that has highest market price in your state.

2. Minimum support price (MSP) is the price fixed by the government. This ensures that a buyer pay
that amount or more to the farmer. Do you think this is required? Why /why not?
3. Write the differences between organic manures and chemical fertilizers.
4. What are the different photo-periods? How do plants respond to them?
5. Explain the important stages of cotton cultivation.
6. Explain the main methods used to increase crop yield.
7. Identify the macro-nutrient from the following. ( )
A) Iron (Fe) B) Copper (Cu) C) Calcium (Ca) D) Chlorine (Cl)
8. Identify the rainy season crop from the following. ( )
A) Sugar cane B) Mustard C) Wheat D) Tobacco
9. Which of the following is a bacterial disease of crop plants? ( )
A) Paddy blast B) Fire blight of apple
C) Smut of sorghum D) Tikka disease of groundnut
10. White Revolution is related to which of the following? ( )
A) Production of food grains B) Production of honey
C) Production of milk D) Production of meat
11. Match the following:
A) Short day plant ( ) 1. Tomato
B) Long day plant ( ) 2. Parthenium
C) Day neutral plant ( ) 3. Beet root
D) Weed plant ( ) 4. Soya bean

Parthenium is a common weed that grows in all open

spaces. It came to our country from America (USA) along
with wheat. Its pollen causes asthma, skin diseases and
skin allergy.

Science and Technology 59

 CHAPTER

Ecosystems
6 Within Us - Health
My friend is a doctor in a well known hospital. She has been handling COVID cases. She has
tested positive. She is trying to remain healthy by eating vegetables and fruits, a lot of water, Medicines
at proper time. Cleaning up and sanitizing her surroundings with sprays of sanitizers.
But the vegetable vendor has stopped supplying to her house and the man who used to come to
collect waste earlier does not come to her house anymore.
Two of her neighbours have extended their support.

❋ Why do you think people are distancing her?

❋ Can we say for sure that someone who tests negative for COVID is healthy?
❋ What is health and does having a disease mean?
❋ How is our health maintained.
❋ What is immunity and how can we be immunized?
This lesson aims to make an effort to anser such questions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Can distinguish between healthy and unhealthy conditions.
✰ Understands the role of healthy habits in maintaining a good health.
✰ Appreciates the individual and social aspects of health.
✰ Explain the causes, symptoms and preventive measures of few communicable and non
communicable diseases
✰ Express awareness about national immunization programme and how it prevents certain
communicable diseases
✰ Appreciates the work of scientists in the discoveries leading to maintian health.
✰ Applies the knowledge of first aid to daily life

60 Science and Technology

6.1 Health
‘‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence
of disease’’. It means proper functioning of the body and the mind can leads to good health.
There are large number of factors which affects our health; like diet, environment, Our relationships,
the constitution or genetic make up of our body.

6.1.1 Signs of good health

❋ Is the absence of disease a sign of good health?
Health is a general well - being of person influnced by physical mental & social conditions. There
are three dimensions of health are together referred to as health triangle as shown in the Figure. Here is
a cheklist of points. They help in assessing one's state of health. Put a tick mark on points you quality
to.
A) Signs of Physical health: If in good physical health, you

❑ shall be energetic and alert.

❑ have normal weight appropriate height and age

Soc
alth

ial
❑ have good eye sight with bright eyes.

l he

hea
sica
❑ have all the body organs functioning normally and fall sick less often.

lth
Phy
❑ have clean and clear skin.
❑ have normal growing hair Mental health
❑ have odourless breath Health Traingle
❑ have good apetite
B) Signs of Mental health: If in good mental health, you

❑ have control over emotions

❑ balanced feelings, desires, ambitions and ideas.
❑ the ability to accept the realities of life and face them
❑ the ability to cope with normal stresses of life
❑ the ability to give and seek help when needed.
❑ cope with conflict and disagreement
C) Signs of Social health: If in good social health, you

❑ have a positive attitude towards life

❑ get along with others
❑ have a pleasant personality

Science and Technology 61

❑ fulfill responsibility/duties towards others
❑ have healthy inter personal relationships
❑ shall be able to express disagreement positively

6.1.2 Abiotic Vs biotic factors

You have studied in previous lesson about abiotic and biotic factors. Abiotic factors such as
Oxygen, Carbondioxide, temperature, pH, Sunlight, water and biotic factors such as micro organisms,
plants, animals affect our health.
We all know, we breath oxygen, helps in respiration. O2 also helps in break down of food stuff
that we eat, at cellular level in our body. The CO2 aids in guarding the pH of our blood and inturn aids
in maintaining the body temperature which is essential for us to survive.
Our body temperature may reveal a lot about your health. Normal body temperature is considered
to be 98.6oF/37oc. Having a temperature around this could suggest that we are healthy. For all vital
functions of our body, Proper body temperature is needed. Temperature and pH of our body are
influenced by Carbondioxide. Water is an essential component for us, Proper intake of water replenishes
the lost fluids from sweat. Water aids kidney to work efficiently, prevent kidney stones. All metabolic
activities in our body require water - ‘‘Water is life’’.
The microbes also help us, to maintain good health. The microbes of the skin, mouth and nose
fight against bad microbes that enter the body to cause diseases. Colonies of these microbes in some
organs maintain an acidic environment that prevent the growth of other micro organisms that might
cause diseases.
Plants make food with the help of Carbondioxide, Water, Sunlight, which are abiotic factors.
Plants Form food to animals and humans. We get the nutrients (Carbohydrates, Proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals) from plant and animals. All the abiotic factors are inter linked and also linked to biotic factors.
Which inturn help us to stay healthy.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Mention the three dimensions of health
✤ Name the biotic and abiotic factors that affect our health.

6.2 Unhealthy Vs Diseases

From the check list that we had attempted earlier, we find that being healthy depends upon
different conditions around us.
A person eating fatty foods all the time or a person appearing to be ill or a person having inability
to fall a sleep, many more characteristics, which do not have a state of good or normal health is

62 Science and Technology

considered to be unhealthy. Unhealthy conditions can lead to diseases. The word disease is self
explanatory. It literally means being un comfortable (Dis+ease).
It can be as mild as cold, sore throat or as serious as cancer. A disease can strike any part of the
body at any age. If a person has an identifiable disease he may be said to have poor health.

6.2.1 Causes of diseases

❋ Think about the last time you had a disease. Enlist the causes of the same.
When we think about causes of diseases, we must remember that there are many levels of
causes. Let us look at an example to understand it. Ramu caught cold from his classmate shyam, who
is experiencing cold from couple of days.
When an infected person sneezes, the virus - containing droplets are released into the air. Such
type of infected droplets when inhaled causes cold. This might be one of the cause of infection. But why
did Ramu alone got infected though there were many students in that class who inhaled the same
infected droplets? May be Ramu’s immunity is low compared to other students, this can be another
cause of infection. What might be the cause of low immunity? However, poor or improper nutruition,
can be a factor in lowering the immune system, this is also one more cause. Poor economical conditions
may lead to poor nutrition, which inturn leads to reduced immunity.

❋ Do you think improper nutrition causes cold?

The cause which support or prevent causing a disease is called contributory cause. In the above,
discussion the virus that caused cold is the immediate cause of infection and all the other causes are the
contributory causes. It is obvious that all diseases will have immediate causes and contributory causes
Most of the diseases will have many causes rather than one single cause.

Activity
Taking as an example of disease, you have had, write its immediate and contributory causes.

6.2.2 Types of Diseases

Diseases can be categorized in many ways, some diseases are by birth (congenital diseases) and
some can be acquired during life. (acquired diseases), some are caused by infectious agents (bacteria,
virus etc)

An epidemic is the rapid spread of a disease to a large number of people in a given population
with in a very short period of time. If an epidemic is spread across the multiple countries
then it is termed as pandemic - SARS-COVID-19

Science and Technology 63

 Study the flow chart carefully.

DISEASES

Congenital diseases Acquired diseases - Develop after birth

- Present since birth
Eg: Genetc disorders,
Communicable diseases Non Communicable diseases
congenital heart defects.
Eg: Malaria Eg: Cancer

Communicable diseases:

❋ Why do we use mosquito repellents? What happens if a mosquito bites us?

❋ Why are we adviced to drink boiled tap water?
Diseases that spread from one person to another are called communicable diseases, they are
usually caused by Micro organisms called pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoans, worms)

Bacteria & Virus

Bacteria:
❑ Bacteria are single celled living organisms, with diverse shapes and structural features.
❑ They can live in almost every possible environment including in or on the human body.
❑ Some of the bacterial diseases in human include - Tuberculosis, gonorrhea, cholera, tetanus,
Diptheria, Syphilis, typhoid.
❑ One can kill harmful bacteria in food and water by proper cooking and boiling.
❑ Some of the bacterial diseases can be treated by taking antibiotics
Virus:
❑ Same as bacteria, viruses are diverse and have variety of shapes and features.
❑ These are much smaller than bacteria
❑ Viruses replicate only when they have living resources in their contact.
❑ Some of the viral diseases in humans include - dengue fever, chicken pox, measles, HIV-AIDS,
COVID-19 disease.
❑ Antibiotics do not work for viral infections.
❑ It is difficult to develop antiviral drugs because it is challenging to target the virus which is in the
host cells without harming them.

64 Science and Technology

Method of Transmission:

❋ Regarding the present COVID-19 pandemic it is repeatedly

being said -
‘‘Stay home stay safe’’, ‘‘wear mask while going out’’,
‘‘maintain social distancing’’, ‘‘wash your hands with soap & water
or use alcohol based sanitizer’’. These guidelines must be followed

❋ How can we reduce the risk of infection by following these guide lines?
The disease causing organisms can be transferred from one person to another by direct or indirect
contact. Study the following flow chart..
Disease transmission

Direct Indirect

Direct Droplet Air Water Vector

Contact Spread borne borne borne

Mechanical Biological
Vectors Vectors

Eg: Houseflies, Eg: Mosquitoes

Cockroaches & Ticks

Diseases such as amoebiasis and cholera are spread by houseflies and cockroaches which
contaminate our drinking water and food by carrying pathogens. Female mosquitoes feed on human
and vertebrate animal blood, inturn allow the pathogens enter into our body causing diseases like
Malaria and dengue. When an infectious agent (or) pathogen is carried by an insect or animal to
susceptible host is termed as vector borne transmission, the pathogen may some times multiply in the
body of the vector (mosquitoes, ticks) such vectors are called biological vectors. Some insects like
houseflies, cockroaches simply carry the pathogen which do not multiply in their body, such vectors are
called mechanical vectors. Some infectious diseases can be transmitted from an animal to humans when
we are in close contact, zoonosis occurs when diseases are transferred from vertebrate animals to
humans. Direct spread of droplets by sneezing /coughing from an infected person can infect others.
One can even be infected through the droplets created when an infected person speaks. A wide variety
of disease are transmitted by droplets include - influenza and forms of pneumonia, COVID-19 disease.
Activity-2
List out some comunicable diseases and write the preventive measures
Science and Technology 65
Non-communicable diseases
❋ Other than ageing, what could be the cause of death in humans?
❋ Do you think only communicable diseases affect our health?
‘‘Non infections health condition that cannot be spread from one person to another is known as
Non-communicable disease’’.
In this fast paced life. That many of us live today, there is a lot of conflict and pressure. In this kind
of lifestyle, People are likely to neglect their health and suffer from ailments like high blood pressure,
increased blood sugar (diabetes) cardio vascular diseases, cancers and many others. Although some of
these diseases have a genetic predisposition, they have started affecting younger age groups due to
undisciplined life style.

6.2.3 Prevention of Diseases

Stress (over work, grief, depression) can depress the immune system and increase the chances
of falling ill.
There are two methods to prevent diseases, they are general and specific methods. Preventing
exposure to diseases is the general way. Specific way of preventing is by administering specific vaccine
for specific disease. Many vaccines are now available for preventing a whole range of infectious diseases
and provide a disease - specific means of prevention, by activating our immune system without making
us sick.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the other ways that you think by which diseas may be prevented?
✤ Name the disease which is spread through contaminated food and water?
✤ Write the difference between communicable and non communicable diseases giving examples?
✤ What are contributory causes of a disease? Explain with examples?

6.3 Immune System and Surveillance

❋ How often do you fall sick?
6.3.1 Immunity
We are exposed to a large number of disease causing agents (pathogens) everyday. Our body is
able to defend against most of these foreign agents. This overall ability of the body to protect itself
against the foreign agents including the disease causing organisms is called immunity.

6.3.2 Nature of Immune system

Let us know what the immune system consists of and how the immune system fights common
diseases.

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Battle in the body
Let us assume our body as kingdom, which has strong and
huge walls to protect and prevent the entry of the intruder. If by
chance the foreign army enters into, there are different set of
soldiers, one group that recognize the intruder, another that sends
alarm to activate all the soldiers in the kingdom a third group are
those who carry different weapons and finally kill the intruder.
Like wise our skin is a huge and strong wall with various secretions
(sweat, saliva, sebum, tears) and mucous membrane, which does not favour the entry and survival of
the pathogens (Bacteria, Virus, Fungi etc), showing 1st line of defense. By chance if the pathogens enter
the body the first level soldiers i.e., the blood cells called as macrophages (which are a type of white
blood cells or WBC) attack. Macrophages kill and engulf - the antigens (the foreign bodies) infective
agents. Showing 2nd line of defense. In case of severe infection? A chain of events follow involving.
Another set of white blood cells called as Lymphocytes (T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes) take the
charge by identifying and killing the pathogens by secreting, Antibodies and compounds called cytokines,
eliciting the third line of defense.
The complete war and the techniques used by the soldiers (macrophages,
lymphocytes) to kill the enemy (pathogens) is carefully observed by a minister,
who will not take part in the battle but stores the information of the intruder.
These are called the memory cells, having complete information regarding the
immune response for the specific infection. In case the same kind of infection
reccurs, these cells sends signals to the lymphocytes to identify and kill the
pathogen with in short span protecting our body.
As in the border, the soldiers inside our body carryout a continous vigil. We come to know of
their actions only sometimes when the effect shows up as symptoms.

6.3.3 Types of Immunity

The immunity present at the time of birth and help provide protection against the entry of foreign
agent causing disease is known as innate immunity. Immunity that develop during one's life time is called
acquired immunity. It is of two types 1. Active immunity 2. Passive immunity

Active Immunity
❁ Immunity developed in an individual in response to an infection is called Natural active immunity.
❁ For example immunity developed against diseases like Measles, Chickenpox or Mumps, once
you have the disease you usually not have it again.
❁ Resistance developed by in organism due to inoculation of weak or killed antigens is called
artificial active immunity as by Vaccination.
❁ In active immunity the response is slow.
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Passive Immunity
❁ Passive immunity is protection from a disease provided by antibodies created outside our body.
❁ As for example, Resistance developed by transferring antibodies from an immunized donar to a
non-immunised individual is artificial passive immunity. Transfer of antibodies from mother to
child through the colostrum (first milk) is called natural passive community.
❁ It does not require previous exposure to a disease and does not last long.
❁ It provides immediate protection.
6.3.4 Primary immunization
You are aware of various immunization programme that are run by the government for the general
public especially for the pregnant women, infants and children. The table here illustrates the primary
immunization programme for a new born baby and their subsequent booster doses. Immunization is
given free of cost, at all government dispensaries and hospitals.

National Immunization Schedule in India for children up to the age of

24 months and pregnant women
Vaccine Age
Birth 6 weeks 10 weeks 14 weeks 9-12 weeks
Primary vaccination
BCG against T.B 3
Oral polio 3 3 3 3
DPT against Diphtheria, 3 3 3
Pertussis, Tetanus
Measles 3
Booster Doses
DPT+Oral polio 16 to 24 months
DT 5 years
Tetanus toxoid (TT) At 10 years and again at 16 years
Vitamin A 9, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months
Pregnant women
Tetanus toxoid: 1st dose As early as possible during pregnancy
2nd dose 1 month after 1st dose
Booster Within 3 years
The timing, sequence and frequency of the immunization should be followed as detailed in the
chart above

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 Activity-1
Ask your parents about the vaccines given to you and your sibling during childhood and list them.

Routes of vaccine administration

Routes of vaccine administration is different for different vaccines. Some are given orally and
some through injections.

Activity-2
Visit a healthcare centre in your locality and gather the information regarding different vaccines
and their mode of administration. Make a table to gather information.

6.3.5 History of Vaccines

The word vaccine is derived from the latin word vacca, vacca means
cow. Cow pox is a smallpox-like disease which infect cows. In 1770
symptoms of cow-pox disease appeared in milk maids who contracted
disease from the cows. There was a belief that people who contracted
cowpox did not catch small pox. A British physician Edward Jenner focused
on this disease. on May 14, 1796 Jenner collected fluid from a cowpox
blister and scratched it into the skin of James Phipps, an eight year old boy.
A single blister rose up on the spot but James soon recovered. On July 1st Edward Jenner
Jenner inoculated the boy again, this time with small pox matter and no disease developed. The vaccine
was a success and lead to drastic decline of devastating disease. Edward Jenner was the first in the
world to give small pox vaccine as a preventive treatment.
The term ‘‘Vaccine’’ was coined by Louis Pasteur a French scientist.
Based on Jenner's experiment in 1881 Pasteur developed a vaccine for cattle,
sheep against anthrax disease. An animal that once had anthrax disease never
contracted the same again. Pasteur did not find any disease similar to anthrax
which showed less severity. After many tests, he then collected the bacteria
causing the Anthrax disease from an infected animal and cultured them on
special medium. Pasteur heated the bacteria till they become weak and passive
(attenuated). He inoculated such attenuated micro organisms into the cattle. Louis Pasteur
The weak bacteria grow slowly and enhance the immunity of the animal. He invented a vaccine for the
terrible anthrax disease. Pasteur was also credited with the findings of vaccines for cholera and rabies
in a similar manner.

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 After Pasteur, Robert Koch was the person who studies the relationship
between disease and germs. He discovered the various bacteria that cause different
kinds of diseases. He also discovered the causes of diseases such as Anthrax, TB,
cholera and said ‘‘all bacteria’s are not harmful’’. He used a glue like substance
‘‘Agar - Agar’’ instead of chemicals for culturing the microbes.
Koch colleague Emil von Behring, a German doctor invented another Robert Koch
method of preparing vaccines. He said harmful bacteria enter our body and release
certain toxins which cause disease. Antitoxins are the substances released in the
body of an organism to prevent diseases. The antitoxins from an animal is collected
and transferred to other organism, temporarily immunises the organism. There by
he invented vaccines against tetanus, Diphtheria and saved the lives of many
Emil von Behring
children.
To cure diseases instead of using microbes and their substances, Paul Ehrlich
& his coworkers in 1909 found a chemical arsphenamine that kill pathogens without
harming the patient. This drug kills the bacteria that cause syphilis disease.
Since the period of Pasteur, Koch, Behring, Ehrlich Many other similar
antitoxins and various drugs have been developed in the form of vaccines to treat a
Emil von
variety of diseases. However immune system is not an armour, its an adaptation. Behring

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Mention the role of lymphocytes in fighting infections?
✤ List the diseases which are eradicated through vaccination
✤ Explain the different routes of vaccine administration?

6.4 First AID

Geeta was on her way to college suddenly, she saw a man fall down and show uncontrollable
jerking movements of the arms and legs. Everyone gathered around him and were trying to slow him
down. Some were asking for any object to keep in his hand and some were asking to make the person
drink water. Gita noticed that the person was experiencing fits/ seizures and immediately asked everyone
to move away so that the person gets enough air to breathe, she then folded her chunni and kept under
his head to avoid any injury to his head. After he slowed down, she examined his breathing by slowly

70 Science and Technology

lifting his chin and carefully turned him to one side. The man regained consciousness within 2-3 min.
Geeta told everyone that One should not force anyone to drink water, in such a condition, as it could
worsen the situation.
There are many situations happening in our day to day life which may harm us or people around.
First aid is the immediate care you provide when a person is injured or ill until the medical treatment is
available. Timely intervention and immediate care can prevent further deterioration of the victim and
even save a life. We can be a great help in such situation if we have the basic knowledge of first aid.
However medical help should be sought after first aid.

❋ What will you do when your body is injured and starts bleeding?
❋ What can we do to treat burns?

1. Nose Bleeding
❑ Make the person sit up and lean forward, to prevent swallowing blood.
❑ Apply pressure to the soft part of nose just above the nostrils with the fingers for at least 10 min.
❑ Take breathing through mouth
❑ Apply ice on the bridge of the nose to decrease swelling (if any) and bleeding.
❑ Consult a doctor if bleeding does not stop.

2. Electric Shock
When a person experienced electric shock depends on the severity, the following first aid is useful.
❑ Turn off the source of electricity, if possible.
❑ If not move the person away from the source by using dry, non-conducting object made of wood
or plastic.
❑ Lay down the victim and raise the legs
❑ Try to cover a blanket to prevent the injured person from becoming chilled
❑ Keep the person still and do not move him/her unless necessary.
❑ Loosen tight clothing
❑ Call the doctor immediately.

3. Severe Bleeding
The following first aid is useful.
❑ To stop bleeding, keep sterilized dressing or clean hand kerchief and press directly on the wound
with the thumb.

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❑ Make the injured person lay down and elevate the bleeding part to minimize flow of blood.
❑ Call the doctor.

4. Burns
The First Aid for burns depends upon the severity of the injury.
❑ Immediately immerse the injured area in cool tap water. Do this for about 10 minutes or until the
pain subsides.
❑ Do not break blisters if any.
❑ Blot the area and apply a dry sterile dressing.
❑ In case of severe burns cover the injured part with clean towel/cloth to prevent infections and
immediately rush to the hospital.
❑ Chemical burns caused by acids or alkalis should be flushed with large amounts of water till the
pain subsides.
❑ Do not apply butter or oil on top of burn, which may retain the heal of the burn and slows down the
healing process.

5. Animal Bites
Can be serious sometimes
❑ Wash the bite area with soap and water
❑ If the bite is bleeding, put pressure on it, using sterile gauge or clean cloth.
❑ Cover the area with a bandage or sterile gauze.
❑ Consult the doctor
❑ In case of dog bite, antirabies is to be taken by the doctor.

6. Insect Stings/Insect Bites

❑ Wash the area with soap and water
❑ Apply a cool compress
❑ Apply calamine lotion or a backing soda paste to the bite or sting.

KEY POINTS
z A person who is physically mentally and socially healthy is considered to be a complete healthy
person.
z Abiotic factors like Temperature, Water, Oxygen, Carbondioxide and sunlight are inter linked and
are combined with boitic factors to influence the health of a person.

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z Diseases are two types conginetical and acquired diseases acquired diseases can be classified as
communicable and non-communicable diseases
z Mode is disease transmission can be direct or indirect (Air borne, Vehicle bone, Vector borne)
z Immune cells like macrophage, lymphocytes play an important role in maintaining immunity
z Immunization programme (vaccination) is run by government for pregnant women and infants.
z The immediate care you provide when a person is injured or ill is called first aid.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect our health?

2. Differentiate between communicable and non-communicable disease?
3. Differentiate Active immunity and passive immunity?
4. Why is it difficult to develop antiviral drugs?
5. What first aid measures you follow when a person experiences electric shock?
6. The mother's milk (colostrum) is rich in ( )
A) glucose B) Antibodies C) fats D) vitamins
7. Non communicable disease is ( )
A) diabetes B) malaria C) common cold D) Dengue
8. Antibiotics are generally used to treat diseases caused by ( )
A) virus B) Fungus C) Bacteria D) parasites
9. Immune cells which engulf the foreign micro organisms ( )
A) Memory cells B) Macrophages C) Lymphocytes D) Red blood cells
10. Match the following
A) Tuberculosis ( ) 1. Vector borne disease
B) Diabetes ( ) 2. Droplet transmission disease
C) COVID-19 disease ( ) 3. Non-communicable disease
D) Dengue ( ) 4. Air borne (transmission) disease

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 CHAPTER

07 Cell, Tissues and Organs

Have you ever observed a house which is under construction in your locality? What is the basic
building block of that house? It is a single brick, of course. Like a house, our body and the living
organisms live around us are also composed of basic building blocks, and the building blocks of our
body are cells. Our body has different kinds of cells, each specialized for a specific purpose. New cells
are formed from the pre-existing cells. For this cell undergo division. There are many phases in cell
division. Group of cells which are similar in structure and functions are called tissues. Plant and animals
have different kinds of tissues. Just like home is made from a variety of building materials; the human
body is constructed from different types of cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.
❋ What are the organelles present in a cell? What do organelles do in a cell?
❋ How are tissues formed? What is the need of tissues?
❋ How do organs are formed? Which organs sense changes around us?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Identifies the differences between Prokaryotic -Eukaryotic cells, Plant -Animal cells and
Mitosis - Meiosis.
✰ Classifies the cells based on their genetic material.
✰ Explains structure and functions of a cell, organelles, tissues and organs.
✰ Gives reason for cells having different shapes and sizes.
✰ Draws the diagrams of plant cell, animal cell, mitosis etc.
✰ Applies the knowledge of preventive measures required to protect sense organs.

Organisms that are made up of only one cell, which carries out all of the functions are called unicellular
organisms Ex: Amoeba, Chlamydomonas. Organisms that are composed of more than one cell called
multicellular organisms Ex: plants and animals.

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7.1 Cell
It was in the year1665 that Robert Hooke, a British scientist, observed thin slices of cork (soft
bark) under a simple magnifying device which he had made himself. He observed that the cork resembled
the structure of a honey comb consisting of many empty spaces or empty box like structures. Robert
Hooke called these empty spaces as ‘‘cells’’.
7.1.1 Cell - Organelles
All living organisms are made up of cells.
❋ Are there any common features among cells?
All cells share common components: 1) a plasma membrane, 2) cytoplasm jelly-like region within
the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3)The genetic material responsible for our
characteristics.
Based on the Nuclues structure cells are divided into prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
1. Prokaryotic cell: Single celled organisms. Genetic material found in the central part of the cell and
it does not contain membrance around it. Ex: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria.
2. Eukaryotic cell: It is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus. This membrane separate genetic
material from cytoplasm.Ex: Plant, animal cells.
Organelles present in a cell. Every organelle has its own structure and functions.
Do plant and animal cells have same structure?

It is a outer most layer manufacturing Ribosomes present on its surface. It regulates and controls
around the cell memb- site of lipids. Manufacturing site of proteins all the functions of a cell.
rane. It gives definite Genes are in the form of
shape and protection to
Smooth endoplasmic Rough endoplasmic network of chromatin.
the cell. It is present only reticulum reticulum
in plant cell.
Nucleus These are attached to rough
Cell wall endoplasmic reticulum and
It surrounds the cell some are scattered in the
Cell
from outside and membrane cytoplasm. These are the Sites
gives protection of protein synthesis.
to it. It allows only Cytoplasm
useful materials. Ribosomes
Vacuole Store substances and
Golgi
complex transport those substances
It is a jelly like fluid which is in the form of vesicles to
present in between cell various parts of the cell.
membrane and nucleus. Mitochondria
Cellular respiration takes place
It is a fluid filled sac like Lysosomes in this organelle. Energy is
structure. Secreting, excreting Chloroplast released in cellular respiration.
and storing of substances Hence, mitochondria are called
happen in this vacuole. as power houses of the cell.
These are green in colour and perform photosynthesis waste materials that need to be destroyed are
process. Process of converting carbon dioxide and transported to lysosomes. enzymes present in
water to glucose in presence of sunlight in lysosomes digest waste materials and sometimes
chloroplasts is called as photosynthesis. Chloroplasts along with waste material lysosomes also
are present only in plant cells. digested. hence they are called as suicidal bags.

Plant Cell

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 Rod like structrures
made up of nine
microtubules.
centrioles plays a role
in cell devision

Animal Cell

❋ Which organelles do a plant cell have in additional when compared to animal cell?
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and
plant cells. Animal cells have centrioles and small sized vacuoles, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells
have a cell wall, chloroplasts and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.

7.1.2 Diversity in cells

There are millions of living
organisms in nature. They have
different shapes, sizes and vary in
the number of cells they contain.
Observe cells and answer
the following questions. Why nerve
cell has branches like a tree? What
is the role of nerve cell? Why does
a sperm cell has a tail?
Every cell has unique
structure this helps the cell to
perform a specific function. Nerve
cell transport the information
throughout the body. Tail of a sperm helps in its movement in the female reproductive system for
reaching the ovum.

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7.1.3 The Cell Theory
German scientists, Theodor Schwann, a zoologist (studies animals), and Matthias Jakob Schleiden,
a botanist (studies plants), suggested that cells were the basic unit of structure and function of all life.
Later, in 1858, the Rudolf Virchow observed that cells divide to produce more cells. He proposed that
all cells arise only from Pre-existing cells. The collective observations of all three scientists form the Cell
Theory, which states that:
❋ All organisms are made up of cells and products of cells.
❋ All the life functions of an organism occur within cells,
❋ All cells come from pre existing cells.

7.1.4 How new cells are formed from the pre existing cells?
How do our wounds get healed after few days?
Cells which are around the wound divide many times, making new cells. These cells occupy the
space of wound and gets normal. The division that takes place in these cells is mitosis. In between two
cell divisions interphase takes place. Interphase can be subdivided into G1, S, G2 phases. Mitosis start
after completion of interphase.
Mitosis: This division occurs in somatic cells. Mitosis actually occurs in four phases. The phases are
called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. After these phases cytokinesis occur in cell then
two daughter cells formed. They are shown
in Figure and described in greater detail in
the following sections.
Prophase: The first and longest phase of
mitosis is prophase. During prophase,
chromatin condenses into chromosomes
every chromosome split vertically and form
chromatid, this chromatid attached to
centromere. The nuclear envelope, or
membrane, breaks down. In animal cells,
the centrioles near the nucleus begin to
separate and move to opposite poles (sides) of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form
between them. The spindle, consists of fibers made of microtubules.

Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. Cancer cells
grow rapidly and may from a mass of abnormal cells called a tumour.

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Metaphase: During metaphase, spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids.
The sister chromatids line up at the equator or center of the cell.
Anaphase: During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide. The sister
chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the spindle fibers.
Telophase: During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin. The spindle also
breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form.
Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm splits in
two and the cell divides. There is no difference in the chromosomes of daughter cells and parent cell.
Meiosis: This division occurs in reproductive cells. Four daughter cells are formed in this division and
the number of chromosomes reduced by half. This occur in reproductive cells.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the main principles of the cell theory?
✤ What are the phases of mitosis? What are the changes occur in prophase?

7.2 Tissues
A tissue can be defined as a group of cells similar in size, shape, performing the same function and
having a common origin.
Plants and animals have different types of tissues. They perform different functions.

7.2.1 Plant tissues

How will a Stump grow? Does it bear leaves?
How will a plant grow? How do plants produce flowers?
Plant tissues helps plants to produce leaves, flowers, fruits and also helps in growth of a plant.
Now let us learn about plant tissues.
Plant tissues are of two types: 1. Meristematic tissue 2. Permanent tissue.
Meristematic tissue: Tissues that bring about overall growth and repair are called meristematic tissues.
Found at the growing points of a plant such as at the tips of the roots, stems and branches.
i. Apical Meristem - Growth in the length of the plant
ii. Lateral Meristem /Cambium - Growth in the girth of the stem.
iii. Intercalary Meristem - Growth of branches, leaves, flowers

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Permanent tissue: It is made up of cells, which have lost their ability to multiply. The permanent
tissues are of three types.
1. Dermal tissue: We find this type of tissue over the entire surface of plant body. This tissue help
plants by protecting them from parasitic invasion. Prevent loss of water from plant. Give mechanical
support to the plant.
2. Ground tissue: This tissue Form the bulk of the plant body, helping in packing other tissues. There
are mainly three types of ground tissues present in plants.
They are i. Parenchyma ii. Collenchyma iii. Sclerenchyma.
i. Parenchyma
Meristematic tissues
a) Chlorenchyma - Contains chloroplasts
helps in photosynthesis
Vascular tissues
b) Aerenchyma - Contains air spaces between
cells helps in floating (aquatic plants) Ground tissue

c) Storage parenchyma - Helps in Stores

water or food or waste. Dermal tissue

ii. Collenchyma: Thick walled cells provides

structural support to the plant.
iii. Sclerenchyma: Thick walled tightly packed cells Dicot stem (TS) - Tissues
Provides mechanical support to the plant.
3. Vascular tissue: It is of two types- xylem and phloem. Xylem allows water and minerals absorbed
from the soil to travel upwards in the plant. Phloem serves to conduct the food (sugar) synthesized in
the leaves to flow downward and upward so that food reaches all other regions.

7.2.2 Animal tissues

There are different kinds of tissues present in animals to perform different functions like plant
tissues. Four major types of tissues present in animals. They are: 1. Epithelial Tissue 2. Connective
Tissue 3. Muscular tissue 4. Nervous tissues.
1. Epithelial tissue: Thin protective layer of cells. Generally located on the outer surface of the body,
on the surface of the internal organs. There are three distinct types of epithelial tissues namely Squamous,
Cuboidal, Columnar Epithelium.
a. Squamous Epithelium: Found in oesophagus, lining of mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung
alveoli.

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 Function: where transportation of substances selectively occurs through permeable membrane
of these cells.
b. Cuboidal Epithelium: It is commonly found in exocrine glands like salivary glands. Lining of
ureters and provide mechanical support to salivary glands.
Function: Secretion of enzymes and absorption of water and mineral in ureters.
c. Columnar Epithelium: It is found in bronchi of respiratory tract, uterine tubes, uterus, bladder
and digestive tract.
Function: Absorption and secretion of enzymes and mucous.
2. Muscular tissue: The muscular tissue consists of long, narrow cells called muscle fibres. Muscle
fibres are the muscle cells. They are so named because of their long fibre like shape. Muscles bring
about movement of body parts and locomotion in organisms. Types of muscular tissue In human beings,
three types of muscles are present ‘Striated muscles’, ‘Unstriated muscles’ and Cardiac muscles.
Striated Muscles: There are Long, cylindrical, unbranched and have many nuclei in cytoplasm of
these cells. particularly these cells have dark and light bands in them that is why they are called as
striated muscles. These are attached to bones. Help in the movement of limbs whenever we want
(voluntary muscles)
Unstriated muscles: There are Spindle shaped Shorter cells, one nucleus per cell, there are no striations
in the cell. These muscles present in the walls of hallow internal organs like stomach, intestines, bladder,
uterus, blood vessels etc. These are Involuntary muscles, helps in movement of food in digestive tract
etc.
Cardiac Muscles: Present in the walls of the heart. Help in pumping and receiving of blood to various
body parts by contraction and relaxation of these muscles.
Muscular tissue
Intercalated disks
Cross striations
Mitochondria Plasma Nuclei
Membrane
Cross striation
Myofibrils

Sarcolemma Nucleus
Sarcoplasm

Myocytes
Striated muscles Non-striated muscles Cardiac muscles
3. Connective tissue: Connective tissue help in binding of other tissues and organs together and
provide framework and support to various organs in the body. . Examples of connective tissue are
areolar tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone and blood.

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a. Areolar Tissue:
Structure: A type of loose connective tissue widely distributed in the body that contains collagen
fibres, reticular and few elastic fibres.
Location: Found between the skin and muscles and around the blood vessels and nerves.
Function: Provides support and strength to various organ systems.
b. Adipose Tissue:
Structure: A specialised type of loose connective tissue that functions as the major storage site
for fat.
Location: Found below the skin and around internal organs.
Function: Thermal insulator, mechanical protection, energy storage.
c. Cartilage:
Structure: It is soft bone with widely spaced cells in small cavities. have rubbery matrix.
Location: External ear, Larynx, rings around trachea, joint surfaces and growth zones of bones,
between ribs etc.
Function : Eases joint movements, resists compression at joints, holds airway open, Shapes
outer ear, moves vocal cords, growth zone of children bones etc.
d. Bone:
Structure :It consists of widely spaced cells in lacunae. Matrix in concentric onion like layers,
hard mineralised matrix.
Location: Skeleton
Function: Physically support body and give definite shape to body, encloses soft organs, stores
and releases calcium and phosphorus.
e. Blood :
Structure: It consists of red blood cells white blood cells, platelets and fluid part called plasma.
Location: Cardio vascular system
Function: Transports food materials, hormones, gases, waste materials etc.
f. Ligament is yet another type of connective tissue that connect bones at joints and hold them in
position.
g. Tendon is also a connective tissue which joins the muscle to the bone. It is made up of collagen.
4. Nervous Tissue: Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells or neurons. A bundle of nerve fibres or
axons of nerve cells forms nerves. A nerve cell or neuron is a structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. Neurons transfer information from body parts to brain/spinal cord and brain to body parts.
A typical nerve cell consists of the following parts. Cell body or cyton, Dendrons and dendrites.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ Which tissue helps plant to produce branches and flowers?
✤ What are the use of cardiac muscles?
✤ What would happen if plant do not have meristematic tissue ?
✤ Write examples for cartilaginous bones in our body.

7.3 Organs
An organ is a collection of different tissues which work together to do particular work in living
beings.
Most important organs in human body are sense organs. Taking care of sense organs provide
good health which leads to better livelihood. Each sense organ has special cells, called sensory receptors,
those respond to a particular type of stimulus. They give information about environment around us. Let
us learn about the sense organs.

7.3.1 Eye
Eye is the organ that senses light. Light
first passes through the cornea of the eye, Sclera
which is a clear outer layer that protects the Cornea
eye. Light enters the eye through an opening Choroid
Aqueous
called the pupil. The light then passes Fovea
chamber
through the lens, which focuses it on the Retina
retina at the back of the eye. The retina Pupil
Blind spot
contains light receptor cells. These cells send Lens
nerve impulses to the optic nerve, which
carries the impulses to the brain. The brain Iris
interprets the impulses and ‘‘tells’’ us what
Optic nerve
we are seeing.
Conjunctiva
How to take care of our Eyes: Wash eyes Vitreous chamber
with fresh water at least thrice or four times per day. Keep the distance between the book and eyes
about 25 cm while reading. Don't give continuous stress and strain to the eyes. Stop the work for some
time when ever your eyes feel stressed. Eat food materials like green leafy vegetables, carrots etc rich
in Vitamin A. Work under good lighting. Don't rub your eyes if anything falls in them, just wash the eyes
immediately. Consult the eye specialist immediately whenever you face any vision related problems.
Avoid to seeing lightening, gas welding sparks, eclipse with a naked eye.

Donate your sight - make blind one’s future bright.

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Conjunctivitis: Viral disease
Symptoms: Redness in the eye or inner eyelid, More tears than usual, Thick yellow discharge that
crusts over the eyelashes, especially after sleep, Green or white discharge from the eye. Itchy eyes,
Burning eyes, Blurred vision.
Spread: Communicable disease, spread from one person to other through air, water, hand kerchief,
towels etc.
Treatment: Anti viral drugs.

7.3.2 Ear
2 45 6 7 8
3 1. External ear (Pinna)
2. Auditory canal
3. Ear drum
4,5,6. Semicircular canals
7. Cochlea
9 8. Vestibular nerve
9. Cochlear nerve
1 10 10. Eustachian tube
11
11. Ear Ossicles (Utriculus)

Ear is the organ that senses sound. Sound waves enter the auditory canal and travel to the
tympanum. They strike the tympanum and make it vibrate. The vibrations then travel through several
other structures inside the ear and reach the cochlea. The cochlea is a coiled tube filled with liquid. The
liquid moves in response to the vibrations, causing tiny hair cells lining the cochlea to bend. In response,
the hair cells send nerve impulses to the auditory nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain. The
brain interprets the impulses and "tells" us what we are hearing. ears are also responsible for the sense
of balance
How to take care of our Ear: Don't insert any sharp edged object in the ears to clean it. If any
blockage occurs due to ear wax, use the ear drops, or a few drops of hydrogen peroxide oil to loosen
it. A specialist may be consulted whenever needed. It is very dangerous to pour boiled oils, leafy juices
in the ear. Sometimes it may causes deafness.

7.3.3 Skin
Our skin has cutaneous receptors to sense the touch. Touch is the ability to sense pressure.
Pressure receptors are found mainly in the skin. They are especially concentrated on the tongue, lips,
face, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Some touch receptors sense differences in temperature
or pain. It also contains the separate receptors such as tactile receptors for touch, pacinian corpuscles
for pressure, nociceptors for temperature etc.

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How to take care about your Skin: We should take bath regularly. Use soap to clean the body.
❋ If any redness, itching, discoloration and rashes appear on the skin immediately consult the
doctor.
Why do people in adolescent age got more pimples when compare to other age groups?
When you hit puberty, there's an
increase in sex hormones called androgens.
The excess hormones cause your oil glands to
become overactive, enlarge, and produce too
much oil, or sebum. When there's too much
sebum, the pores or hair follicles become
blocked with skin cells. The increase in oil also
results in an overgrowth of bacteria. If blocked
pores become infected or inflamed, a pimple
forms. We should not scratch the pimple it will
leave scar on our face.

7.3.4 Tongue
Taste receptors are found in tiny
bumps on the tongue called taste buds. The
taste buds are located in the walls of the
papillae. There are separate taste receptors
for sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and meaty tastes.
The meaty taste is called umami. The taste
receptor cells, located in the taste buds on the
top and side of the tongue, sample flavours from
food and drink as they pass by on the way to the
stomach. These taste receptors cluster in small mucous
membrane projections called papillae.
How to take care of your tongue: Clean and wash the tongue before going to bed at night and after
rising up in the morning. Wash the mouth cavity after eating the food.

7.4.5 Nose
In our nose nasal cavity is lined with mucous membrane and small hairs. Olfactory receptors are
present in the mucous membrane. The sense of smell or olfaction, begins with chemical events in the

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nose. There odors (in the form of airborne chemical molecules)
interact with receptor proteins associated with specialized nerve
cells. Nerve cells carry information to brain then we can feel good
or bad smell based on the chemicals.
Taking care: Take proper care of your nose by washing it with
water as you take bath and during nasal infection by washing
them with lukewarm saltwater. Do not put fingers in your nose.
Do not pour hot oils or castor oil in nose. If you get infection in
nose consult ENT specialist immediately.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How do we hear sounds through Ear?
✤ Name the type of receptors in nose.
✤ What are the two main functions of Ear?

KEY POINTS

z All living beings are made of cells. Cells are the structural and functional units of living beings.
z All cells share common components they are plasma membrane, cytoplasm and the genetic material.
z Basically cells are divided into two types based on membrane around the nucleus. Prokaryotic
cells do not have nuclear membrane around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells have a prominent nucleus.
z Plant cells have plastids, cell wall and large sized vacuole whereas animal cells do not have them.
Animals cells have centrioles and small sized vacuoles these are absent in plant cells.
z All organisms are made up of one or more cells, All the life functions of an organism occur within
cells, All cells come from pre existing cells. These are the main principles of cell theory.
z Mitosis occur in all vegetative cells and meiosis occur in reproductive cells to form gamets.
z Plants have different kinds of tissues i. e. meristematic, dermal, Ground and vascular tissues.
z Animals have various types of tissues i. e. Epithelial, Connective, muscular, and nervous tissue.
z An organ is a collection of different tissues which work together to do particular work in living
beings like plants and animals.
z Sense organs are the gateways of knowledge. We have to protect them.
z In multicellular organisms different types of organs present to do particular works in them. various
organs form organ systems in multi cellular organisms. Organ systems makes up an organism.

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 PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Write the organelles present in a cell.

2. Write the differences between prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
3. In which cells mitosis and meiosis occur?
4. Why do cells show diversity ? Explain the role of meristematic tissue in plants?
5. Draw the diagrams of plant and animal cells and explain the differences between them.
6. Illustrate the connective tissues and their functions?
7. What are the measures suggested by you to protect ear and skin ?
8. What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?
9. Name the fluid connective tissue .................
10. ............ Organelle digest waste material present in cell.
11. Example for prokaryotic living being .....................
12. Structural and functional units of living beings. ( )
A) Tissues B) Organs C) Organ systems D) Cells
13. Find the odd organelle on account of plant cell ( )
A) Chloroplast B) centrioles C) Cell wall D) Large sized vacuole
14. Type of animal tissue useful in joins the muscle with bone ( )
A) Areolar B) Adipose C) Cartilage D) Tendon
15. Match the following plant tissues with respect to their function.
A) Chlorenchyma ( ) 1. Growth in the girth of the stem
B) Sclerenchyma ( ) 2. Photosynthesis
C) Dermal tissue ( ) 3. Gives mechanical support to plant
D) Vascular tissue ( ) 4. Cover over the plant body
E) Cambium ( ) 5. Transport water and food

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 CHAPTER
Life Processes
8 Food: Synthesis
and digestion
We do a lot of things in our daily life such as sitting, walking, running, talking and so on. Along
with these, many other processes also occur in our body like growth, digestion, respiration etc. For
doing all these activities energy is needed. Where do we get this energy from? Plants also show processes
like growth and movement. From where do plants get energy? Like this there are many questions that
come to one’s mind.
❋ How do plants prepare their food?
❋ How does the food we take, gets digested?
❋ What happens if we do not take nutritious food?
❋ How do we plan our meal?
In this lesson you will learn about nutrition in plants and animals and seek some possible answers
for these questions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Identifies the essential nutrients needed for human beings.
✰ Explains modes of nutrition, mechanism of photosynthesis, process of digestion in human,
role of enzymes in digestion and importance of vitamins.
✰ Conducts experiments to show that carbohydrates and oxygen are end products in
photosynthesis.
✰ Draws and explains diagrams of human digestive system and chloroplast.
✰ Designs model of ‘My Plate’.
✰ Applies the knowledge, by taking a balanced diet, follows healthy eating habits.
✰ Appreciates the processes and mechanism involved in digestion, movement of food in
digestive tract and photosynthesis.
✰ Understands importance of plants and thus strives for their conservation.

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 In all the organisms many processes are carried out continuously and simultaneously.
The processes that organisms perform for their survival, growth and continuing their
species are called Life Processes. For example: digestion, respiration, transportation,
excretion, control and coordination etc.
These processes occur in all living organisms, from single-celled organisms (eg. amoeba) to well-
developed multicellular organisms (eg. humans, plants)
In unicellular organisms like amoeba, paramoecium,
chlamydomonas etc., all the processes occur in the absence of
any special organ systems. For example, amoeba takes food
through cell membrane and also excrete waste materials through
the same cell membrane. In developed multicellular organisms there Excess water
released
are organ systems to perform life processes (eg.) Digestive system, Contractile
vacuole
respiratory system, circulatory system, excretory system etc.
Energy is needed for all these life processes to occur,
organisms obtain energy from the food they take. Nutrition and Excretion
Nutrition is taking in food and digestion of complex in Amoeba
substances in food into simple substances.These simple substances are then absorbed into the
body to release energy.

8.1 Types of Nutrition

There are two main modes of nutrition - Autotrophic nutrition and Heterotrophic nutrition.

8.1.1 Autotrophic Nutrition

The green plants, algae and certain bacteria prepare their own food by the process called
photosynthesis. So they are called as producers or autotrophs and their mode of nutrition is called
autotrophic nutrition.

8.1.2 Heterotrophic Nutrition

The organisms which are dependent on other organisms for food are called Heterotrophs. Their
mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Heterotrophic nutrition may again be classified into three types:
a) Saprophytic Nutrition: Some organisms break down the food materials outside their body and
then absorb it. These are called saprophytes. example: bread moulds, yeast, mushrooms, etc.

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b) Parasitic Nutrition: Plants or animals which live in or on other plants or animals and get their
food from them. Eg. Cuscuta, leech, head louse, tape worms etc.
c) Holozoic Nutrition:Some organisms take in whole food material and break it down into simple
substances inside their body. Example: amoeba, dog, human etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Write two differences between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
✤ What do you think can be effect of saprophytic organisms on other organisms?

8.2 Nutrition in Plants Light Photosynthesis

Energy Oxygen
The main source of energy for living beings on earth is sun.
Green plants use this energy from sun and other simple substances Carbon Dioxide

like carbondioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and release Chlorophyll

Sugar is
oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is an formed

anabolic process (means complex substances are synthesised using Water

simple substances).

Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O X C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
(Carbondioxide) (water) Chlorophyll (Glucose) (water) (oxygen)

Carbondioxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll are essential raw materials for photosynthesis.
Even if one of them is absent photsynthesis does not occur.
Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll is a pigment which is present in the chloroplast of different cells of the plant.
This chlorophyll can trap sunlight. The green colour of the leaves is due to chlorophyll.
You might have seen some plants that have leaves with different colours. Do these type of leaves
also perform photosynthesis? Leaves, fruits, flowers of different colours have different pigments like
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, xanthophyll and carotenoids. These pigments can also trap sunlight and
help in photosynthesis indirectly. But chlorophyll a is the most important pigment for photosynthesis.
Chloroplast-Food factory of plants
Membrane Stroma thylakoid
Chloroplasts are present mainly in the plant
Stroma
cells. Chloroplast is membranous structure. It
consists of three layers, inner layer forms stacked
} Granum
sack like structures called Granum (Plural: Grana).
It is filled with fluid called stroma.
Sunlight: Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll
Grana thylakoid
pigment in leaves. This light energy is then converted
into chemical energy during photosynthesis. T.S of chloroplast

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Carbon Dioxide and Water: Carbon Dioxide from air through stomata and water from ground through
roots are taken up by plants for photosynthesis.
Starch and oxygen are end products in photosynthesis. Glucose (building block of starch) is used
by the cells and some is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is a byproduct which is released into
atmosphere. To prove the formation of end products we shall do the following experiments.
Experiment 1: To prove that starch is formed in leaves during photosynthesis.
Apparatus required: Beaker,
test tube, methylated spirit, Beaker
bunsen burner, tripod stand, Water Iodine
Leaf
gauze. Methylated spirit solution
Boiling tube Petridish
Procedure: Collect leaf from a Asbestos gauze
Tripod stand
plant having thin leaves and put
Bunsen burner
it in methylated spirit in test tube.
Iodine test
Take some water in a beaker Boiling the leaf in methylated spirit
and heat it on bunsen burner. Keep this test tube in boiling water (water bath). By doing this, the leaf
loses chlorophyll. Now carefully place the leaf in petri dish. Then put 4-5 drops of iodine solution on
leaf.
Observation: If the leaf turns into blue-black colour with iodine solution, then it is confirmed that
starch is present in leaves and if leaf does not show blue-black colour, it shows starch is not present.
Inference: In iodine test leaf turns into blueblack colour, so it is proved that starch is present in leaves.
Experiment 2: To prove that O2 is released during photosynthesis.
Apparatus required: Beaker, funnel, test tube, hydrilla plant.
Oxygen
Procedure: Place Hydrilla twigs into the funnel and keep it in
the beaker with water. Invert a test tube with full of water onto Bubbles

the funnel. (See the figure) Keep this setup in sunlight for 4-5
hrs. Test tube
Observation: We can see that gas bubbles coming from hydrilla Beaker
plant reach the upper part of the test tube.
Water
Inference: After some gas collects in test tube, slowly remove
Funnel
it by closing with thumb and at the same time letting out water.
Hydrilla plant
Test this gas with glowing match stick, it glows brightly due
to O2. We can say that O2 is released in photosynthesis.
Hydrilla experiment

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8.3 Mechanism of Photosynthesis
Photsynthesis is a complex anabolic process. It includes many chemical processes, these can be
studied under two phases.

1. Light reactions (photochemical phase) (Light dependent reactions)

In this phase a series of chemical reactions occur in a very quick succession initiated by light.
These processes occur in grana in chloroplast. Steps in Light reactions are:
Step-1: Chlorophyll absorbs photons (Light energy is in the form of small energy packets called photons)
and becomes excited.
hν
Chl X Chl*
Step-2: Excited molecule of chloroplast splits water molecule into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.This
process is called Photolysis of water (photo means light, lysis means split).

Chl* _
H2O X H+ + OH

This was discovered by Robert Hill. Hence it is also called Hill's reaction.
_
Step-3 : OH ions through a series of steps produce water (H2O) and oxygen (O2).

H+ is received by NADP and NADPH is formed.

2. Dark reactions (Biosynthetic phase) (Light independent reactions)

These reactions are not dependent on light. These occur in stroma of chloroplast. H+ in NADPH
(formed in light reaction) combines with CO2 and using the energy from ATP produces glucose. Plant
uses some glucose for its energy needs and stores some glucose in the form of starch. Food that we eat
such as potato, carrot, fruits….. are all stored form of food in plants.
What will happen if photosynthesis doesn’t occur in plants. Think!

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Define and write the equation for photosynthesis.
✤ What are the observations you find in hydrilla plant experiment?
✤ In what form is glucose stored in plants?
✤ Explain the mechanism of photosynthesis.

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8.4 Nutrition in Human Being
Locate the following parts in the
picture of human digestive system. Mouth,
oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
Salivary glands Oral cavity
stomach, duodenum, small intestine, large
Pharynx Mouth
intestine, rectum and anus.
Oesophagus
The food we take passes through
all these parts, so basically the digestive
tract or alimentary canal is a tube like
structure from mouth to anus. (nearly 27
Liver feet long).
Stomach
What does food contain?
Duodenum Pancreas
The food we eat has nutrients like
Large intestine
Small intestine carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts,
Appendix
and vitamins.These complex substances
Rectum
break down into simple substances due
Anus
to mechanical action and the action of
Nutrition in Human Being enzymes. These simple substances are
then absorbed into the blood.
Why should we chew our food:
Chewing food properly helps mixing it with saliva.Then food becomes soft and slippery and
easy to swallow. Teeth and tongue help in chewing and swallowing food. Saliva contains an enzyme
ptyalin (amylase) which helps in breakdown of complex carbohydrates and convert them into maltose.
Now the food is soft and is in semisolid form, this is called Bolus.
Why shouldn't we talk while eating?
Pharynx: This is the common passage for air pathway (for air from nose) and food pathway. Epiglottis
is the flap like structure which closes the windpipe when we swallow food thus preventing food from
entering into windpipe. If we talk while eating the epiglottis may slightly open and food may enter
windpipe causing us to cough.

Oesophagus:
Place two fingers on your throat,now swallow some water. You can feel the movement in
oesophagus. When we swallow, food enters esophagus and due to its peristaltic movements food
travels down into the stomach.
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Stomach - A muscular bag:
Stomach is a muscular sac like structure. Stomach walls have gastric glands, these glands secrete
gastric juice and HCl. Gastric juice contains enzyme pepsin. Pepsin acts on proteins and converts them
into small fragments called peptones. HCl activates pepsinogen into pepsin and kills harmful bacteria in
food. Notice that only proteins are digested in stomach. Now the food is in the form of thick liquid, it is
called Chyme. Pyloric splincter present at the end of the stomach relaxes, so that food passes from
stomach to duodenum in small amounts.
Stomach walls secrete mucous which protects the stomach walls from the action of HCl.

Duodenum:
The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary
canal. The first part of the small intestine is called duodenum. Oesophagus
Stomach
Liver secretes bile juice into the duodenum. Bile does not have Duodenum
Pancreas
any enzymes but helps in breaking down of large fat molecules Liver
into small globules. This is called emulsification.
Locate parts liver and pancreas in the digestive system
diagram.
Pancreas also secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. The pancreatic juice contains three
enzymes.
i) Amylase- acts on carbohydrates in food and converts them into maltose.
ii) Trypsin-acts on proteins in food and converts them into peptones.
iii) Lipase-acts on fats in food and converts them into fatty acids and glycerol.

Small Intestine
Walls of small intestine have intestinal glands. These secrete intestinal juice into the small intestine.
Intestinal juice contains enzymes like
i) Peptidase - acts on peptides to give amino acids
ii) Sucrase - acts on sucrose to give glucose.
How do we get energy from digested food?
The digested food material from small intestine gets into blood (through walls of small intestine),
this is called Absorption. The inner surface of the small intestine contains thin finger-like projections
called microvilli, which increases the surface area for absorption of digested food into the blood capillaries,
lining the villi.
The blood then carries the absorbed food to all the cells in the body, in cells glucose is oxidised
to release energy. You will learn more about this process in chapter Respiration.
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What happens to the undigested food?

Large intestine:
The undigested food is pushed into the large intestine. The faeces pass on to the lower part of the
large intestine, called the rectum, and are pushed out of the body through the anus. This is called
defecation.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Where in the body does digestion of food starts?
✤ What are the changes that food undergoes in mouth?
✤ What is emulsification? Where does it happen?
✤ Name the enzymes present in pancreatic juice and mention their function.
✤ What is the role of HCl in process of digestion?

8.5 Food and Nutrients

‘‘You are what you eat’’, this is actually a true statement. Eating food containing all nutrients
keeps us healthy. Overeating and eating only one type of food for long period leads to illness.
You may prefer to eat your favourite food to satisfy your taste buds, but what does your body
need? Think!
Many nutrients are present in the food we take.
Nutrients are broadly divided into three groups.
(i) Energy-yielding nutrients - carbohydrates and fats
(ii) Body-building nutrients - proteins
(iii) Growth-regulating nutrients - vitamins and minerals
Along with all these nutrients, water is also an important part of our diet.It makes 65-70% of our
body weight. Water regulates the body temperature and provides a medium for biochemical reactions
taking place in the body.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in our diet. The energy in food is measured in a unit
called Calorie. One gram of carbohydrates provides 4 kilo calories of energy. Carbohydrates may be
in the form of sugars, starch or cellulose. Sugars are found in sources like fruits, milk and sugarcane.
Starch is found in sources like potato, wheat, rice and sweet potato.

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 Cellulose, a type of carbohydrate also called roughages or dietary fibre cannot be digested but
add bulk to the food and helps in smooth movement of food in alimentary canal, thus helps in absorption.

Proteins:
Milk, pulses, eggs meat are rich in proteins. Growth of body tissues is the main function of
proteins.
Fats: Some common sources of fats are edible oil, ghee, butter, meat and groundnut oil.You need to
eat small amounts of fats for good health. Taking in large amounts is harmful, especially if they contain
saturated fatty acids.

Vitamins
Vitamins and minerals are needed in very small amounts, still they play important role in having
good health. Vitamins may be classified into two groups.
i) Water-soluble Vitamins: Vitamins B-complex and vitamin C
ii) Fat-soluble Vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E and K

Vitamins Sources Functions Deficiency disease

A Leafy vegetables, carrot, tomato, Keeps eyes and skin Night blindness (poor vision
Retinol pumpkin, papaya, mango, meat, fish, healthy in dim light), poor vision, dry
egg, liver, milk, cod liver oil, shark eyes, scaly skin.
liver oil
B12 Milk, eggs, liver, kidney Needed in formation Anaemia
Cyano of RBC
cobalamin
C Amla, tomato, citrus fruits Healthy growth of Scurvy (a disease in which
Ascorbic
acid blood vessels gums swell up and bleed)
D Sunlight, milk, whole grains and Form strong bones Rickets (a disease which
Calciferolvegetables and teeth affects bones in children
(Sunshine
making them soft and
Vitamin)
deformed)
E Vegetable oil, milk, butter, whole Protects cell Affects fertility
Tocoferol grains, vegetables membranes
K Green vegetables like spinach and Helps in the clotting of Excessive bleeding from
Phylloqui-
none cabbage blood wounds

❑ Vitamin B-Complex is a group of vitamins …it includes vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12.

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Minerals
Minerals such as iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, iodine etc. are required by the body in small
quantities. The table below table indicates the sources and functions of some important minerals.
Minerals Sources Functions
Iron Green leafy vegetables, sprouts, Forms haemoglobin.
liver, eggs, meat
Calcium Milk and milk products Forms strong bones and teeth and needed
for muscle movement, clotting of blood.
Potassium Green and yellow vegetables For cell growth and keeping osmotic balance
of cell fluids.
Iodine Seafood, iodized salt Body metabolism, development of brain.

8.5.1 Balanced Diet

A diet containing all nutrients in sufficient proportions is called balanced diet. By taking balanced
diet, we can have good health.
MY PLATE
The concept ‘My Plate’ has been
designed by ‘National Institute of
Nutrition’ (NIN).
Observe the picture. It shows the
nutrients to be included in our meal plate
from all food groups per day.
Cereals - 270 gm
Pulses, eggs, meat - 90 gm
Vegetables - 350 gm
Nuts - 20 gm
Fruits - 150 gm
Fats, oils - 27 gm
milk/curd - 300ml

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 Regular consumption of foods in proportions as per the model plate
❋ improves immunity and resistance to infections
❋ maintains goods microbial flora (beneficial bacteria in the intestine)
❋ prevents Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Diseases
❋ maintain appropriate alkalinity in body and thereby reduces inflammation and decreases
chances of kidney stone formation
❋ prevents insulin resistance and maintains appropriate insulin sensitivity and glycemic
index
❋ ensures adequate intake of fibre and therefore prevents constipation
❋ prevents adverse effects of environmental pollution and toxins such as heavy metals
and pesticides by working as a detoxifying diet
z Eggs/fish/meat can be substituted with pulses.
z Vegetables may be consumed either in cooked form or as salads.
z It's good to eat fresh fruits than fruit juices.
z Use different varieties of cooking oils.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is the role of roughages in digestion?
✤ Mention the food sources for water soluble vitamins.
✤ Write the food items you would include in your plate to have a balanced diet?
✤ Other than affecting your health, what are the other bad effects of over eating?

8.5.2 Malnutritional Diseases

Eating of food that does not have one or more than one nutrients in required amounts is known as
malnutrition.This kind of intake of food causes deficiency diseases.Malnutrition is harmful for children
as it retards their mental and physical growth.
Deficiency diseases due to inadequate nutrition are of three types:
1. Protein Calorie deficiency diseases
2. Mineral deficiency diseases
3. Vitamin deficiency diseases

Protein Calorie deficiency diseases:

This type of malnutrition disease may occur due to poor intake of proteins or carbohydrates or
both. eg. Marasmus, Kwashiorkor
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Marasmus: This is due to deficiency of both Thin and
proteins and carbohydrates. Lean and weak, less bittle hair

developed muscles, dry skin, diarrhea etc are the Loss of

Bulging
symptoms of this disease. muscle
abdomen mass
Kwashiorkor: This is due to protein deficiency in
Kwashiorkor Marasmus
the diet. Body parts become swollen, very poor
muscle development, fluffy face, bulging abdomen, diarrhea, dry skin are the symptoms
of this disease.

Mineral deficiency diseases

1) Goitre: Caused due to prolonged iodine deficiency which causes enlargement of
thyroid gland. By taking iodised salt and seafoods which are good sources of iodine, goitre can be
prevented.
2) Anaemia: Iron deficiency causes lesser production of haemoglobin, resulting in anaemia. An iron-
rich diet consisting of spinach, apple, banana, guava, eggs, groundnuts, etc. can help to prevent anaemia.
You can refer to the table for vitamin deficiency diseases.

8.5.3 Healthy eating habits

1. Having simple, well balanced meals.
2. Do not eat food in a hurried manner.Thoroughly chew the food.
3. Drinking sufficient amount of water.
4. Doing exercises daily.
Digestive system disorders occur mainly due to unhealthy food habits, lack of physical activity,
change in life style and some other reasons. Indigestion, vomiting, constipation, ulcers, diarrhea,
hemorrhoids are some of the commonly seen disorders in most of the people.
In this lesson you have learnt about one of the life processes (ie) nutrition. In the coming
chapters you will learn about some more life process like respiration, transportation, excretion,
control and coordination and reproduction.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How can you prevent yourself from protein deficiency disease.
✤ Explain about two mineral deficiency diseases.

98 Science and Technology

 KEY POINTS
z Processes that help in growth, repair and continuation of species are called life processes. Eg.
nutrition, respiration, transportation, reproduction, excretion, coordination.
z Photosynthesis is the process in which green plants containing chlorophyll produce glucose and
oxygen in the presence of sunlight, carbon dioxide and water.
z Chloroplast are the sites of photosynthesis.
z In human, digestion occurs by mechanical churning and chemically due to action of enzymes on
food.
z Taking in of all the nutrients in required amounts is called balanced diet.
z Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins are essential nutrients needed for human
body.
z Marasmus is a protein calorie deficiency disease, Kwashiorkor is protein deficiency disease.
z Goitre is caused due to iodine deficiency, anaemia is caused due to iron deficiency.
z Vitamin B and C are water soluble vitamins, vitamins A, D, E, K are fat soluble vitamins.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What is the enzyme present in saliva?
2. What are the essential nutrients present in our food?
3. Draw a neatly labelled diagram of chloroplast.
4. Explain the digestion process in small intestine.
5. Write in a form of a table, fat soluble vitamins, their sources and deficiency diseases.
6. ‘Anaemia is one of the most seen problem in Indian adolescent girls’. What recommendations do
you give to them individually and to government to overcome this problem.
7. Where do light reactions take place? ( )
A) Grana B) Stroma C) Stomata D) Mitochondria
8. Iodine is used to test the presence of ................. in leaves ( )
A) Chlorophyll B) O2 C) Water D) Starch
9. Match the following.
A) Plants ( ) 1. Peristaltic movements
B) Oesophagus ( ) 2. Folds in small intestine
C) Microvilli ( ) 3. Producers
D) Vitamin C ( ) 4. Yeast, mushrooms
E) Saprophytes ( ) 5. Citrus fruits
Science and Technology 99
 CHAPTER

9 Respiration
We do different types of activities in our daily life. We all know that the energy we need to do all
these things come from the food we eat. But the most interested thing is how the energy contained in
food is generated. Many questions arise when we think about how energy is actually released in our
body.
❋ Is energy generated immediately after eating food?
❋ What type of changes need to occur to release energy from food?
❋ Does the release of energy have any relation with the air we breathe?
❋ Why can’t we live without breathing air?
❋ Is air equally important for all living organism?
We can live without food and water for few days. But we can’t live without air.
There seems to be something more important in air than food and water ... so we are constantly
breathing it.
Living Cells need energy to perform their functions. Digested food materials reach cells where a
part of it is oxydized releasing energy, CO2 and water. Cells use this energy for various metabolic
activities. In this way, to release energy specialised organs and organ systems have been developed in
living organisms. This is called the ‘‘respiratory system’’.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...

✰ Explains about inhalation and exhalation processes, cellular respiration, human respiratory
system and Process of respiration.
✰ Differentiates between various processes like inhalation and exhalation; Aerobic respiration
and Anaerobic respiration.
✰ Ask questions to know about respiration in plants.
✰ Collects information about respiratory diseases in humans.
✰ Draws labelled diagrams of Human respiratory system and stomata.
✰ Conducts experiments to show that germinating seeds releases CO2, heat in respiration and
exhaled air contains carbon dioxide.
✰ Knows about pranayama and applies the importance of pranayama to daily life.

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9.1 Breathing - Respiration
Breathing is the process of inhaling and exhaling air. It occurs in two stages. They are 1. Inhalation
2. Exhalation.
Inhalation: The entry of outside air (breath in) into the body is called ‘inhalation’.
Exhalation: The removal of air (breath out) from the body is called ‘exhalation’.
Breathing is a physical process. It involves only the exchange of gases in a diffusion mode.
Respiration is a metabolic activity that releases energy from glucose. In this process oxygen is utilized
and carbon dioxide is released.

9.1.1 What gasese are there in the air we breathe in and out?
Activity-1
Take two test tubes. Fill Water up to half in one test tube, and
lime water in another test tube. Arrange two holed rubber corks to
both the test tubes. Arrange bent tubes in two test tubes as shown in
the figure.
Blow air into the test tubes. Observe the change of solutions by
inhaling and exhaling air continuously.
❋ In which test tube colour change is observed?
❋ Why did the lime water turn white?
❋ What is the chemical reaction happening there? What happens if lime water
you go on blowing for a very long time?
water
Exhaled air contains more amount of Carbon dioxide. When Presence of CO2
this CO2 reacts with lime water it turns into milky white.
Some of the elements in the air we breathe in are high and some are low. Similarly, in the air we
breathe out, some elements are more and some less. Observe the following table.

Gas Percentage of gas in breathe Percentage of gas in breathe

in (Inhaled) air out (Exhaled) in air
Oxygen 21 16
Carbondioxide 0.03 4.4
Nitrogen 78 78
❋ Write four inferences that you can draw from this table.
Joseph Black identified that, when limestone is heated or reacted with acids, it gives rise
to CO2 gas which turns lime water into milky white.

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❋ Why does exhaled air contain less oxygen?
❋ Why does exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide?
The inhaled air contains more amount of Oxygen as compared to exhaled air. The oxygen present
in the air that enters into the body passes into the blood and to the cells. In the cells food materials are
oxidised and carbon dioxide is produced. This reaches to the lungs and expelled during exhalation. So,
the amount of carbon dioxide is high in exhaled air than in the inhaled air.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How is breathing different from cellular respiration?
✤ What is the difference between the air we breathe in and air that we breathe out?

9.2 Human Respiratory system

❋ What are the different parts in human respiratory system?
❋ How transportation and exchange of gases take place?
❋ How cellular respiration occurs in humans?
Human respiratory system consists of nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs.

nasal cavity

nostril
pharynx epiglottis
larynx
trachea

bronchi capillaries in which O2 and

bronchioles CO2 exchanges occur
alveoli
lung

Respiratory system of man

Nostril: Air enters into the body through a pair of nostrils.

❋ What are the uses of moist surface and hair in the nose?
Nasal cavities : It is a tube-like structure that connects the nostrils and internal nares. Nasal cavities
are lined with mucous membrane which secrets mucous. It keeps the nasal cavity moist which helps in

102 Science and Technology

adjusting relative to body temperature. The hair in nasal cavity prevents the entry of dust and dirt
particles.
Pharynx: It's a common passage for food and air. The food we eat and the air we breathe passes
through the pharynx. . The muscular valve called 'epiglottis' is present in the pharynx that regulates the
passage of food and air, allowing them to enter their systems properly.
❋ Why we can’t speak properly when we close our nose?
Larynx: This is also called as 'Voice box'. It contains vocal cords. The air coming out of the lungs
causes them to vibrate as it travels through the vocal cords. This produces sound so that we can talk
and sing songs, etc.
Trachea: It is a structure that carries air to the lungs. It has ring-like structures made of cartilage that
allows it to stay firmly in place during inhalation and exhalation without contracting.
Bronchi: As the trachea enters the larynx, it splits into two branches called bronchi. These enter into
the lungs.
Bronchioles: The bronchi that enter the lungs divides into many smaller branches called bronchioles.
Each bronchiole enters into the alveoli.
Lungs
Humans have a pair of lungs. The lungs are surrounded by a two-layered membrane called as
‘pleura’. There is a pulmonary fluid between these layers. It protects the lungs. The right lung is larger
than the left lung because right lung has three lobes whereas left lung has only two lobes.
The lungs contain several 'alveoli' and each alveolus supplied with blood capillaries. The exchange
of respiratory gases takes place by the process called diffusion in alveoli. Hence these are called as
'structural and functional units' of lungs.
❋ Observe the flow chart showing the pathway of air in human respiratory system.
O2

CO2

Joseph Priestley identified that the gas required for combustion of substances is
released by plants. Lavoisier named this gas as Oxygen.

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9.2.1 Diaphragm
❋ What is the role of the ribs and the diaphragm in human respiration?
Movements of the diaphragm are very useful for inhaling and exhaling in relation to breathing.
The diaphragm is located at the lower end of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is umbrella (dome)
shaped when at rest and the bulging part of the diaphragm is directed towards the chest cavity. When
the diaphragm contracts during inhalation, it flattens out a bit or the dome moves downward. As a
result, the volume of the chest cavity is increased. When the volume of the chest cavity increased, its
internal pressure decreases and the air from the outside rushes into the lungs through nostrils. This is
inhalation which we may also call as insipiration.
The next process is reverse. The chest cavity returns to its original position. The diaphragm
relaxes and assumes its dome shape. These changes increase the pressure on the lungs, their elastic
tissue contracts and squeezes the air out through the nose to the external side.
❋ What do we calle this process?

rib bones

chest wall
muscles

lung

diaphragm abdomenal cavity

Expiration
Diagram showing lungs and diaphragm Inspiration

❋ What is meant by the word ‘expiration’?

Our breathing is slow and shallow when we are at rest. It is deeper and faster when we exercise
hard. Breathing rate is also depends upon the age of the person.

The lungs are the only organ in the human body that floats in water. Even after exhalation
about 1200 ml. of air remains in the lungs. This is called residual volume without which our
lungs would collapse.

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9.2.2 Exchange of Oxygen and carbondioxide
During inhalation the air that enters into the lungs reaches the alveoli. Oxygen present in the air
diffuses into the blood present in the capillaries of alveoli. Similarly, carbon dioxide from the blood
diffuses out into the alveoli. This carbon dioxide is expelled out through the process of exhalation.
Oxygen that enters the alveoli is
transported by the blood to the cells.
Haemoglobin in the blood plays an bronchiole

important role in the transportation of gases. Alveolar cavity

carbondioxide
As oxygen enters the bloodstream, it binds
red blood corpuscles
with haemoglobin and converts into oxygen
blood capillary
oxyhaemoglobin. When it reaches the
tissues/cells through the blood it breaks
down into oxygen and haemoglobin. The Alveolus with pulmonary capillary
oxygen that enters the cell is used in cellular
respiration.

9.2.3 Cellular Respiration:

Digested food materials from the digestive system is absorbed into the blood and supplied to all
the cells of the body. Similarly, Oxygen from the respiratory organs is absorbed into the blood and
transported to cells. The food materials reacts with the oxygen in cells and release energy. This mechanism
is called cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration usually occurs in two ways. The respiration in the presence of oxygen is
called aerobic respiration, and in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. Glucose is the
most commonly used substance for energy release in all plants, animals and microorganisms. Glucose is
oxidized by various chemical reactions in different stages.
In the first stage glucose which is a six carbon compund breaks down into two pyruvic acid
molecules (These are 3 carbon compunds). This process is known as glycolysis. It occurs in the cytoplasm
of the cell and does not require the presence of oxygen. If oxygen is available in the next stage, pyruvic
acid is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. This process occurs in the cell organelle called mitochondria.
The chemical reactions occuring at this stage were first identified by Sir Hans Krebs. All the reactions
occur in a cyclical manner and are collectively called as the ‘‘Krebs cycle’’. In this process a large
amount of energy is released. This is called ‘aerobic respiration’.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 X 6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy (38 ATP's)

The rate of respiratory is high in women and children.

Science and Technology 105

 If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol or lactic acid. A small amount of
energy is generated in this process. This is called 'Anaerobic respiration'. In anaerobic respiration only
glycolysis stage is seen and the kreb's cycle, Electron transport chain are absent. This type of respiration
takes place in the prokaryotes like bacteria, yeast-like cells, and muscle cells of humans.

C6H12O6 X 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy (2 ATPs)

The energy released by the breakdown of glucose is stored in the form of a special substance
called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This is called the 'Energy currency' of the cell. This stored energy
is transported to the required place in the cell. Each ATP carries 7200 calories of energy. When one
glucose molecule is oxidised approximately 38 ATPs are formed in aerobic respiration, whereas only 2
ATP molecules are formed as net profit in anaerobic respiration.
The energy released during respiration is stored in the mitochondria in the form of ATP. Hence
mitochondria are called 'Power houses of the cell'. Some energy would be used to perform certain
biochemical reactions and the rest of the energy is released in the form of heat.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is the role of diaphragm in human respiration?
✤ What are the differences between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration?
✤ How epiglottis controls the pathway of air in pharynx?

9.3 Some examples of Respiratory system in other living organism

Exchange of gases in respiration is a common process that takes place in all living organisms for
the production of energy. But this does not happen the same way in all living organisms. Single-celled
organisms such as amoeba, hydra, planarians, roundworms, and earthworms obtain oxygen and expel
carbon dioxide directly from the body by the process of diffusion.

Do all living things have lungs?

Multicellular organisms have specialized respiratory organs for exchange of respiratory gases.
Different types of respiratory organs have developed in different organisms depending on body size,
water availability and type of circulatory system, etc. The aquatic organisms, such as fishes, have
developed specialized organs called gills for respiration. These gills are thin and supplied with more
blood capillaries. The exchange of gases through gills is known as ‘Branchial Respiration’.

The lungs contain over 300 million air sacs (alveoli). If the internal space of all the air sacs
in our lungs are laid out, they would occupy about 160 sq.m. are which is equal to are of a
tennis court.

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How does frogs respire in different habitats?
The frogs commonly live in water, on land. It is an amphibian.
Frogs can respire through the skin, lungs, and bucco-pharyngeal cavity. Frogs breathe with their
lungs when they are on land. Oxygen dissolved in water is taken up by the gills when the frog is in larval
stage called tadpole.

Is blood white in insects?

Insects such as cockroaches and grasshoppers do not have haemoglobin in their blood. So
blood is colour less. They have a system of tubes called ‘Tracheal system’ for the transport of gases.
The cockroach body has small holes in the lateral side. These are called ‘spiracles’ through which air
enters into the body. In the tracheal system, tubes called trachea are arranged throughout the body,
starting from the spiracles. The ducts called trachea divides into smaller branches delivering oxygen
directly to the cells.
Other terrestrial organisms, such as reptiles, birds, and mammals, breathe through the lungs.
Breathing through the lungs is called ‘pulmonary respiration’.

Spiracle

trachea

Spiracle
Trachea

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ On what factors the evolution of the respiratory system depends in different organisms?
✤ What helps frogs to respire in different habitats?

9.4 Respiration in plants

❋ How exchange of gases takes place in plants?
❋ What are the organs / adaptations are present in plants for respiration?

If one of the two lungs in humans is damaged the other will perform
the function of both without any difficulty.

Science and Technology 107

 Our nose or mouth are organs through which air enters our body. Likewise ‘lenticels’ on the
stems and certain other structures on roots through which surrounding air enters the inner tissue in the
plants. The walls of the air chambers in the inner tissue contain a layer of water and are moist. Oxygen
from the air entering through the stomata and lenticels dissolves in the water layer. It reaches the cell
components through the cell wall. It reacts with the glucose in the cell and releases energy.
Plants growing in coastal mangrove forests and plants which grow in wet places, such as ponds,
marshy soils have developed special structures called ‘Respiratory/Aerial roots’ for respiration. In
these plants roots penetrate the soil and becomes arial. Exchange of gases takes place with these roots.
In the same way, the stems of these plants are hollow and contain a large number of lenticels.

Lenticels on stem Aerial roots/Respiratory roots

9.4.1 Do germinating seeds also respire?

❋ How do germinating seeds respire?
❋ What are the products formed during the respiration of germinating seeds?
Germinated seeds contain active living cells. Germinated seeds also respire and in which carbon
dioxide and energy is released in the form of heat. Let us do some experiments to know about respiration
in germinating seeds.

Activity-2
Materials required: Glass bottle, Bengal gram seeds, beaker and lime water.
Procedure: Soak the Bengal gram seeds one day before the
experiment. Take the germinating seeds into in a glass bottle. Take
lime water in a beaker. insert the beaker into the bottle carefully
with the help of thread. Close the beaker and left the entire setup sprouted seeds
without disturbing for two days. Observe the lime water in the
beaker.
❋ What change is observed in the lime water? beaker with
lime water
❋ What is the reason for change of lime water?
Evolved CO2 in respiration
❋ Which gas was released by germinating seeds?

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 Due to the respiration in Germinating seeds Carbon dioxide gas is produced. This gas reacts with
lime water and turns into milky white.
Is heat also produced during Respiration?

Activity-3
Materials required: Thermos flask, Thermometer,
Germinating seeds, cotton or single holed rubber stopper. thermometer

Procedure: Take some germinating seeds into a thermos flask.

Arrange a single holed rubber cork to the flask. Insert a
thermometer through the cork in such a way that it should be
in the middle of the seeds. Record the temperature for every
Thermosflask
two hours.
❋ What change is observed in the thermometer readings?
❋ What is the reason for increase in the reading of germinating seeds
thermometer?
❋ Why heat is released by germinating seeds? Heat evolved during respiration
The germinating seeds in the thermometer undergoes aerobic respiration. So energy is released
in the form of heat. Hence the thermometer reading increased.

9.5 Respiratory Diseases

z Asthma: Inflammation of the trachea and bronchi can make breathing difficult. Coughing, wheezing,
chest congestion and difficulty in breathing are the major symptoms. Allergic factors in asthma
include the release of inflammatory substances such as histamine that cause the airways to constrict
and make breathing difficult.
z Bronchitis: Due to the inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchioles, mucus
production increases and decreases the diameter of the bronchioles. Prolonged cough,
accompanied by thick mucus / sputum formation are the major symptoms of the disease.
z Pneumonia: This disease is caused due to a bacterial infection of the lungs called Streptococcus
pneumonia. Some types of viruses, fungi, protozoa, and mycoplasmas also cause this disease.
Symptoms include swelling of the lungs, accumulation of mucus in the airways, cough, fever, and
decreased gas exchange. This may lead to death if left untreated in time.
z Emphysema: It is a chronic disorder of the respiratory system. In this case, the air sacs(alveoli)
walls collapse and the breathing space where the exchange of air takes place is reduced. The
lungs become larger, the air sacs shrink, and the more fibrous tissue becomes less elastic. The
main reason for this is the habit of smoking.

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z SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome):
This corona viral disease was identified firstly in china in 2002. Fever, dry cough, headache,
muscle pains and difficulty in breathing are the Symptoms of this disease. This is transmitted to
others through saliva droplets and nasal discharges.
z Why COVID-19 is dangerous?
This disease is caused by the novel corona virus, began in the Wuhan city of China in October
2019 and spread around the world, causing many deaths. Fever, Sore throat, difficulty in breathing,
Pneumonia, Fatigue and Cold are the Symptoms of this disease. The disease is transmitted from
person to person through various sources such as droplets of saliva and nasal discharge. Patients
with high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease are more likely to be affected by this disease
compared to the general population. Many patients had to be arranged with ventilators due to
severe difficulty in breathing.
z What are ventilators? Why are they important to COVID-19 patients?
In cases where patients with respiratory problems or lung defects are unable to inhaling and
exhaling air on their own Ventilators are fitted to pump air into and out of the lungs. Accumulation
of mucus-like fluid in the air sacs (Alveoli) reduces the ability to absorb oxygen and causes
oxygen deficiency. In such a case ventilator are arranged to provide adequate oxygen to the
patient.
z Is it risk to the lungs with air pollution?
Some chemicals released into the air due to air pollution and other harmful pollutants enter the
respiratory tract and cause allergies. This can cause problems with breathing, cough, asthma,
and lung cancer.
z Is smoking injurious to health?
One person dies every eight minutes due to tobacco addiction. 4.9 million deaths per year are
due to this only. This number is expected to reach ten million by the year 2030. In our country 10.8 %
people are consuming tobacco in different forms. Of these, 82% suffer from infectious diseases and
nine lakhs die with the effect of tobacco. Smoking is the leading cause of 90% of lung cancer. Lungs
that are damaged by smoking can easily become infected. There is also the possibility of contracting
various chronic diseases. About 30% of smokers and secondary smokers (who inhale the smoke)
develop lung cancer. In view of this, the Central Government enacted a law in 2004 banning smoking in
public places.

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9.6 Pranayama
Pranayama is the process by which we can increase the breathing capacity of our lungs. Patanjali
defined ‘pranayama’ as the control of the inhaling and exhaling processes.
The Indian ayurvedic physician, Patanjali developed a scientific breathing practice called
Yogabhyasa. Maharshi Patanjali proposed a theory called ‘Ashtanga yoga’. The art of breathing in
Yogabhyasa is called ‘Pranayama’.
In Pranayama practice air is allowed to enter three lobes of lungs in order to increase the amount
of oxygen to diffuse into blood. Deep breaths in Pranayama help us to reduce breathings per minute
from 20-22 to 15. Because of these deep breaths more amount of oxygen available to brain and tissues
of the body will be more active. All people irrespective of age and sex should practice Pranayama to
improve the working capacity of lungs. It is very important to practice Pranayama regularly to make our
life healthy and active.

KEY POINTS

z Inhalation and exhalation are the two stages of respiration. During inhalation air enters into the
body where as in exhalation air sent out of the body.
z Respiration is the metabolism that releases energy by oxidizing food materials such as glucose.
z The amount of carbon dioxide is higher in the air that we breathe out than the air we breathe in.
z The human respiratory system consists of the nostrils, nasal cavity, Pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and lungs.
z Alveoli are called as the 'structural and functional units' of the lungs.
z The diaphragm plays an important role in inhalation and exhalation in men, whereas in women the
ribs as well as the diaphragm contribute to respiration.
z If Cellular respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen it is called aerobic respiration, and If
Cellular respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen then it is called anaerobic respiration.
z Some amount of energy from the respiration is stored in the form of ATP in the cell organelle called
Mitochondria. Hence Mitochondria are called as power houses of the cell.
z Different types of respiratory organs have been developed in different organisms depending on
body size, water availability, type of circulatory system, etc.
z In plants, in addition to the 'stomata', lenticels also participate in the exchange of gases. Plants
growing in marshy soils have developed special structures called Respiratory roots.

Science and Technology 111

 PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What is the difference between the respiratory system of an insect and a human?
2. How exchange of gases occurs in the unicellular organisms like Amoeba?
3. How do the movements of the diaphragm help in the breathing process?
4. Write the procedure and observations to prove that CO2 is released by germinating seeds.
5. More energy is released when cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen compared
to oxygen-free conditions. Why?
6. Explain the structure of human respiratory system with the help of a diagram.
7. Respiration is complicated in humans compared to amoeba. Analyse the evolutionary sequence of
the respiratory system in different organisms.
8. Aerobic respiration occurs at. ( )
A) Mitochondria & Chloroplast B) Chloroplast & Cytoplasm
C) Mitochondria & cytoplasm D) Endoplasmic Reticulum & Cytoplasm
9. The correct pathway of respiration in human beings ? ( )
A) Nostrils → Nasal cavity → pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi
B) Nostrils → Nasal cavity → pharynx → Trachea → Larynx → Bronchi
C) Nasal cavity → Nostrils → larynx → pharynx → Trachea → Bronchi
D) Nostrils → nasal cavity → larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → pharynx
10. Find out the structures that help in the exchange of gases in the plants ( )
i) Stomata ii) Lenticels iii) Respiratory roots iv) Bark
A) i and ii B) i and iii C) i,ii and iii D) i, ii, iii and iv
11. Match the following. ( )
A) Pulmonary Respiration [ ] 1. Cockroach
B) Tracheal Respiration [ ] 2. Fishes
C) Cutaneous Respiration [ ] 3. Lungs
D) Bronchial Respiration [ ] 4. Earthworm
A) i-c, ii-a, iii-d, iv-b B) i-c, ii-b, iii-d, iv-a
C) i-c, ii-d, iii-b, iv-a D) i-d, ii-b, iii-c, iv-a

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 CHAPTER

10 Transportation
We know that all organisms need food, water and oxygen for survival. All organisms have some
mechanisms in their body that help in carrying these substances inside their bodies. We have blood and
Lymph following through a net work of tubes and pumps in our body facilating this. Food and water in
the digestive system reaches blood vessels. In the same way the oxygen that enters the respiratory
system is diffuses into blood. Digested food and oxygen must be supplied to all cells in the body, via
blood and lymph the wastes produced by various cells as a result of metabolism reach the excretory
organs via blood. Other multicellular organisms also have different elaborate arrangements through
which such functions own.
Plants also have a network of tubes of mainly the tissues xylem and phloem that contribute to the
transport of substances in plants. The excretory products formed by metabolic activities are stored in
different parts of the plants without being excreted.
❋ What are the components of human circulatory system?
❋ How does our heart function?
❋ What are the factors that contribute to transport of resources in our body?
❋ What are the factors that contribute to the transport of resources in plants?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains closed circulation of blood, the structure and functions of heart.
✰ Identifies the components of blood importance of blood groups, blood donation, functions
of heart and role of osmosis in water absorption.
✰ Illustrates the reasons for high blood pressure and heart attack.
✰ Draws a well labelled diagram of heart and flow chart of components of human blood
circulatory system.
✰ Appreciates importance of blood and write about it.
✰ The health principles that are needed to keep the heart healthy are followed in daily life.

Science and Technology 113

 Movement of resources from environment to body of a living organism and back to the environment
is a continuous process. If the body is small resources reach different parts just by simple processes like
diffusion. This is what we observe in unicellular organisms. As the size and complexity increases as in
multicellular organisms complexity arrangements for movement of resources for different functions is
observed. We also find fluids that help carry the resources in a faster and more efficient manner.

10.1 Transportation in Animals

Movement from one place to another is a function attributed to the animal body. Moving more
often increases need of more resources and a faster and more flexible systems of transport of resources.
The Human body for example has a network of blood vessels, heart that is a powerful pump, valves
facilitate movement of resources in the body.

10.2 Blood
10.2.1 What happens when you get a cut on your body?
We see blood arising out blood is a liquid connective tissue. Normal adult human beings possess
about 5 litres of blood in their body. Blood consists of two main components. 1. Liquid state plasma
2. Bloodcells. 90 percent of the plasma is water. Plasma contains 7 to 8 percent of proteins, 1 percent
of salts, fats, glucose, vitamins, hormones, and many other substances.
Blood cells: The blood cells which float in
plasma are red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets.
Why blood is red in colour?
Red blood cells are bi-concave and round in
a shape and nucleus is absent. Due to the presence Blood

of haemoglobin, blood appears red in colour. When

oxygen binds to the iron molecule, haemoglobin is
converted into oxy haemoglobin and delivered to
the cells of body. Carbon dioxide in the cells enters the blood stream. The average life span of Red
blood cells is 120 days.
Blood cells that protect our body from diseases.
White blood cells do not contain haemoglobin (pigment). Therefore they are white in colour.
They protect our body from many infections and diseases.
We classify WBC into 5 types as 1) Eosinophils, 2) Basophils, 3) Neutrophils, 4) Lymphocytes
and 5) Monocytes.

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Blood cells that help the blood to clot when injured.
In certain cases where our body is injured and bleeding, blood cells called platelets form a net
near the wound and prevent the blood loss by clotting of blood.

Importance of blood
Humans cannot survive without blood. Without a certain amount of blood, various metabolic
activities cannot function properly. Blood is needed to regulate body temperature, to protect against
diseases, and to eliminate waste materials from our body.

When does a person needs blood?

Human body requires blood after massive injury during, surgeries, and in certain types of diseases.
❋ How is blood given (transfused) in such situations?
Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or blood products from one person to another through
his large vein. We need to match blood of a person who gives blood (donor) with one who receives it
(recipient). This is done with the help of certain factors present in blood. The discovery of blood groups
led us to them.

10.2.2 Blood groups

Karl Land steiner a german doctor found that blood from only certain people could be transfused
into others. In all other cases blood would coagulate. Land steiner collected samples of all the people
in his lab (inculding himself), separated the plasma part (a straw coloured fluid) and blood cells of each
of them and started mixing plasma of one person with blood cells of another. This lead him to grouping
of blood as A, B, and C. C was later changed to ‘O’ (actually zero, that is absence of factors present
in A and B blood groups) Land Steiner, a German doctor AB, Rhesus factor and several other factors
were discovered subsequently.
Donar
People with ‘‘AB’’ blood group
A B AB O
human beings can receive blood from any Recipient
other group. Hence they are called A 3 2 2 3
‘‘Universal Recipient’’. ‘O’ blood group B 2 3 2 3
can donate blood to any other group, so
AB 3 3 3 3
these people are known as ‘‘Universal
donars’’. O 2 2 2 3

Observe the table and answer the following.

❋ To which groups can people having blood group ‘A’ donate blood to?
❋ A recipient with blood group ‘B’ can receive blood from which groups?

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❋ How is blood transported to different parts of the body?

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is blood transfusion? When do we need it?
✤ What are the functions of blood? How many types in blood cells? What are they?
✤ Who is known as universal donar and universal recipient?

10.3 Blood vessels and transport system

The blood transport system consist mainly of blood, blood vessels and heart. Blood vessels in
our body were named and discovered nearly 400 years ago. A remarkable observation was made by
a British Physcian named William Harvey. He observed that there were two major path ways of blood
flow. 1. Towards heart 2. Away from heart.

10.3.1 Arteries
Arteries carry oxygen rich blood from the heart to
muscle layer
all parts of the body. Since the blood flow is rapid and at elastic lumen
a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic walls. There fibrous coat lining cells
(endothelium)
are no valves in arteries.

10.3.2 Veins
tough fibrous coat
Veins are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide (CO2) rich
blood from all parts of the body back to the heart. The veins have muscle layer
lumen
thin walls and valves are also present which allow blood to flow lining cells
towards the heart only. (endothelium)

Let us learn about the blood capillaries that combine the arteries and veins at the cells of the body
organs.

10.3.3 Blood Capillaries

Blood capillaries are the microscopic vessels made of lumen
single layer cells. They allow diffusion of various substances lining cells
and establish continuity between arteries and veins. Blood (endothelium)
reaches the cells via capillaries.
Girolamo Fabrici (who was a teacher it William Harvey) found that valves in the veins
allow one way blood flow.

116 Science and Technology

 Activity
Fill in the following table. Use the clues / options given in the first column.
Table

Sl.No. Structure / Function of blood vessel Artery Vein

1 Thickness of walls (Thick/thin) Thick Thin

2 Valves (Present/absent)
3 Capacity to retain shape when blood is absent
(can retain / cannot retain)
4 Direction of blood flow
(heart to organs / body organs to heart)
5 Pressure in the vessel (Low / high)
6 Oxygen contente (Usually high/ usually low)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Why blood pressure in arteries is higher than veins?
✤ Which blood vessels have valves?
✤ What are the differences between arteries and veins?

10.3.4 Structure and functions of heart

Heat is a device that maintains pressure to push blood through vessesls. Heart acts as a pump in
our transport system. We also called our transport system is cardio vascular system, cardio - is related
to heart. Let us know about structure and functions of heart.
❋ Where is the heart located?
The heart is situated slightly to the left between the two lungs in the chest cavity. Two pericardial
membranes, chest cavity and pericardial fluid, which protect heart from mechanical shocks. The Heart
is a muscular structure. Your heart is about the size of your frist.

Marcello Malpighi observed the blood capillaries in the wings of bats.

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 arteries to head
artery to left arm

superior vena cava

aorta
pulmonary artery (left branch)
pulmonary artery (right branch)
left pulmonary veins
right pulmonary veins
left atrium
right atrium semi - lunar valve in the
pulmonary artery

right atrio ventricular valve left atrio ventricular valve

(Tricuspid Valve) (Bicuspid Valve)
left ventricle
inferior vena cava
right ventricle

Internal structure of heart

The heart is divided into four chambers. Two upper chambers are called atria, and the lower two
chambers are called ventricles. Right atrium and ventricle are separated from left atrium and ventricle
with septa.
The valve present on the Right Auriculo - ventricular septum between Right atrium and Right
Ventricle is referred as ‘‘Tricuspid Valve’’. The valve present on the left Auriculo - Ventricula septum
between left atrium and left ventricle is referred as Bicuscid valve or Mitral valve. The semilunar values
are located at the begining of the pulmonary artery and at the begining of the aorta.

How the heart works?

The blood flows into heart and fills in the right and left atrium. Blood from all parts of the body
flows into right atrium while which that from lungs into left atrium from posterior. Blood flows out of the
heart from the ventricles. Blood from right ventricle reaches lungs. Blood from left ventricle to all parts
of the body. Pulmonary vein (carrying blood from lungs to head) brings oxygenated blood t the left
atrium. If is the upper part of the left ventricle. A thick blood vessel called aorta arises from left ventricle.
It supplies oxygenated blood to different body parts. Coronary blood vessels supply blood to heart.
See figure of heart and answer the following questions.
❋ Which blood vessel carries blood from heart to lungs?
❋ Which blood vessel carries blood from heart to all parts of the body?
❋ Which blood vessel carries blood from lungs to heart? Comment on oxygen content of the
vessel.

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 Let us try to understand, the working mechanism heart through the following flow chart.
Body parts (Deoxygenated blood) → Superior, Inferior vencave → Right atrium → Right ventricle →
Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Aorta → Body
parts (oxygenated blood)

Heart

Right Left
Body atrium atrium
Lungs
Parts Right Left
ventricle ventricle

Double circular blood transportation

10.3.5 Blood circulation
Careful examination of the above flow chart reveals that blood flows in two circles. When the
blood flows through the heart twice to complete. It is called as double circulation.
Single circulation system is found in fishes. When blood flows through heart only once to complete
one circulation, it is called as single circulation.
How the lub-dub sound arises when the heart beats?
Rhythemic contractions and relaxations of the heart muscle are called heart beats. The heart
beats as long as we live. The contraction of the heart is called systole and relaxation is called diastole.
Closing and opening of the valves during heart contractions and relaxations causes the lub-dub
sound.
The four chambers in the heart do not contract or relax at once. When heart contracts the blood
in the left ventricle flows through the arota to the body parts as well as the right ventricle pushes the
blood to the lungs through pulmonary artery. When heart relaxes blood enters into the left atrium
through the pulmonary veins. Similarly the blood reaches the right atrium through vanacavas. These
processes must take place without interruption for the heart to be healthy. The heart of a healthy person
beats about 72 times per minute.
Doctor examines the heart beat rate with a stethoscope.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ Draw and labelled diagram of structure of heart.
✤ Describe the path way of double circulation of blood.

10.4 Heart diseases

The heart continues to work all through our life. So if we neglect the health of heart it can lead to
severe heart diseases including heart failure/heart attack.

10.4.1 High blood pressure

When heart contracts blood flows rapidly into the artery, causing pressure on the walls of the
arteries. This pressure may increase due to several reasons one of them being accumulation of fat in the
walls of the arteries. It does not happens in a single day. Indiscriminate intake of fat rich food is one of
the reasons for the increase in fat in the arterial walls. As you grow older your blood vessels become
less elastic so that the elasticity of the blood vessels also decreases and Blood pressure rises. About 90
to 95 percent of people with high blood pressure fall into this category.
❑ Blood pressure is measured with the help of a device called as sphygmomanometer. Normal
blood pressure is 120/80.

Preventive measures
Exercise regularly. Do not smoke or drink alcohol. Do not stress yourself . Medication should
be used with a doctor’s advice when high blood pressure is diagnosed.

10.4.2 Heart attack

Symptoms of heart attack
❑ Heart attack symptoms are not the same in everyone, Heart attack does not have to come with
severe pain.
❑ Shortness of breath, cold hands and feet, and shock may occur. These should be suspected of
causing a heart attack.
❑ Pain may occur in the left breast on the right and left side, in others in the lower jaw, and in the
upper abdomen in some people.
❑ May cause nausea, vomiting and shortness of breath. In some people, sweating, falling blood
pressure, nervousness, muscle weakness, and defection may occur unknowingly.

10.4.3 Tests to detect heart attack

❑ E.C.G. shows symptoms of heart attack. A slight heart attack on the E.C.G. is evident on ‘Scanning’
and angiogram.

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❑ An increase in the amount of ‘‘Creatine kynage’’ enzyme in the blood is also a symptom of a heart
attack. Let us know about E.C.G.

E.C.G. (Electro Cardiograph)

The heart beats 60 to 108 times per minute. These responses should show up without any
interruption on the E.C.G. graph. If not, the doctor will diagnose heart failure and recommend further
tests, including treatment.

Precautions:
❑ Smoking, drinking alcohol and chewing gutka must be stopped.
❑ The use of oils, ghee and butter should be reduced. Use a little amount of palm oil, bran oil and
suffola oil as cooking oils. Reduce salt in the diet.
❑ The body needs regular exercise. Avoid stress and anxiety.
❑ People with high blood pressure and diabetes should definitely keep them under control.
❑ Even if you are diagnosed with a heart attack, it is best to call doctor for first aid.

10.4.4 Coagulation of blood

❋ How does the blood clot? What processes are involved in blood coagulation?
When you have a cut on your body the blood flows out of the wound for only a short time. Then
within 3-6 minutes the cut is filled with a reddish solid material. This solid is called as blood clot. It
blood did not clot, any one with even a slight would bleeds profusely.

Steps in blood clotting:

❑ When the blood flows out, the platelets release an enzyme called thrombokinase.
❑ Thrombokinase acts on prothronbin which is present in the blood; converting into thrombin.
❑ Thrombin acts on fibrinogen, that is present in dissolved state, converting into insoluble fibrin.
❑ The blood cells entangle in the fibrin fibres forming the clot.
❑ The fibrin fibres are attached to the edges of the wound and pull them together.
❑ The yellowish straw coloured fluid portion found after formation of the clot is known as serum.

10.4.5 Evolution of circulatory system

The circulatory system formed in advanced mammals, such as humans, is not all developed at
once. Let us know the evolutionary pattern of the circulatory system from primitive to developed
organisms.

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❑ Organisms belonging to movements occurs, the phylum protozoa, such as Amoeba converts food
into food vacuole, and (Brownian) which are natural movements in the organism, to supply nutri-
ents equally to all parts. Oxygen and Carbon dioxide are diffused in the amoeba through plasma
membrane directly.
❑ The parazoans like sponges, use sea water for transportation. The sponges create their own
water currents by beating of flagella that are present in their body.
❑ The cnidarians like Hydra and jelly fish have developed gastro vascular cavity, which has taken up
the function of digestion and transportation of nutrients to each and every cell of the body.
❑ In platyhelmenthes (e.g. Fasciola hepatica), the digestive system is highly branched and supplies
digested food to all the cells directly. In these animals the excretory system collects nitrogenous
wastes from each cell individually.
❑ In animals belonging to Ne mathelminthes (round worms), the pseudo coelom has taken up the
function of collection and distribution of materials.
❑ The Annelids, the first Eucoelomate animals have developed a pulsatile vessel, to move the fluid
and the transporting medium is blood.
❑ The Arthropods have developed a pulsatile organ to pump the blood, the heart. The blood
instead of flowing in blood vessels, floods the tissues, directly supplying the nutrients to the tissues
which is known as oxygen is directly supplied to the tissues by the respiratory system.
❑ In most of Molluscs and lower level cardates the supply of different substances takes place through
the open blood circulatory system.
❑ Evolved from a two chambered heart in fish to a four chambered heart in mammals.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the diseases of heart? How can they prevented?
✤ Write down the process involved in blood coagulation.
✤ Which device is used to measure blood pressure?

10.5 Transport of substances in plant

The water absorbed by roots and food by leaves are supplied to the remaining parts of the plants
by xylem and phloem. In the root, the xylem tissue is situated towards the exterior where as in the stem
is arranged in bundles towards the center.
Does the difference in xylem position have any benefit to the plant?
❋ What is the mechanism involved in water absorption?

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10.5.1 Transport of water in plants through xylem
Absorption by root hair
Root hairs are cylindrical extensions of root epidermal cells that are important for acquisition of
water and nutrients. Root hair cells are adopted for taking up water and mineral ions by having a large
surface area to increase the rate of absorption. Osmosis, root pressure, transpiration and the cohesion,
adhesion forces help the plants to absorb water through root hair and xylem.
Plants will die if over-fertilizer. Do you know why?

Osmosis
Each living cell has anosmatic characteristic. The soil water is an extremely dilute solution of salts.
Soil water concentration is more dilute than that of the cell sap in the root hair, therefore water will pass
into the vacuole of the root hair by osmosis. So, water passes into the neighbouring cell which in turn
becomes diluted, finally water enters the xylem vessels. Xylem vessels supply water and nutrients to
the plant. It high doses of fertilizer are applied to the plants, the plants will die due to reverse - osmosis.

Root pressure
Root pressure can also be called as osmotic pressure that occurs within the cells of a root
system. It causes the sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves. It occurs in the xylem of some
vascular plants when the soil moisture is high.

The role of transpiration in transport

The evaporation of water through leaves is called transpiration. Water evaporates through stomata
of leaves and lenticels of stem.
❋ How does water reaches from the roots to the top in the tallest trees like Rose wood and
Eucalyptus?
The main driving force of water uptake and transportation in a plant is transpiration of water from
leaves. Transportation is the process of water evaporation through stomata. The transpiration creates
a negative water vapour pressure in surrounding cells of the leaf. Once this happens, water is pulled
into the leaf from the vascular tissue, the xylem is a continuous water column that extends from the leaf
to the roots.
❋ Think about the transpiration that takes place in plants, whatever the clouds have to do with rain.

Adhesion force
When water enters the xylem vessels, the attraction between the molecules in the xylem and the
water holds the water and is called cohesion force. The water molecules within the xylem tend to stick
together, which allows them to help pull other water molecules up through the xylem - even against the
flow of gravity.
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Cohesion force
The force of attraction between water molecules in xylem vessels is called the cohesive the force.
Water is transported in plants both cohesive and adhesive forces. These forces pull water and the
dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plants.

10.5.2 Transport of food in plants through phloem

Food such as sugar is synthesised in the green parts of plants, mainly the leaves, but this food has
to be transported to all the living cells. The veins of a leaf consist of xylem and phloem. Xylem
transports the water, phloem transports the food. Does xylem transport only water or water and nutrients
from soil? or some thing else as well?
Biologists studies about food transportation in plants
proboscis
with the help of aphids. Aphids clustering round the young
stems of plants as feed on the plant juices. To obtain this
aphid juice an aphid pierces the plant tissues with its long needle
like organ 'proboscis'. An aphid is killed while in the act
of feeding and the body is then carefully cut away, leaving
the hollow proboscis still inserted into phloem. The fluid
phloem cut end of the proboscis in the form of drops; these drops
xylem are then collected and analysed. The fluid contain sugar
bark
pith and amine acids.
Aphid extracting food material Further experiments to illustrate the conduction of
from plant sugar by the phloem have been done by removing a
ring of bark from a shoot to expose the wood. Remove
some growth all tissues from the centre outwards, including the
roots
phloem. After a few days, food had accumulated above
no growth the ring, but was not present below it. It proves that
the phloem supplies food from the leaves, young stems
to the utility places.
Removing ring of bark (Ringing experiment)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How do root hairs absorb water?
✤ How does transpiration contribute to water absorption?

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 KEY POINTS
z Transport system in humans mainly consists of the heart and blood vessles.
z Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
z Heart acts as a pumping organ.
z The upper two chambers of the heart are called the atria and the lower are the ventricles.
z Tricuspid valve is present in between right atrium and right ventricle. Bicuspid valve is present
between left atrium and left ventricle.
z Transport system of plants mainly consists of a network of xylem and phloem tissues.
z Osmosis, root pressure, cohesion and adhesion forces and transpiration losses help the plants to
absorb water and minerals.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What are the components of blood?

2. Write differences between: a) veins - arteries b) xylem - phloem
3. Explain the blood circulation in the human body with the help of an illustration.
4. What kind of care would you advise your family members to take to stay heart healthy?
5. Draw and label the diagram of heart
6. When blood transfusion is done? How does information about blood groups contribute to blood
transfusion?
7. Water reaches great heights in the trees because of suction pull caused by - ( )
A) Osmosis B) root pressure C) transpiration D) phloem
8. Which of the following statement is wrong? ( )
A) Stethoscope measures heart beat
B) Sphygmomanometer indicates the blood pressure
C) E.C.G. report tells about heart function
D) X-ray film counts pulse rate of a person
9. Match the following:
A) Stomata ( ) 1. Absorption of water
B) Xylem ( ) 2. Transpiration
C) Root hair ( ) 3. Transport of food
D) Phloem ( ) 4. Transport of water

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 CHAPTER

11 Excretion
No factory can manufacture new products without generating any waste. The body of all organisms
are like living factories. So, waste is also generated at regular intervals from the body of most organisms.
❋ Where are wastes produced in humans?
❋ How is urine formed?
❋ Under what circumstances is dialysis performed?
❋ How do plants excrete?
We will discuss all of these in this lesson. Various metabolic activities occur in our body and
different substances. Various products are generated as a result of these metabolisms. Many chemical
reactions take place inside the cells of the body. Certain products are not needed by the body while
some others may be harmful if they accumulate in large quantities in the body. Their removal from the
body is called excretion. In Latin ‘ex’ means out, ‘crenere’ means shift.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains structures in the excretory system of humans.
✰ Lists out the components of urine.
✰ Draws the excretory system, internal structure of a kidney and nephron.
✰ Explains the function of excretory system especially, role of the kidneys in homeostasis.
✰ Describes the structure of a nephron.
✰ Justifies why nephron is considered the structural and functional unit of a kidney. Prepares
model of a kidney.
✰ Identifies kidney diseases and describes dialysis.
✰ Appreciates the importance of organ donation.
✰ Appreciates the role of other organs such as lungs, liver, skin, and large intestines in managing
wastes.
✰ Explains excretion in other organisms especially plants.

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11.1 Human excretory system
Excretory system makes, stores and excretes urine. It consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
posterior vena cava dorsal aorta

adrenal gland renal artery

hilum

Kidneys left kidney

renal vein

left ureter

opening of ureter
bladder into bladder
urethra
external opening
Excretory system

11.1.1 Kidneys
In human beings, there are a pair of bean-shaped, reddish-brown structures called kidneys.
They are present in the abdominal cavity attached to the dorsal body wall, one on either side of the
spine. Just like your heart they are also just the size of your fist.
❋ How are they arranged?
The position of the right kidney is lower than that of the left kidney. This is due to the presence of
the liver above. The kidneys filter and clean the blood and form urine. Each kidney is convex on the
outer side and concave on the inner side. The inner side of each kidney has a raised structure called
fissure or hilus where the renal artery enters, and a renal vein and ureter exits. Renal artery brings
oxygenated blood filled with waste products (mainly urea) into the kidney. Renal vein carries blood
with less wastes and oxygenated blood out of the kidneys.
❋ What do you think happens in the kidneys?
❋ Starting from kidneys, how are wastes removed to the exterior of our bodies?
❋ What are the major structures of human excretory excretory system?

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11.1.2 Ureters
Each ureter arises from the hilus of the kidney. The ureters are muscular tubes. The movement of
urine from kidney to the urinary bladder is done in the ureters through peristalsis.

11.1.3 Urinary Bladder

It is a pear shaped and distensible sac like structure. It is situated in the pelvic region on the
ventral side of the rectum in the abdomen. It stores urine brought by two ureters and capacity of the
bladder is 300 - 800 ml.

11.1.4 Urethra
It is the tube that excretes urine from the bladder. The opening of urinary bladder into the urethra
is guarded by a ring of muscles helping in closing and opening of it called as a sphincter. It regulates the
movement of urine. Urethra is 4 cm long in females and in males it is about 20 cm long. Its opening is
common with the reproductive tract in males (urino-genital duct) but separate in females.

11.2 Kidney - Internal structure

Let’s look at the longitudinal
section of the kidney. The inside of a cortex
kidney appears in two parts. The dark medulla
brown outer part is called the cortex
and the lighter inner part is called the
medula. Each kidney is made up of renal artery
approximately one million microscopic renal vein
units. Each unit is called a nephron,
contains blood vessels and a fine tube nephron ureter
varying in diameter along its length. At
one end of the nephron is a cup shaped
calyces
structure we call the Bowman’s
pelvis
capsule. (it got its name from the
person who first observed it)
Internal structure of kidney
A fine artery enters the
Bowman’s capsule, forms a dense network of finer blood vessels called as capillaries, and move out of
it (see figure - Nephron). The fine artery entering the capsule is called afferent arteriole and the one
moving out is called efferent arteriole. The network of blood capillaries is called glomerulus.

128 Science and Technology

 Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tubule
Distal convoluted tubule

Afferent Efferent
arteriole arteriole
Collecting
duct

Glomerulus Capillary
network
Bowman’s capsule Loop of
henle

Nephron

❋ The diameter of the efferent arteriole is less than that of the afferent arteriole. Why?
The narrower outlet (efferent arteriole) builds up pressure in the glomerulus. Fluid filters out from
the capillaries in to the Bowman’s capsule due to this pressure. This is the first step in the formation of
urine. The filtrate passes on beyond Bowman’s capsule to the tube of the nephron. Some substances in
the initial filtrate like glucose, amino acids salts and a major amount of water are selectively reabsorbed
as urine flows through the tube. The amount of all these to be reabsorbed depends on their level in the
blood. Let us take the example of water. The amount of water reabsorbed depends on how much
excess water there is in the body and how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreated. Filtrate of
all nephrons together pass into collecting vessels that together move out of the kidney. This is the urine
that passes from kidney via ureter to the bladder.

11.3 Functions of kidney

The kidneys play a major role in homeostasis (the ability of an organism to maintain internal
stability to compensate for environmental changes). It filters the blood in the body several times each
day and produces approximately 1.5 liters of urine. Kidneys regulate the level of water, ions and other
substances in the blood. The kidneys also secrete hormones that help maintain homeostasis. The kidneys
are also regulated by hormones. When this balance in the blood is disturbed a person becomes ill.

After the age of 40 years, the number of functioning nephrons usually decreases by
about 10% every 10 years.

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❋ What happens when you drink large amount of water?
❋ In which season do you urinate more? Why do you think it may be so?

11.4 Composition of urine

It is a transparent fluid produced by the urinary system. Urine has amber colour due to the
presence of urochrome. Composition of urine varies considerably depending on several factors. For
example, a protein rich diet can lead to an increase in urea in the urine, sugar may appear in the urine
after a heavy intake of sweets, or a large intake of liquids and water rich food increases the amount of
water in the blood, which results in excretion of more urine.
Urine usually contains 96% water, 2.5% organic substances (like urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine,
water-soluble vitamins, hormones and oxalates, etc.) and 1.5% inorganic substances (sodium, chloride,
phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine, etc.). Initially, urine is acidic (pH =6) but gradually
becomes alkaline due to the decomposition of urea to form ammonia. Ammonia is the most toxic of all
waste products produced during metabolism. The range of pH of urine is 4.5 to 8.0.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the most toxic nitrogenous wastes?
✤ Draw a rough diagram of the nephron and identify the part where the first filtration occurs?
✤ Name the organ of the excretory system that stores urine before its removal from the kidney?

11.5 How do you test the functioning of kidneys?

Generally two tests are used to check for kidney diseases.
❋ A blood test checks your glomerular filtration rate (GFR) which tells how well your kidneys are
filtering.
❋ A urine test checks for albumin in your urine, a sign of kidney damage.

Why should we check our kidneys frequently?

Kidney diseases can be detected by the above tests. Kidney tests are very important for people
who have diabetes, high blood pressure or heart disease.These conditions can hurt the functioning of
kidneys. That is why it is mandatory to check our kidneys frequently.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is also known as vasopressin, helps the body conserve
water when body fluid volume, especially that of blood, is low.

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What happens in kidney disease?
If kidney disease is detected, it must be treated immediately. Treating kidney disease may also
prevent heart disease. Kidney diseases can be treated. Treatment goals are to:
❑ Keep your GFR from going down.
❑ Lower your urine albumin.
To maintain kidney health:
❑ Keep your blood pressure, blood glucose and blood cholesterol in your target range.
❑ Choose foods that are healthy for your heart and cut back on salt.
❑ Be physically active and workout until you sweat.
❑ Drink sufficient water.
❑ If you smoke or drink liquor, take steps to quit.
❑ Take medicines only when prescribed by doctors.

11.5.1 Kidney failure

Certain diseases or accidents can lead to kidney failure. Since the number of nephrons in each
kidney is about one million, a person can live a normal healthy life even with one kidney. Complete and
irreversible kidney failure is called End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD). If kidneys stop working completely,
our body is filled with excess water and waste products. This condition is called uremia. Our hands or
legs may swell. However at least one kidney must function properly to maintain life. Diseases that
threaten health and function of kidneys are kidney stones, infections, etc.

11.5.2 Dialysis (artificial kidney)

If both kidneys are damaged, it is difficult to stay alive. Modern technology can now protect
patients with the help of new methods such as dialysis and kidney transplantation.
When two kidneys are damaged, a machine called dialysis is used to artificially filter a person’s
blood. This process is called Haemodialysis. In this process blood is taken out of the main artery, mixed
with an anticoagulant such as heparin, and then pumped into a device called a dialyzer. In this apparatus,
blood flows through channels or tubes made of cellophane (semi permeable membrane). These tubes

About 170 liters of blood flows through the kidneys of an adult human being in a day. Only
1.5 liters of urine is produced while the rest of the fluid goes back into the bloodstream
through circulation.

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are immersed in the dialyzing fluid. The membrane separates the blood flowing inside the tube and
dialyzing fluid which has the same composition as that of plasma, except that the blood has nitrogenous
wastes.

Line from artery

to apparatus
Pump
Tubing made of a
selective permeable
membrance

Dialyzing
solution
Line from
apparatus to
vein
Fresh dialyzing Used dialyzing
solution solution (with urea
and excess salts)

Kidney dialysis

As Nitrogenous wastes are absent in dialyzing fluid, these substances from the blood move out
freely, thereby cleaning the blood of its wastes. This process is called dialysis.This is similar to the
function of the kidney but is different as there is no reabsorption involved. The purified blood is sent
back into the body through a vein after adding the anticoagulant heparin. Each dialysis session lasts 3 to
6 hours. This method is used for thousands of Uremic / kidney failure patients worldwide.

11.5.3 KidneyTransplantation
❋ Is there any long-term solution for kidney failure?
The best long-term solution to kidney failure is kidney transplantation. It is a surgical procedure
to implant a healthy kidney from a living or deceased donor into the patient. The recipient's immune

The first kidney transplantation was performed between identical twins in 1954 by
Dr. Charles Hufnagel who was a surgeon in Washington, USA. In India, the first kidney
transplantation was done on 1st December 1971 at the Christian Medical College, Vellore,
Tamil Nadu.

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system is more likely to reject the transplanted kidney. So, the kidney that is
received by the recipient must be a good match to his body to minimise the
chances of rejection. To ensure this, it is advisable that the donor be a close-
relative of the recipient. Modern clinical procedures have increased the success
rate of such complicated techniques.
❋ Where is the transplanted kidney placed in the body of the patient with
kidney failure? Transplantation
Donated kidneys are placed as shown in the figure. Damaged kidneys are not removed from the
body as some of the nephrons are still active.

11.5.4 Live even after death

Nowadays the process of organ donation helps a lot for kidney failure patients. Organs are
collected from brain dead patients and transplanted to the recipients. This is called organ donation. We
can save many lives who are in need of different organs from donors for their survival. Instead of living
in memories of the deceased, let us give them a chance to live in others for one more life.
Let us donate organs. Let us live even after death.

11.6 Accessory excretory organs

In addition to the kidneys, lungs, skin, liver and large intestine also remove wastes from our body.

Lungs:
During respiration, lungs remove carbon dioxide and water.

Skin:
It consists of a large number of sweat glands richly supplied with blood capillaries from which
they extract sweat and some metabolic wastes. Sebaceous glands in skin eliminate sebum which contains
waxes, sterols, hydrocarbons and fatty acids.

Liver:
When dead RBCs breakdown they produce bile pigments such as bilirubin, biliverdin and
urochrome, which are metabolic wastes of haemoglobin.The lifespan of RBC is 120 days. They are
destroyed in the liver. Urochrome is eliminated through urine. Bilirubin and biliverdin are excreted
through bile along with cholesterol and derivatives of steroid hormones, extra drug, vitamins and alkaline
salts. Liver is also involved in urea formation.

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Large intestine:
Excess salts of calcium, magnesium and iron are excreted by epithelial cells of colon (large
intestine) along with faeces.
Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes are also eliminated through saliva and tears.

11.7 Excretion in other organisms

Different organisms use varied strategies in excretion. Structural and functional complexity of
excretory organs increases from sponges to humans. Specific excretory organs are absent in unicellular
organisms. Excretory structures that appeared for the first time in flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are known
as flame cells.
Let us now see how the excretory process takes place in plants.

Name of the Phylum Excretory Ststem

Protozoa Osmo regualtion, diffusion

Porifera and Coelenterata Diffusion

Platyhelminthes Flame cells

Nemathelminthes Renette cells

Annelida Nephridia

Arthropoda Green glands, malpighian vessels

Mollusca Metanephridia

Echinodermata Water circulation system

Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals Kidneys

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is the function of a nephron?
✤ Draw a labelled diagram of a nephron.
✤ Why is dialysis required?
✤ Write slogans to promote organ donation.

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11.8 Excretion in Plants
❋ Do plants also excrete like animals?
❋ Do they also have excretory organs?
❋ How do plants manage to get rid of waste products from their body?
Plants produce a variety of waste products during metabolism but they do not have specific
organs to excrete. Plants breakdown waste substances at a much slower rate than the animals, therefore
accumulation of waste is also much slower. They also are capable of managing and recycling wastes.
Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals. Oxygen itself can
be considered as a waste product generated during photosynthesis in plants, that exits through the
stomata of leaves and lenticels of the stem.
Exeretory products may be stored in leaves, bark and fruits. When these dead leaves, bark and
ripe fruits fall off from the tree then waste products in them are get rid off. Waste may get stored in the
fruits in the form of solid body called Raphides. Several toxic compounds are synthesized by the plants
for protection against herbivores. Most plant products that we think are wastes may actually be beneficial
to the plant in some way or the other. Alkaloids, tannins, gums etc. are products that are often protective
for the plant body.
The biochemical substances produced in plants are of two types - primary metabolites and
secondary metabolites. A primary metabolite is a kind of metabolite that is directly involved in normal
growth, development and reproduction etc. Eg: Carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Conversely, a
secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes. Secondary metabolites are derivatives
of primary metabolites and have no function in the physiology of the plant. Eg. alkaloids, tannins, resins,
gums, latex etc. Though plants produce these chemicals for their own use, man found the usage of these
chemicals for his own benefits.

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11.8.1 Alkaloids
These nitrogenous by-products are toxic in nature. Common alkaloids in plants and their uses
are given below.

Alkaloid Plant Part Uses

Quinine Cinchona officinalis (cinchona) Bark Antimalarial drug
Nicotine Nicotiana tobacum (Tobacco) Leaves Insecticide, stimulant
Morphine, Papaver somniferum (Opium) Fruit Pain killer
cocaine
Reserpine Rauwolfia serpentina (Snakeroot) Root Preventing High blood pressure
Nimbin Azadirachta indica (Neem) Seeds, bark, Antiseptic
leaves
Caffeine Coffea arabica (Coffee plant) Seeds Nervous system stimulant
Scopolamine Datura stramonium (Datura) Fruit, flower Sedative
Pyrethroids Chrysanthemum (Chamomile) Flower Insecticides

11.8.2 Tannins
These are organic compounds. These are stored in different parts of the plant and are dark
brown in color. Tannins are used in leather, tanning and pharmaceuticals. Eg: Cassia, Acacia

11.8.3 Resins
Resins mostly occur in gymnosperms in specialised passages called resin passages. These are
used in varnishes. Eg: Pinus

11.8.4 Gums
Plants like Neem, Acacia ooze out a sticky substance called gum when branches are cut. The
gums swell by absorbing water and help in healing damaged parts of a plant. Gums are economically
valuable and used as adhesives and binding agents in the preparation of the medicines, food, etc.

11.8.5 Latex
Latex is a sticky, milky white substance secreted by plants. Latex is stored in latex cells or latex
vessels. From the latex of Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber plant) rubber is prepared.
Biodiesel is prepared from the Jatropha plant.

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11.9 Excretion - secretion
Excretion is the removal of materials from a living being. Excretion is passive in nature. Humans
excrete materials such as urine, carbon dioxide, sweat and urea. In plants we find excretion through
roots into its surroundings include and, falling off of leaves, bark and fruits.
Secretion is movement of material from one point to other point. It is active in nature. Secretions
include enzymes, hormones and saliva. Secretions occur in the plant body in the form of latex, resins,
gums etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is the difference between primary metabolites and secondary metabolites?
✤ Plants do not have excretory organs. How do they send out their waste products?
✤ Name the alkaloids which are harmful to us.

KEY POINTS

z During metabolism several harmful excretory products are formed and the process of removing
toxic waste from the body is called excretion.
z The human excretory system comprises a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and
urethra.
z Each kidney is composed of approximately one millions of nephrons, which are structural and
functional units of kidney.
z Kidneys remove nitrogenous waste from the body and maintain water balance, salt content, pH
and blood pressure in the human body.
z Dialysis machine is an artificial kidney which filters the blood to remove the metabolic wastes
outside the body.
z Plants do not have specific organs to excrete. Plants store waste products in their leaves, bark,
roots, seeds, and fruits. When these ripen, they fall off from the tree and waste products in them
are removed.
z Plants produce two types of metabolites. i) Primary metabolites. Ex - Carbohydrates, proteins
and fats ii) Secondary metabolites. Ex - Alkaloids, tannins, resins, gums, and latex
z Excretion means removal of substances from the organism, and secretion is the movement of
materials from one point to another.

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 PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What happens if waste products accumulate in our body?

2. When and why vasopressin is secreted?
3. Write the differences between excretion and secretion.
4. When urine is formed, initially it is acidic in nature. Later it becomes alkaline. Give reasons.
5. Explain the process of formation of urine.
6. Why are nephrons called functional and structural units of the kidney?
7. What is the composition of urine?
8. What is the long-term solution for kidney patients?
9. What steps do you take to bring awareness in society about organ donation in your day to day
life?
10. The structural and functional unit of human kidney is ( )
A) Alveoli B) Nephron C) Neuron D) Capillaries
11. The most toxic of all metabolic waste products is ( )
A) Urea B) Uric acid C) Ammonia D) Water
12. Flame cells are excretory organs in the following organism ( )
A) Arthropods B) Annelids C) Nemathehelminthes D) Platyhelminthes
12. Identify the secondary metabolic derivative among the following. ( )
A) Carbohydrates B) Proteins C) Fats D) Alkaloids
13. Which of the following hormone has a direct impact on urination? ( )
A) Vasopressin B) Estrogen C) Testosterone D) Progesterone
14. Match the columns ‘‘A’’ and ‘‘B’’
Column A Column B
A) Nimbin ( ) 1. Anti malarial drug
B) Riserpine ( ) 2. Sedative
C) Scopolamine ( ) 3. Insecticide
D) Quinine ( ) 4. Antiseptic
E) Pyrethroids ( ) 5. Preventing high blood pressure
6. Pain killer

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 CHAPTER

Control and
12 Coordination
Every day we perform various activities, for doing any activity coordination between various
body parts is essential. When we drive a car coordination between eyes, ears, legs and muscles of the
hand is essential. While playing tennis game eyes, ears, legs and muscles of the hand should work
together with coordination. In the same way various life processes which are taking place in our body
work together with coordination.
❋ Which organ in our body is responsible for our thoughts feelings and emotions?
❋ Which system in our body is responsible to show responses to stimulus?
❋ Why change takes place inside and outside of our body during adolescent period?
❋ How plants will responds to stimulus?
In our body one system depends upon another system and work together with coordination. The
nervous system and endocrine system work together to control and coordinate all our activities such as
physical actions, our thinking processes and our emotional behaviour. In plants, phytohormones control
the life processes.
Now in this lesson we shall try to know about the various activities which are controlled and
coordinated by nervous system and endocrine system together in our body.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...
✰ Explains the role of nervous system and endocrine system in controlling and coordination of
various activities in the body.
✰ Explains the structure and function of Nerve cell, Brain, Spinal cord, Reflex arc with the help
of diagram.
✰ Differentiates between sensory nerves and motor nerves
✰ Identifies the location of endocrine glands and hormones secreted by them in our body
✰ Gives the suitable examples for stimulus and responses.
✰ Explains the role of phytohormones in regulating the growth of the plant.
✰ Explains the central Nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

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12.1 Nervous system
The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. The sense organs
receives the stimulus and this stimulus with the help of sensory nerves reaches the brain and spinal cord.
This information will be sent to different organs by motor nerves for action.

12.1.1 Showing Response to stimulus

❋ When cat sees the mouse why does it run towards the mouse?
❋ Why plants grows in the direction of sunlight?
Stimulus is an external (or) internal factor which initiate a reaction called response. Response is
the ability of living organisms to respond towards stimuli are the cause for response.
External stimuli: These are external factors like light temperature water wind and touch. For example
folding of leaflet of plant, touch me not. Secretion of saliva from salivary glands of a hungry dog on
seeing food
Internal stimuli: These are intrinsic factors within the body for example desire of hunger on empty
stomach, desire of thirst on drying throat.
All living organisms respond to stimuli. There are sequential steps in showing response to stimulus.
Detecting the changes in environment (both external and internal) is the first step, transmission of the
information is the second step, analysing the information is the third step and finally the responses will be
detected and appropriate action will be executed.

12.1.2 Nerve cell

To know the function of nerve cell let us observe the
dendrites
structure of nerve cell.
nissl’s granules
Every nerve cell consists of 3 parts they are 1. Cyton nucleus
2. Dendrite 3. Axon cell body

Cyton (Cell body): The cell body contains a well defined

schwann cell
nucleus, surrounded by cytoplasm. It has cell organelles like
axon
any other cells. The cell body further transmit the impulse to
the axon. node of ranvier
myelin sheath
Dendrites: These are branched projections from the cell
synaptic knob
body. The dendric tip of the nerve cells receives impulses
and sets off a chemical reaction that create more electrical axon terminal

impulse which are further transmitted to the cell body.

Nerve cell

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Axon: The longest branch arising out of the cell body is called axon (or) nerve fibre. The axon is
surrounded by a specialized fatty sheath called myelin sheath. The nerve cell containing myelin sheath is
called myelinated nerve cell. The myelin sheath is interrupted at regular intervals called nodes of Ranvier.
Nerve cell not having myelin sheath is called non myelinated nerve cell. Myelin sheath separates the one
axon with adjacent axon. The information from one nerve cell to another nerve cell will be passed
through synapse.

12.1.3 Synapse
❋ How the synapse is formed?
❋ Which part of nerve cell is connected to another nerve cell in the figure.
Synapse is the functional region of contact between two
nerve cells, where information from one nerve cell is transmitted
or relayed to another nerve cell. Though these are the regions
of minute gap and essentially nerve cell do not have any
Synapse
protoplasmic connection between them, yet information is
passed from one nerve cell to other through these gaps either
in the form of chemical (or) electrical signals (or) both. These
synapses are mainly found on the brain, spinal cord and around
the spinal cord. Beyond these areas the axon carries the signals
Synapse
to respective areas in our body. In this way by basing on the
ways of carrying message nerves are divided in to three types.

12.1.4 Types of Nerves

Based on the function, nerves are divided into 3 types
1) Sensory nerves (Afferent nerves) (2) Motor nerves (Efferent nerves) (3) Mixed nerves

Sensory nerve

Sensory nerves: Sensory nerves contains sensory fibres. Sensory nerves are also called as afferent
nerves. They carry the impulse from receptors (sense organs) to the central nervous system (Brain and
Spinal cord)

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 motor nerve

Motor nerves: Motor nerves contains motor fibres. Motor nerve is also called as efferent nerve. They
carry impulse from central nervous system to different body parts.
Mixed nerves: These nerves contains both sensory and motor fibres, and performs the function of
both sensory and motor nerves.

12.1.5 Sense organs

❋ What are sense organs? How many types of sense organs are there?
A receptor (or) sense organ is a group of highly specialized cells. Receptors helps sensory nerves
to collect information from sensory organs. The sense organs which are present in our body are eye,
ear, nose, tongue and skin receives the stimulus. The stimulus then reaches the spinal cord and the brain
through sensory nerves where it is integrated. The message is then sent by motor nerves to the required
organ (muscle (or) gland) for suitable action. In this way response is generated.
❋ How do we able to see and hear?
❋ How do we know the taste smell and touch?
Human eye acts as photographic camera in which conjunctiva, cornea, lenses and humorous
refract the light rays to focus on retina of eye Photo receptors are stimulated which change usual stimuli
into nerve impulses which are carried by nerve fibres of optic nerves to the visual area of cerebrum
which interprets these impulses and initiate proper response by which we are able to see.
The receptors present in Ear detect the sound stimuli. Nerve impulse from ear are carried to
auditors of cerebrum by auditory nerves thus we are able to hear.
Once the food enters in the mouth we grind and chew it, as a result the chemicals released from
food stimulates the taste buds. Each taste bud is composed of larger cluster of taste cell. Each taste cell
is a chemoreceptors and detect the chemicals of food and initiate nerve impulses which are carried by
nerves to taste area of brain to interpret the message. Thus we are able to taste the food.
The upper part of nasal chamber have olfactory cells. These cells detect the chemical stimuli and
convert them into nerve impulse and send this impulse to an olfactory area of the brain through olfactory
nerve thus we know the smell.

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 Skin is sensitive to touch, temperature, pressure, skin contains tactile receptors for touch. These
receptors create sense of touch. This message is passed on to brain through sensory nerves due to this
we are able to feel sense of touch, cold, hot.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the stages involved in showing response to stimulus?
✤ Explain about the synapse?
✤ How we are able to see with our eye?

12.2 Divisions of Nervous System

Observe the flow chart of Human Nervous System

Nervous system

Central Nervous Systems Peripheral Nervous Systems

Brain Spinal Cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

12.2.1 Central Nervous System

The Central Nervous System consists
cerebrum
of brain and spinal cord.
Brain: Observe the figure of human brain Corpus collosum

Brain is a soft structure present inside Diencephalon

the cranium of skull. It is protected by three

cerebellum
layers. The fluid present in between these
pituitary gland
layers are called cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid spinal cord
medulla
protects the brain from the shocks. oblongata
Brain

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 What is the colour of brain? The outer portion of brain contains cell bodies of the nerve cell these
are being grey coloured. This portion is called grey matter. The inner portion of the brain contains
axons of the nerve cell. As these axons contains white mylean sheath this portion of the brain is called
white matter.
Brain contains following parts
1. Fore brain: It contains cerebrum and diencephalon
2. Mid brain: It contains optic lobes
3. Hind brain: It contains cerebellum and medulla oblengata

Brain Parts Structure Functions

Olfactory Clubshaped Sense of smell
lobes

Cerebrum It contains two lobes called ● seat of mental abilities

cerebral hemisphere. The ● controls thinking, memory, reasoning
surface of the cerbrum has
perceptions and speech
folds. The elevations of the
Fore
brain folds are called Gyri and
depressions are called Sulci.

Diencephalon It is in Rhomboidal shape. It Controls emotions such as anger, Reflex

is divided into thalamus and centre for muscular activities, centre for
hypothalamus water balance, blood pressure, body
temperature, sleep and hunger. The
hypothalamus controls the pitutary gland.

Mid Mid brain Small stalk like structure It relays motor impulse from the cerebral
brain cortex to the spinal cord and relays sensory
impulses from spinal cord to thalamus.
Reflexes for sight and hearing

Hind Cerebellum It contains two large cerebral Maintains posture, equalibrium and musule
brain hemispheres. tone.

Medulla It is in traingular shape. Controls cardiac, respiratory, vasomotor

oblongata activities, coordinates reflexes like
swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomting

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12.2.2 Spinal cord
❋ What is the structure of spinal cord?
❋ Where do you find spinal cord?
Spinal cord extends from the back of the hind brain to the back of the
stomach (or) lumbar regions through the neural canal of vertebral column. It is
almost cylindrical in shape. In spinal cord the white matter is towards periphery
while grey matter is towards the centre of spinal cord. The myelinated axons
Spinal cord
leave the spinal cord from both the sides of the vertebral column.
The spinal cord is not only a road for passing instructions from the brain but it also acts as
controlling centre.

12.2.3 The Reflex arc

The Reflex action which are showed occasionally in our body are under our control. Sometimes
these reflex actions may not be in our control. Same responses shown towards stimuli are under our
control. Some times we respond involuntarily and those responses are not under our control, they are
called Reflexaction.
❋ Why you withdraw your leg when accidentally it hits any sharp surface?
When our leg touches the
sharp surface the information is
inter neuron
carried by sensory nerves to spinal spinal cord
cord from there this information
reaches effector muscles by motor sensory nerve
nerves which makes the muscles of motor nerve
leg to with draw the feet. effector muscle
The single path way going up
to the spinal cord from detectors and
returning to effector muscles is a
reflex arc. detector
This type of responses are Reflex arc
called reflex action. For example we
rub our eye when any dust particles enter in our eye. In the same way we withdraw our hand immediately
when we touch any hot objects.
During actions which are involuntary and have to be carried out in very short intervals of time the
pathway that nerves follows is a shorter one it does not go up to the brain, while voluntary pathways are
usually longer passing through the brain and thus causing the response.

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 Reflexarc can be shown as stimulus → Receptors of sense organs → sensory nerve fibres →
Brain → Spinal cord → Motor nerve fibres → muscles/glands.

12.2.4 Peripheral Nervous system

As shown in the figure nerves attached dorsal root
dorsal root
to spinal cord have two types of connections dorsal horn
ganglion
(or) roots - one to the back or dorsal side
and other to front or the ventral side of the
cord. The dorsal root carries messages of
sensation inwards, while the ventral pathway
carries outwards the instruction for muscular
contraction. The peripheral nervous system
is a vast system of the dorsal and ventral ventral horn spinal nerve
ventral root
root spinal and cranial nerves that are linked T.S of spinal cord
to the brain and spinal cord on one end and
muscles on the other. In our body 12 pairs Peripheral nerves system
of cranial nerves arise from the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerve arises from the spinal cord.

12.2.5 Autonomous nervous system

❋ When we enter a dark room we cannot see any thing immediately, then slowly we are able to see
the things around us in the room - why?
The peripheral nervous system involuntarily controls the several functions of region like our internal
organs (for example blood vessels) so it is called autonomous nervous system. It has voluntary control
of muscles of some areas of skin and the skeletal muscles.
When we enter a dark room we cannot see any thing immediately slowly we able to see the
things around us in the room. This is because of increase in diameter of pupil which allows more light in
it when we come out of the dark room into broad day light the diameter of the pupil decreases allowing
less light to enter into the eyes both these functions occur under the influence of the autonomous nervous
system.
Ganglia near the vertebral column are connected to the spinal cord by nerves. The sympathetic
nervous system is formed by the chain of ganglia on either sides of the vertebral column and the
associated nerves. The para sympathetic systems is formed by the nerves arising from the ganglia of the
brain and the posterior part of the spinal cord. These together constitute autonomous nervous system.
The increase in the diameter of the pupil is by sympathetic nervous system regaining its original
position is controlled by para sympathetic nervous system.

Meningitis is contagious disease caused by bacteria, fungi virus that infect the meninges
and the cerbrospinal fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord

146 Science and Technology

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.
✤ What is the function of cerbro spinal fluid?
✤ What are the components of peripheral nervous system?
✤ Give the daily life examples for autonomous nervous system?

12.3 Endocrine system

Endocrine system works with the chemical substance known as ‘hormone’. These hormones are
secreted directly in to the blood by endocrine glands.
Generally we find rapid growth and development in between 13 to 19 year of the age. This
period is called adolescent period. During this period lot of changes takes places inside and outside the
body. For example increase in height, change in voice, let us observe the reasons for these changes.

12.3.1 Endocrine gland (ductless glands)

The endocrine glands controls the changes that occur in our body through out life. Endocrine
glands secretes chemical substance known as hormones. The hormones plays an important role in
control, coordination and regulates the functioning of tissues, organs and systems in the body. The
endocrine system is responsible for the chemical coordination in our body.
What is the difference between duct glands and ductless glands?
The secretion of some glands flows in vessels they are called as duct glands. Where as the
secretion of some glands does not flow in vessels, their secretion directly mixes in the blood, they are
called ductless glands. The system formed by ductless glands is known as endocrine system.
Observe the endocrine glands and their location in the given fig.

Pituitary gland
Thyroid Thyroid

Adrenal Gland
Pancreas
Kidney
Ovary

Testis
Male Female

Observe the various types of endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them in the given
table.
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 Name of the Location Hormone secreted Response of body to Hormone
endocrine gland

148
Pitutary gland Floor of Growth Hormone (or) Somatotrophin Growth of bones
(Master gland) brain Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates the secretion of Thyroxine
Adreno cartico Trophic hormone Stimulates the secretion of adrenal cortex
(ACTH)
Follical Stimulating hormone (FSH) In female growth of graftian follicles, stimulates estrogen
secretion.
Lutenising Hormone (LH) In females ovulation, development of corpus luteum; and
stimulates secretion of progesterone.
Prolactine In females development of mammary glands, promotes milk

Science and Technology

production.
Oxytocine g
Controls the contraction of uterus muscles, whilegchild birth.
Vasopressin Regulates the water reabsorption in kidney
Thyroid gland Neck Thyroxine Effects in general growth rate and metabolical activity

Ovary Below the Progestron Growth of the uterus development of mammary glands
abdomen Estrogen Growth of Skeleton of the pelvis, control of menstrual cycle
in females

Testies Scrotal sacs Testosterone Development of sex organs and secondary sexual characters
in males. Sexual behaviour

Adrenal gland above the Adrenalin Increase in heart beat rate, Rise in blood Sugar, Dialation of
kidney coronary artery and pupil of the eye.

Pancreas Near Insulin Decrease of sugar levels in blood.

deuodenum Glucagon Increase of Sugar levels in blood.
Pancreas: Pancreas is called as mixed gland. It acts as both duct and ductless glands. The juices
secreted by pancrease helps in digesting the food. Pancreas secretes two types of hormones, they are
insulin and glucagon. The diabetes milletus disease is caused due to the less secretion of insulin.
❋ How hormone influence metabolic activities in our body.
Hormones influence our metabolic activities in different ways, simple sight of snake makes us
afraid and that itself increase our heartbeat, beathing rate, blood pressure suddenly then after some time
we come back to normal position. These changes are due to the effects of adrenalin hormone which is
secreted by adrenal gland.
In our body there is a relation between nervous system and endocrine system. With the coordination
of these two systems only life processes will takes place in our body.

12.3.2 Coordination of life processes

Though the digestion is taking place in the alimentary canal but for it. Coordination of respiratory
system, circulatory system and nervous system is essential. To get energy from the food it should be
oxidised for that respiration has to take place. In respiration we breathe air by exhalation and inhalation.
The blood circulation helps in transport of oxygen in to the cell. All these involuntary actions are controlled
by medulla oblongata. In this way all life process will work with coordination.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ How endocrine system and nervous system work together give one example.
✤ Why we consider pituitary gland as a master gland?
✤ Write the parts of the hind brain and their functions?

12.4 Control and coordination in plants

In plants nervous system and endocrine system is absent but there is a controlling mechanism by
hormones. These hormones are called phytohormones.
❋ How the seed less fruits are developed?
❋ What are the substances which play an important role in ripening of fruits in plants?

12.4.1 Phytohormones
Plants can sense the presence of stimuli like light, heat water, touch pressure, chemicals gravity
etc. The hormones present in plants are called phytohormones which controls responses towards the
stimuli mentioned above.

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Phytohormones - Their uses
Phytohormones Uses

Auxins Cell elongation and differentiation of shoots and roots

Cytokinins Promote cell division, development of sprouting of lateral buds, opening of

stomata
Gibberellins Germination of seed, sprouting of buds, elongation of stem development of
seedless fruits. Breaking the dormancy
Abscicic acid Closing of stomata, seed dormancy

Ethylene Ripening of fruits

12.4.2 Tropic and Nastic movements in plants

❋ What happens if we touch the leaflets of Mimosa pudica (touch me not) plant?
❋ Why the tendrils of plants move towards support?
In plants there are two types of movements, they are tropic movement and nastic movement.
Plant parts shows movement when they are subjected to external stimuli. In tropic movements the
direction of stimuli determines the direction of movements but where as in nastic movement the direction
of movement may not be determined by direction of stimuli.
When we touch the leaflets of ‘touch me not’ plant they shrink. This type of movement is nastic
movement.
The response of plant to light and showing movement towards light is called ‘phototropism’.
Tendrils are thin thread like growth they grow towards the support and wind around them. This
type of response to make contact (or) touch is called ‘thigmotropism’.
Roots always grows towards the earth which is called ‘geotropism’.
The plants which grow near a rock or wall side they grow towards region containing water. Such
type of movement is called ‘hydrotropism’.
The chemical substance stimulates the pollen grain which falls on the stigma. This type of response
to chemicals is called ‘chemotropism’.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the phytohormones which controlls growth of the plant?
✤ Give the examples for different types of topic movements in plants?
✤ Which hormone helps to ripe the fruit?

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 KEY POINTS
z Nervous system and endocrine system work together in a coordinated manner and send the
information to various organs of the body
z Human Nervous system consists of central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
z Central Nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system is formed by
the cranial nerves and spinal nerves
z Nerve cell is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
z There are three types of nerves sensory nerves, motor nerves and mixed nerves
z Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue and Skin all the five sense organs present in our body they work by the
effect of nervous system.
z Endocrine glands are ductless glands which secretes hormones directly into the blood and play an
important role in coordination of different activities in the body.
z In plants phytohormones regulate the plant growth. Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins, Ethylene and
abscibic acids are the phytohormones present in plant.
z External stimuli makes plant to show different types of movements. They are tropic movements
and nastic movements

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Why pancreas is called as mixed gland?
2. What are the differences between cerebrum and cerebellum?
3. Explain the effect of adrenalin with suitable examples?
4. Write the functions of sensory nerve and motor nerve?
5. Explain the structure of nerve cell with the help of diagram?
6. Mention the phytohormones present in plants and write their uses?
7. The location of pituitary gland is ( )
A) Neck B) Brain C) stomach D) Kidney
8. The number of cranial nerves present in man ( )
A) 12 pairs B) 10 pairs C) 31 pairs D) 4 pairs
9. Match the following
A) Testosterone ( ) 1. Ovary
B) Glucagon ( ) 2. Testies
C) Estrogen ( ) 3. Thyroid
D) Thyroxin ( ) 4. pancreas

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 CHAPTER
Growth,
13 development and
Reproduction
We find different living and non-living organisms.
❋ What are the characteristics that makes living things different from non-living things?
Living organisms exhibit unique characteristics like growth, reproduction etc. Growth is the process
in which the mass of a body changes over time. If we observe a child during the process of growth her
height and weight increases.
❋ In child, does height and weight changes?
❋ Have you ever seen a two months old baby having moustache?
When living organisms grow, there will be many other changes along with the change in size.
New parts are formed. New processes emerge. They produce their offsprings (young ones) The changes
that accompany the growth of any plant (or) animal is development.
❋ What will happen if production of offsprings in human is not controlled?
Growth, development and reproduction of living organisms help them in their survival and maintain
their population. In this lesson we shall learn, growth, development and also reproductive parts in plants
and humans, the process of reproduction and family planning.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...

✰ Differentiates between growth and development.

✰ Explains the process of development from embryo to maturation in humans.
✰ Specifies the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction.
✰ Identifies the parts of a flower.
✰ Draws and explains the human male and female reproductive systems.
✰ Applies vegetative propagation methods in plants.
✰ Applies Family planning methods in daily life.

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13.1 Growth, Development and Reproduction
❋ What is growth?
❋ Are you the same when you were six years
old and now?
If you observe a newly born baby they have
almost all the parts of an adult, but these parts are
small in size. As the years pass the size of the parts
increases to a certain size. The reason behind these
physical changes is ‘‘growth’’.
❋ How do organisms grow?
Living organisms grow by increase in size (or) mass of a cell, organ (or) organism and increase in
cell number by cell division. Growth is an irreversible permanent change. Plants grow in height (or)
length and circumference (girth). In plants growth continues throughout life where as in animals it is
limited to certain time period. Growth is measurable. For example increase in height and weight for
certain time period in living organisms can be measured.
❋ Are growth and development the same?
We notice growth of the plant from seedling, after sowing a seed.
❋ How a small seed grows into a big tree?
❋ How do roots, stems, leaves and flowers originate from a seed?
Multicellular organisms start their life with a
single cell (zygote). Millions of cells produced by
divisions from the fertilized egg forms body parts.
For example roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits in
plants and eyes, legs, hands, heart, brain etc. in
animals, all originate from single cell.
❋ How do cells derived from a single cell form different parts?
Genes play vital role in cellular differentiation to produce different cells that are structurally and
functionally different from each other. The differentiated cells contribute for the formation of different
organs in the Embryo. Qualitative and quantitative change in embryo leads to development that involves
the emergence of pattern, change in the form, cell differentiation and growth are also a part and parcel
of development.

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 Development is a systematic process. For example, in the development of the hands, the upper
arm, lower arm, palm and fingers are formed in an orderly sequence. In development process, there
will be gradual change in the form (or) structure of organs; for example, in the formation of palm and
feet. Sunlight, temperature, availability of food and water are the factors that influence growth and
development. Growth and development are necessary for the survival and reproduction of living
organisms.

Importance of reproduction
You might have noticed that the living organisms in your surroundings die. No organism lives
forever. Death is inevitable. Every organism will live for a certain time period. But still life exists on earth
when living organisms are dying. What can be the reason behind it? Reproduction is the process by
which an organism reproduces similar organism. Their offsprings grow, mature and reproduces new
offsprings.
❋ What happens if organisms of the specific species cannot reproduce?
Plants and animals reproduce to sustain their species by producing the next generation. If the
organism of specific species fail to reproduce that species will go extinct.

13.2 Development in Plants and Animals

13.2.1 Development in Plants

Formation of leaves and flowers at specific areas in plants are responsible for growth. Those
specific areas are called as ‘meristems’. The meristems which are present in tips of roots and shoots are
called ‘‘apical meristems’’ (root apical meristem, shoot apical meristem). Some cells in shoot apical
meristem differentiates and forms axillary bud. This axillary buds are capable of forming leaves, branches
(or) flowers. The growth of the roots and stems in length with the help of apical meristem is called the
‘‘primary growth’’. Increase in girth is called ‘‘secondary growth’’.

13.2.2 Development in Human beings

A) Development in womb
In women, egg reaches fallopian tube. Sperm reaches egg and fuses with egg. Fusion of egg and
sperm is called fertilization. Fertilized egg is called Zygote. By the time zygote reaches uterus, it divides
number of times and appears like a ball of cells. This attaches to the tissue in the uterus wall. This is
called implantation of foetus. Foetus exists in the mother's womb for about 9 months. In these 9 months,
development of foetus takes place. This development can be divided in to three trimesters.

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First 3 months (or) first trimester
Foetus attaches to uterine wall. Amniotic sac, Placenta, Umbilical cord are formed to provide
nutrition and protected to developing foetus. Many external and internal organs gradually develop.
3-6 months (or) second trimester
Foetus begins to show movement. Brain development is fast. Foetus increases in size.
6-9 months (or) third trimester
Increase in size continues. In this manner, development of foetus takes place till birth. At the end
of nine months, the foetus usually turns in an upside down direction inorder to be released from the
mother body.

B) Infancy to Adolescene
In the first 1½ years after the birth of a baby, the height and weight increases rapidly, decreases
in childhood and again increases in adolescence. Motor changes like positioning of the head, sitting,
standing, walking, running, holding and writing develops. Cognitive development like understanding,
memory, knowledge etc improves. Language development develops from small sounds to babbling,
then few repetitive words and then small sentences.

C) Adolescence to Puberty
Growth and development from 10-19 years is called Adolescence. Development in adolescence
is rapid. The growth in the size of bones, muscles, height continues. In boys, the larynx develops and
increases in size. Reproductive parts develop. Development of secondary sexual characters like hair
growth under armpits, near genital organs, increase in breast size appears in females. Male develop
moustache, beard.
In female reproductive phase ends at 45 to 50 years old. Females possess specific number of
eggs even before the birth. These eggs mature at puberty. For every 28 to 30 days egg matures,
releases from ovary and reaches to fallopian tube.
During this time, the wall of the uterus develop tissue and becomes thick in order to receive the
fertilized egg. If fertilization does not occur, the newly formed tissue, blood vessels rupture and bleed.
This is called mensuration. The cycle which takes place for every 28 to 30 days is called menstrual
cycle.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ Which tissue differentiate in plants to form leaves and flowers?
✤ Write two changes occur in boys and girls during adolescence.

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13.3 Asexual Vs Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction is of two types - Sexual and Asexual. In asexual reproduction single parent can
produce its offsprings. Gametes are absent.
In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes belonging to opposite sex are formed. Fusion
of these gametes may produce new individual. Sexual reproduction results in offsprings that are non
identical to the parents (or) amongst themselves - where as offsprings that are produced in asexual
reproduction are almost identical to their parents. Let us study methods of Asexual reproduction.

13.3.1 Fission
Single celled organisms such as Paramecium and bacteria
reproduce by fission. If Paramecium divides into two it is binary fission,
and if it divides into more than two cells it is called multiple fission.
Fission in paramoecium
13.3.2 Budding
External growth that appears on the body of a parent is called as
bud. This bud separates from the parent and survives independent. Example:
Yeast.

13.3.3 Fragmentation Budding in yeast

Some of the organisms can grow from a single piece of the

parent organism. Fragmentation occurs in the simple organisms.
Examples: Flatworms, Moulds, Lichens, Spirogyra.

13.3.4 Regeneration Fragmentation in Spirogyra

Lizards can regenerate their lost tail which is lost accidentally (or)
to protect itself from enemies.
Few organisms are capable of regenerate their lost body parts
(or) new individual may form from broken body pieces. Example: Planaria

Regeneration in Planaria

Parthenocarpy: In some plants, ovary directly develops into fruit without

fertilization. This phenomenon is called as ‘‘Parthenocarpy’’. Artificial
parthenocarpy is used to produce seedless fruits like Watermelon,
Pomegranate, Papaya, Tomato
Seedless Watermelon

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13.3.5 Natural Vegetative Propagation
Usually, seeds are sown to produce plants.
❋ Have you ever observed seedless fruits. Recall.
❋ Banana has no seeds, then how can it reproduce?
In plants reproduction also takes place by vegetative propagation. This is one type of asexual
reproduction. The process by which new plants form from the vegetative parts of the plant, such as
stems, roots, leaves is called vegetative propagation.
Stems: Aerial weak stems like runners and stolans, upon touching the ground, develop adventitious
roots. When they get separated from the parent plant, the stem portion with the roots develops into
new plant.

Stolon Bulb Tuber Corms

Examples: Jasmine, Mint Onion Potato Colacasia, Amorphophallus

Roots: Root buds in plants such as Murraya, Guava, Millingtonia etc

grow as new plants
Leaves: In Bryophyllum small plants grow from the edge of leaves
Bryophyllum
Root buds in
13.3.6 Artificial Vegetative Propagation in Plants
Millingtonia
❋ If you want to start a kitchen garden, what type of plants do you
want to grow? How do you grow them?
❋ Do all the trees grow only from seeds? Or else, Are there any other methods?
❋ Have you noticed the methods used to grow plants in orchards and flower gardens?
Cutting: Some plants can grow individually when a piece of the
parent plant having a bud is cut off from the existing plant.
Examples: Rose, Hibiscus
Layering: A branch of the plant with atleast one node is bent towards
the ground and a part of it is covered with moist soil leaving the tip of
the branch exposed above the ground. After a few days, new roots
develop from the part. Example: Nerium, Jasmine.
Layering

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Grafting: Grafting is a process in which two desired plants
scion
are selected and joined together in such a way that two stems
join and grow as a single plant. One which is attached to
soil is called stock and the cut stem of another plant without
stock
roots is called scion. Both are tied with the help of a twine
thread and covered by a polythene cover.
Examples: Mango, Citrus, apple, rose.
Grafting
Sexual reproduction occurs through reproductive parts
such as flowers (plants), testis, ovaries (animals)
❋ Have you ever observed that animals reproducing through somatic vegetative cells like plants?
In cloning, to give birth to a new organism, nucleus is removed from the ovum and nucleus from
somatic cells of male (or) female is inserted in to the ovum from which nucleus is removed (enucleated).
This ovum is cultured in culture medium and develops into infant. The first organism formed by this
process is ‘Dolly’, the sheep.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ State one difference between asexual and sexual reproduction.
✤ Give two examples for artificial vegetative propagation.

13.4 Reproductive parts in plants and humans

13.4.1 Reproductive parts in plants
❋ Do all the plants have flowers?
❋ Have you ever observed parts in a flower? Name the parts?
Flower is the reproductive part of plants. Collect any flower, identify the parts and differentiate
between them. Draw the diagram of a flower.

Sepals Flower Petals

It protects the Helps in pollination
important parts
such as stamen
and carpel
Stigma
Anther Stamen
Carpel
Style It has anther and
Sex cells are
filament. Pollen
produced in
grains are produced
the ovules of
in anther.
ovary Ovary filament

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 Flowers having either stamens (or) carpels are stamen
stamen
called unisexual flowers
Examples: Watermelon, Cucumber, Maize, Snake
carpel
Gourd, Bitter gourd, Pumpkin
Unisexual flower Bisexual flower
Flowers having both the stamen and carpel are (male)
bisexual. Examples: Lilly, Rose, Datura, Brinjal,
Hibiscus, Tomato, Mango

13.4.2 Reproductive parts in humans

Sexual mode of reproduction occur in humans. Sexes are separate and distinct. Specific organs
are developed for sexual reproduction.

Male reproductive system - parts

Testis:
A pair of testes are located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. In each
testis highly coiled seminiferous tubules are present. Millions of sperms are produced in these tubules
by meiosis. Testis produce male sex hormone testosterone
❋ Do you know why testes are located outside the abdominal cavity?
Scrotum has temperature about 2oc - 2.5oc temperature lower than the body temperature. Sperms
cannot tolerate body temperature. So, testes are present outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum
Vasa Efferentia: The seminiferous tubules open into vasa Efferentia
Epididymis: Vas efferentia open into epididymis which is highly coiled. Sperms are temporarily stored
in them
Vasa deferentia: From each epididymis arises vas deferens which ascends into the abdominal cavity
looping around the ureter.
Seminal Vesicles: They open into the vas deferens. They produce seminal fluid. It is the source of
energy for sperms when they are released outside the body.
Ejaculatory duct: A duct from seminal vesicles joins the vas deferens and continues as ejaculatory
duct. Two ejaculatory ducts join the centre and open into urethra
Urethra: In males it sends both urine as well as sperms. So, it called as urinogenital tract. Male
reproductive system has accessory glands such as cowper’s and prostrate.

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 Acrosome
Ureters
Head Urinary bladder
Nucleus
Vasdeferens
Neck
Mitochondria seminal ducts
Middle piece seminal vesicle
prostate gland
Tail

penis
urethra
epididymis

testis
scrotum

Sperm cell Male reproductive system

The passage of sperms: Seminiferous tubules - vasa Efferentia - epididymis - vasa deferentia -
ejaculatory duct - urethra
The sperm: The sperm has head, middle piece and tail. Head bears acrosome and nucleus. Acrosome
helps in penetrating into ovum, mitochondria of middle piece produce energy for the movement of the
sperm. The tail helps in movement.

Female reproductive system - parts:

Ovaries: Ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs which produces eggs (ovum). A pair of
ovaries are present in the abdominal cavity. The eggs (ovum) develop in follicles, which at first look are
like bubbles in the ovary. They are called ‘‘graffian follicles’’. Each follicle contains a single ovum which
is formed after the process of meiosis. When an ovum matures, the follicle ruptures and ovum is flushed
out.
Fallopian Tubes: A pair of fallopian tubes are fallopian tube

present. Each tube extends from ovary.

Fallopian tubes opens in to thick walled uterus. funnel
Fertilization occurs in fallopian tube.
ovary
Uterus: Uterus is a Muscular, inverted pear uterus
shaped structure. The inner layer of uterus is
cervix
called endometrium. The thickness of these
vagina
layers increases gradually soon after
Female reproductive system

134 Science and Technology

menstruation. If fertilization does not occur, the endometrium disintegrates and flows out as menstrual
fluid. If fertilization occurs the thickness of endometrium continues which provides nourishment to the
developing.
Vagina: Vagina is widened, muscular tube. It opens outside through pore.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What happens if petals are absent in flowers?
✤ What is the difference between unisexual and bisexual flowers. Give examples
✤ What are the male reproductive parts?

13.5 Facts about Reproduction

13.5.1 Facts about Reproduction in plants (Flower to seed)
You come to know that stamens and carpels are the male and female reproductive parts in the
flower. Pollen grains are the male sex cells produced in the anther of stamens. Female sex cells are
produced in the ovules present in the ovary of carpel. Pollen grains fertilize the female sex cells. For
fertilization pollen grains must reach the female sex cells. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma
is called ‘‘pollination’’. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same flower is called ‘‘self
pollination’’. When pollen grains of a flower are transferred to the stigma of a different flower on the
same plant (or) different plant of the same species is called ‘‘Cross pollination’’. Pollen grains can be
carried by air, water, insects, birds and animals to the stigma.
Pollen grains after reaching stigma, germinates and forms pollen grain
pollen tube. Pollen tube reaches egg, fertilization takes place and
zygote is formed. Pollen grains are microscopic male sex cells. pollen tube
Ovary is the lower part of the carpel. It has an ovule. Ovule is
attached by a stalk to the inner side of the ovary. Depending nuclei
upon the species of plant an ovary may have one, (or) several
ovules. At center of ovule there is a Embryosac which has Pollen grain

gametophyte cells. Embryosac consists of 7 cells. Three cells in top end are called antipodals. Three
cells at micropylar end of which two are called synergids and central one is egg cell. One is large central
cell contains two nuclei. It is secondary nuclei. You might have noticed that seeds germinate when they
have favourable conditions. Then, what are the favourable conditions, do you think these conditions
help the pollen grains to germinate upon reaching stigma?
Cells on the surface of the stigma secretes a sticky fluid which contains sugars. This will help the
pollen grains to germinate and forms pollen tube. As soon as the tip of the pollen tube reaches the

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Embryosac, the end of the tube ruptures and releases the two nuclei in to the Embryosac. One of the
two nuclei fuses with the egg to form a zygote. It is called fertilization. Another nucleus fuses with the
secondary nucleus which is present in the center of Embyosac and forms endosperm. In this way,
fertilization that takes place two times is called ‘‘double fertilization’’. The embryo consists of one or
more cotyledons. Cotyledons develops by utilizing the food in endosperm. Ovule matures into seed.
The ovary grows and ripens to form the fruit. Mean-while the other floral parts may shrivel and fall off.
The seed produced after fertilization develops into seedling under favourable conditions. This process
is called germination.

stigma

pollen tube

style
antipodals

ovary polar nuclei

integuments

ovule synergids
gametophyte cells egg cell
central cell

embryo sac Female gametophyte

Fertilisation

13.5.2 Facts about reproduction in humans

Sperm, the male gamete, reaches fallopian tube through vagina. Ovum released from ovary
enters fallopian tube through widened funnel. In this tube, sperm enters the ovum and fuses with nuclei
of ovum. This fusion of sperm and ovum is called fertilization
❋ What happens if the sperm cell does not reach the egg?
In humans, fertilization takes place inside the body. This is called internal fertilization. If fertilization
takes place outside the mother’s body it is called as external fertilization. External fertilization occurs in
fishes and Amphibians (Example: Frog)
Some human beings may not have the ability to produce offspring.

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❋ What methods do they follow to produce offsprings?
❋ What is ‘‘test tube baby?’’
There may be several factors for infertility. Off spring can be produced through artificial
insemination. If there are any complications in conception, they can go for advanced technique called,
In vitro fertilization (IVF). In this procedure eggs are removed from mother and sperms are collected
from father. Sperms are sent to the ovum in the test tube. Fertilization takes place resulting in an embryo.
This type of fertilization is called ‘‘Invitro fertilization’’. If mother’s egg and father’s sperm are not
healthy, they are collected from donors. Even though mother produces eggs but has difficulties in the
development foetus then the fertilized eggs from the mother inserted into another woman’s womb. This
method is called ‘‘Surrogacy’’ and the woman is called ‘‘Surrogate mother’’ or Surrogate.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is Pollination?
✤ How does the endosperm form?
✤ What is fertilization?

13.6 Family planning

❋ Population increases if birth rate is not controlled. Do you know how it is controlled?
In our country, the government is conducting awareness programmes and also announcing
incentives to reduce the birth rate. The prevention of pregnancy in women by preventing fertilization is
called contraception. Any device (or) Chemical (drug) which prevents pregnancy in woman is called
contraceptive.

Family Planning methods: Temporary methods:

Rhythm method: Calculating the optimal time for conception (ovum release time) and preventing
fertilization
Condom: Physical devices such as condoms and diaphragm (cap) are used.
Contraceptive pills: Chemicals in the form of pills are taken either orally (or) inserted into female
reproductive organ, vagina. It contain hormones which stop the ovaries from
releasing ovum in to the oviducts.
Loop: The use of intra - uterine device called Copper-T, loop etc are very
effective in preventing pregnancy.
Copper-T

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Permanent methods:
Surgical methods of birth control are available for males as well as females.
Vasectomy: In male a small portion of vas deferens is removed by surgical operation and both ends
are tied properly. This prevents the release of sperms.
Tubectomy: In females, a small portion of oviducts is removed by surgical operation and the cut ends
are tied. This prevents the ovum from entering into the oviduct.

blood supply
vasdeferens
epididymis small incision
testis
cauterised tied and cut banded
vasectomy - cut ends of tubectomy - cut ends of
vas deferens are sealed follopian tubes are sealed

Birth control methods

Project: Write the family planning measures taken by the government of India and their implementation.
Suggest few methods to improve.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What is ‘Contraception’?
✤ Give examples of temporary contraception methods

KEY POINTS

z Growth, development and reproduction are necessary for the survival and continuity of the race.
z Increase in size of an organ (or) organism (or) cell and increase is number of cells is called growth.
z Growth is physical and quantitative, development is qualitative.
z Organs are formed in living organisms due to cellular differentiation.
z Single parent is involved in asexual reproduction, gametes are not formed. But, in sexual reproduction
organisms of opposite sex are involved and gametes are formed.
z Flower is a reproductive part in plants. Stamens, carpels, petals, sepals are the parts in a flower.
z In human male reproductive system, testis, vas deferens, epididymis, vas efterens, seminal vesicles,
ejaculatory duct, urethra, cowper’s gland, prostrate gland are present
z Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus are present is human female reproductive system.
z There are temporary and permanent birth control methods, to control population growth

138 Science and Technology

 PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Write two advantages of vegetative propagation.
2. Why do organisms reproduce?
3. What are the artificial vegetative propagation methods that are followed to grow desirable plants
in orchards? Why?
4. Explain permanent birth control methods:
5. What are the consequences if fertilization of ovum does not take place in fallopian tube?
6. Explain the process of reproduction is human beings.
7. Observe the diagram and sentences given below and identify the parts
i) Part that produces pollen.
ii) Part that receives pollen.
iii) Part that contain ovules.
iv) Part that holds the anther.
8. Vegetative propagation in Bryophyllum is through ( )
A) Stem B) leaves C) roots D) flower
9. Why testis in males are located outside the body? ( )
A) To produce sperms B) To release sperms
C) Sperms to reach ova D) To provide favourable temperature for sperm
10. Match the following
A) Hibiscus ( ) 1. Regeneration
B) Cross pollination ( ) 2. Budding
C) Stamen ( ) 3. Unisexual flower
D) Planaria ( ) 4. Bisexual flower
E) Yeast ( ) 5. Male reproductive part in a flower

Science and Technology 139

CHAPTER

Evolution and
14 Heredity
When we observe our world and its myriad forms of life, we are struck by two seemingly opposite
observations, the fantastic variety of life and the similarity between them. As we shall see, we would
need to understand these two characteristics of life in order to understand how life evolves. When we
say evolution occurs, we not only mean that composition of population of species change, but also that
there is come direction in that change. We will try to understand this in our chapter.
❋ Is it true that man evolved from monkeys?
❋ How does the composition of population change?
❋ Is evolution about change or producing something new and different?
❋ How are characters inherited?
❋ Are women responsible for producing female child?
In the chapter on reproduction we had studied that reproductive processes usually give rise to
individuals that have some new characters in spite of the similarity that they share with their parents.
Often such new characters give rise to observable changes in life forms.
Several theories about how populations of organisms changed from one form to the other. We
shall discuss two such theories, one proposed by Lamarck and another by Darwin & Wallace.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
The learner...

✰ Observes the variations in different organisms.

✰ Explains the process of Evolution.
✰ Compares the important points of Lamarkism and Darwinism.
✰ Cites exapmles of evidences of evolution.
✰ Explains heredity.
✰ Appreciates Mendel's experiments on heredity.
✰ Differentiates between genotype, phenotype, dominant character and recessive character.
✰ Identifies the reason behind the sex of a baby.

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14.1 Theories of Evolution
❋ How did the different forms of life come to be?
❋ How do new characters develop?
❋ Do such characters play a role in Evolution?
People who were trying to answer such questions proposed some ways to answer them. Here
you get to read about those proposed by Lamarck, Darwin & Wallace.

14.1.1 Lamarkism
According to Jean Baptist Lamarck, whenever the environment of
certain organisms undergoes some changes, it forces the organisms to
change accordingly. By use and dis use one could acquire a new character
or lose it. Thus, organisms of today were formed from related organisms
over time. It would be like saying.
Once deers are today's Girafee Jean Baptist Lamarck
(1774-1829)
He thought that at some point of time in history the size of giraffe
was equal to that of deer. Due to shortage of food material on the
ground and to reach the upper branches of trees giraffes started
stretching their necks. Because of continuous stretching of neck,
after several generations developed long necks. Such characters
that are developed during the lifetime of an organism are called
‘acquired characters’. Lamark proposed that these acquired
characters are passed on to its off springs i.e., to next generation
and proposed the theory of ‘Inheritance of acquired
characters’.
This theory was later on challenged by experiments
done by Weismann. After is an account of it.
August Weismann, tested Lamark’s theory by an experiment
Giraffe
on rats. He removed tails of few parental rats. He observed that
their off spring’s are normal with tails. He has done it again and again for twenty generations but still off
springs are normal with tails. He proved that the acquired characters are not inherited which were
explained in Lamarkism.

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14.1.2 Darwinism
Charles Robert Darwin, an English Naturalist went on voyage for 5
years on a world survey-ship of the British Government, H.M.S Beagle and
explored the fauna and flora of a number of continents and islands. During his
time, Darwin was much influenced by the publication of Alfred Russel Wallace
and the paper titled ‘On the tendency of varieties to depart from original
types’.
Darwin observed that each island in Galapagos had a different group
Charles Darwin
of finches (birds similar to sparrows.) All the finches shared similar characters (1809 - 1882)
(with some variations) with the birds found on the mainland (Kinador in South
America). Along with many other observations of this type, Darwin concluded that, species of organisms
could change over time from one form to the other. With some variations organisms simply originated
from pre-existing organisms. Darwin was aware of animal and plant breeding experiments that could
produce new species of organisms. Breeding for selected characters was artificially done by man. This
was artificial selection. A similar process was definitely, present in nature. Organisms tend to be selected
over others and evolve into new forms. Variations in characters were always present in nature and most
often naturally selected variations turned out to be advantageous. Darwin explained this concept in his
book ‘‘The Origin of Species by Natural Selection’’. Alfred Russel Wallace also independently concluded
that natural selection contributed to origin of new species.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are the salient features of Darwinism?
✤ How characters develop in organisms according to Lamark.

14.2 Evidences of Evolution

❋ Are there any evidences of proofs that evolution has occured?
❋ How scientists explained that new species have evolved during the course of evolution?

14.2.1 Evidences from Palaeontology

How do we come to know about organisms present on earth say about a million years ago?

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 Fossils are evidences of ancient life forms or ancient habitats which
have been preserved by natural processes. Fossils are the remnants of plants
or animals that were preserved in the layers of the earth and have been
excavated from the soil.
The study of fossils is called Palaeontology. Fossils can be actual
remains of organisms that lived on earth long ago. Usually when organisms
Fossil
die, their bodies are decomposed and lost. Sometimes the body or some
parts of the body do not decompose completely and get
preserved in layer of soil. This gets compressed over time
and transform into fossils. Geologists can determine the
age of a fossil by using carbon dating method.
A rare and magnificient fossil of the dinosaurs,
ketosaurs belonging to the lower Jurassic age going back
to about 160 million years were collected from Yamanapalli
in Adilabad district of Telangana. This fossil is 14 metres Dinosaur
long and 5 metres high. This fossil is preserved at BM
Birla Science Centre in Hyderabad.
The biologists and palaeontologists have found the fossils of many transitional forms(connecting
links) which link several major groups of vertebrates.

14.2.2 Evidences from embryology

❋ Observe the different developmental stages of
organisms in the given image. Tadpole larva of
frog resembles fish more than the frog. What
does this indicates?
It indicated that amphibians(salamander/frog)
have evolved from fishes.
fish Salamander Tortoise Chick Pig Calf Rabbit Human
There are remarkable similarities in the embryos
Embryological evidences
of different animals from fish to man. The resemblance
is so close that it is difficult to distinguish one embryo from the other at an early stage.
What does it indicates?

Archeopteryx has both avian and reptilian characters, hence it is considered as connecting
link between these two groups.

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 It indicates that the life history of every individual, exhibits the structural features of their ancestors.
This strengthens the view of the existence of a common ancestor for closely related groups of organisms.

14.2.3 Homologous and Analogous organs

Man hand and cheetah paw are similar...!
Observe the given image carefully,
What do you understand after careful
observation of forelimbs of Man, Cheetah, Whale
and Bat? Man Cheetah Whale Bat
The internal structure of forelimb (flipper) of a
whale (swimmer) wing of a bat (flyer), leg of a cheetah
(runner) and hand of a man (grasping) The anatomy
of all these animals show a common pattern in the
arrangement of bones while their functions are
different. Such organs are called homologous organs.
It indicates that all these vertebrates have evolved
Homologous organs
from a common ancestor. This type of evolution is
called divergent evolution.
Does the bat wing and insect wing have similar structure? Do they
have similar function?
When we observe carefully the bats are having a web of elastic fibers
Insect wing
extending between the bones of fingers which help in stretching and contraction
of wings this is called patagium. But the wings of insects neither have elastic
fibres or bones. The designs of the two wings, their structure and components
Bird wing
are different. These are structurally different but have the same function, flying. Analogous
The organs which are structurally different but functionally similar are known as organs
'Analogous organs'. This type of evolution is called convergent evolution.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ What are fossils?
✤ What are the evidences of evolution?
✤ Give the examples of homologous organs.

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14.3 Heredity: From Parents to Offsprings
The girl resembles her grandfather, the boy seems to be like his aunt, generally we hear such
comments. These similarities are the result of inherited traits transmitted from parent to progeny.
Transmission or passing of characters or traits from parent to offspring is called ‘Heredity’. The process
in which Traits are passed from one generation to another generation is called ‘Inheritance’. Differences
in characters within very closely related groups of organisms are referred to as variations. Often a new
character in a group may lead to variations which also get inherited.
A detailed account of experimental evidence of heredity provided by Gregor Johann Mendel in
the early 19th century. He was an Austrian Monk. He conducted a series of experiments on pea plants
starting from the year 1856 in St. Thomas Church. He worked for over a decade after which he
presented the conclusions from his experimental data in the form of a detailed research paper ‘‘On
experiments with plant hybrids.’’ As he was the first to do such experiments and propose laws of
inheritance, Mendel is considered the ‘Father of Genetics’. Genetics is the field of science in which we
study the inheritance of characters and their causal elements, ‘the genes’.

14.3.1 Experiments on pea plant

Mendel had chosen 7 pairs of contrasting characters for his study.

Sl.No. Character Description

1. Colour of the flower Purple or white

2. Position of the flower Either in axial or terminal in position. (If they are axial they are
arranged in axial position throughout the length of the stem).

3. Colour of the seed The seeds are either yellow or green colour.

4. Shape of the seed The seeds are either round (smooth surface) or wrinkled.

5. Shape of the pod The completely developed pod is either smooth, full and constricted.

6. Colour of the pod All the ripe pods are yellow in colour. Unripe parts are either yel-
low or green in colour.

7. Length of the stem When the plants are grown in the same environment some stems
are tall (6 to 7 feet) and some stems are dwarf (3/4 feet to 1½ feet).

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 Mendel has chosen pea plant for his experiments because it has the following advantages.
1. Well defined characters
2. Bisexual flowers
3. Predominantly self pollinating,
4. Suitable for cross pollination
5. It is an annual plant.

14.3.2 Monohybrid Cross

Cross pollinating a pure breed of yellow and green seeds gave all yellow coloured seeds. The
first generation of cross was called first filial
Mendel called it progeny of first generation parents.
These pea plants on self pollination gave second generation or Filial 2 (F2) generation.
❋ What might be the seed colour of F2 generation?
F2 generation had about 75% yellow (seeds) peas and about 25% green (seeds) peas.
According to such an observation it may be said that every pea plant has two ‘factors’ which are
responsible for producing a particular character or trait. The determining agent responsible for each
trait is called a factor. These factors are now called genes. Monohybrid Cross
Mendel's experiments showed us that factors were present in
pairs. So for the yellow seed we may assume the factors to be YY.
Parents
Capital letter is taken to show that this is the seed colour in the first
generation of cross between yellow and green variety. We would
represent green by ‘yy’. F1 generation
During reproduction one ‘factor’ from each parent is observed
to form a new pair in the progeny. One of these will always dominate
the other if mixed together. In a cross of pure breeds, The trait expressed
in F1 generation is called dominant. While the other which is not
expressed in F1 is called recessive. The breed after cross pollination F1 generation

will have one factor from pure breed yellow (Y) and one from the pure
breed green (y). That is, all the peas will have the paired factor ‘Yy’
and the seeds of these will be yellow in colour.

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Self pollination in F1-Generation:
On self pollinating these peas (ones with Yy factor), how the new breed have Combinations of
‘Y’ and ‘y’?

Y y
Y YY Yy
y yY yy

So in this heap we will get approximately equal numbers of YY, Yy, and yy peas. But any pea
that has a Y factor will be yellow. Any pea that has both yy will be green.
1. YY will be approximately 25% and is yellow.
2. yy will be approximately 25% and is green.
3. yY will be approximately 25% and is yellow
4. Yy will be approximately 25 % and is yellow
Phenotype: In F1 generation all seeds are yellow in colour. After cross pollination in F2 generation we
can clearly observe that 75 percent are yellow seed producing pea plants and 25 percent are green
ones. This is known as ‘Phenotype’ (externally visible characters) and this ratio is called 'phenotypic
ratio' or monohybrid phenotype ratio. It is 3:1.
Genotype: In 75 percent yellow seed producing pea plants of F2 generation only 25 percent pea
plants produce yellow seeds that are pure breeds (YY) and are ‘homozygous’ that is to have the same
factors for representing a character. Remaining 50 percent yellow seed producing pea plants are (Yy)
heterozygous . The remaining 25 percent green seed producing pea plants are pure (yy) homozygous
type. Monohybrid genotype ratio is 1:2:1.

14.3.3 Mendel's Laws

After crossing of yellow and green seeds, all seeds produced in F1 generation are yellow seeds
only. Why this happened Mendel propounded that, among a pair of closely related factors for a character,
only one is expressed itself in the first generation as one of them is dominant over the other. This is so
evident that it came to be called Mendels’ Law of Dominance.
Each one of these factors is received from each parent. When this generation forms gametes,
these factors separate and each one enters into a separate gamete randomly. This separation of factors
at the time of formation of gametes is called the law of Segregation.

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 Mendel also explained the process of inheritance of more than one characters. For this, he
proposed law of Independent Assortment.

14.4 Parents to Progeny

Where are factors present?
We had studied that factors are present in gametes or the sex cells of an organism. We know the
cells have a nucleus and there are thread like structures called chromosomes present in them. We say
that factors or genes are precent on then.
Let us take an example to understand this. If a book case is a mucleus, then the different books
may represent chromosomes and the pages of the books ‘factors’.

14.4.1 Human Chromosomes

Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes. These chromosomes are present in the Mucleus.
They are present in pairs. Thus we have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are termed autosomes. The 23rd pair, X and Y
which determine the sex of an organism hence in are called sex chromosomes.

14.4.2 Sex determination in Human

Let us know who is responsible for the sex of a baby. The foetus develops from the zygote which
is formed by the fusion of the two gametes, the male gamete or sperm and the female gamete or egg.
Ova or eggs are of the same kind only. These contain 22 autosomes and a single X chromosome.
Sperms are of two kinds (i) having 22 autosomes and one X chromosome, or (ii) having 22 autosomes
and a Y chromosome. When X bearing sperm fuses with the egg, a female child results with 44 autosomes
Father Mother

father’s sex Parents

mother’s sex
chromosomes chromosomes
44+XY 44+XX

22 22
+X Gyno +Y Andro
Sperm Sperm 22+X 22+X Gametes
Eggs

male female
Offspings
child child
Baby girl Baby boy Baby girl Baby boy
(44+XX) (44+XY) (44+XX) (44+XY)

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and two X chromosomes. If Y bearing sperm fuses with the egg then a male child results with a
chromosomal constitution of 44 autosomes and one X and one Y chromosome.
So the sex of an individual is purely due to chance and neither the mother nor the father
can be blamed.

14.4.3 Hereditary Genetical Disorders

Chromosomes (also genes) pass from one generation to the next with some changes. The changes
may affect the organism. Some such changes leading to disorders are discussed here.
z Thallassemia: Patients suffering from this disorders are unable to manufacture haemoglobin.
This is because the pair of genes controlling haemoglobin production are defective. Thallasemics
person suffering from Thallasemia require frequent blood transfusion in order to survive.
z Haemophilia: Those persons suffering from haemophilia have either a defective gene or lack
genes,which control production of substance responsible for blood clotting. In the absence of
such substance blood does not coagulate. Once bleeding starts, it does not stop easily.
z Color Blindness: The most common form of the disorder, a person is unable to distinguish the
blue colour from the green. Again this is due to the presence of a defective gene or absence of the
gene, responsible for the colour vision.
Thalassemia is an autosomal disorder. Haemophilia and Colour blindness are allosomal disorders
or X linked disorders. In human beings pattern baldness is inherited from father to male child through Y
chromosome, and even female child is inherited baldness which is a sex influenced character.

14.4.4 Sex chromosomal disorders

1. Klinefelter’s syndrome: This genetic disorder is caused by trisomy 23rd pair in the chromosome.
A klinefelter male possesses an additional X-Chromosome. The karyotype is 47 (44+XXY).
They exhibit female secondary sexual characters. The principal effects include hypogonadism,
and reduced fertility. Slight enlargement of breasts (gynecomastia) is common.
2. Turner’s syndrome: They are underdeveloped females. The karyotype is 45, (44+X). It is due
to the monosomy of 23rd pair. The symptoms are short stature, webbed neck, and broad shield
like chest with widely spaced nipples and gonadal dysgenesis

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS.

✤ On which chromosomes the genes responsible for Haemophilia and Colourblindness present?
✤ Explain Sex determination in human beings.
✤ What is the number of autosomes and allososmes in human beings.

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 KEY POINTS

z Evolution is a continuous process of development of more complex organization from simple level.
z Jean Baptist Lamark was the first person to propose the theory of Evolution. Lamark explained
the inheritance of acquired characters with examples.
z Charles Darwin proposed Natural selection theory. He observed a small group of related birds
which are exhibiting diversity in the break structure in Galapagos islands.
z Organs which are similar in structure but dis similar in functions are called Homologous organs.
And the organs which are dis similar in structure and similar in functions are called Analogous
organs.
z The changes that occur among closely related group of organisms are called variations.
z Mendel was considered the father of Genetics. He did experiments in pea plant based on the 7
pairs of contrasting characters.
z Externally visible character is called phenotype and genetic makeup of a character is called genotype.
z Mendel proposed Law of Dominance, Law of segregation and Law of Independent assortment.
z Every cell of human being contains 46 chromosomes. Out of 46 (23 pairs), 22 pairs are termed
autosomes. The 23rd pair, X and Y chromosomes are called Sex chromosomes.
z In human beings Thallassemia, Haemophilia and colourblindness are hereditary genetical disorders
and klinefelters syndrome and Turners syndrome are sex chromosomal disorders.

PRACTICE FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. What are the evidences that prove Darwinism.

2. Mention the names of two theories that explain evolution.
3. What is Palaeontology? Give two examples of fossils.
4. Write the differences between homologous and analogous orgnas.
5. How can you prove that father is responsible for the sex of a girl baby.
6. Write any two hereditary disorders, their symptoms and treatment.
7. Phenotypic and genotypic ratios of Monohybrid cross. ( )
a) 1:2:1; 3;1 b) 3:1, 1:2:1 c) 23; 1:2:1 d) 3:1; 23

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8. Scientist who explained the Inheritance of acquired characters. ( )
A) Darwin B) Lamark C) Sutton D) Haeckel
9. Number of characters Mendel chosen for his experiments in peaplants. ( )
a) 10 b) 8 c) 7 d) 4
10. Match the following
A) Number of chromosomes in ( ) 1. One pair
Human beings
B) XY choromosomes ( ) 2. 22 pairs
C) Number of autosomes ( ) 3. 23 pairs
D) Number of sexchromosomes( ) 4. Sex chromosomes

Science and Technology 177

 REFERENCE BOOKS
1. 6th to 7th General Science, 8th to 10th Biology Text Books, SCERT, Telangana.
2. NIOS Text Books, New Delhi.
3. 10th Class Text Book, ICSE, New Delhi.
4. Intermediate Text Books, Botany and Zoology, Telugu Academy, Hyderabad, Telangana.
5. A.C. Dutta - Botany for Degree Students.
6. 10th class Government Text Book - Chattisghar
7. Cell Molecutes and Mechanism by E.V. Wong Ph.D.
8. Cell and Molecular Biology - Geral & Bdergtron Ph.D.
9. Á|ü»\ Äs√>∑´+ Á|ü»\ #˚‘·T˝À¢øÏ .......... ` yÓqTï|üPdü ÁãVü‰à¬s&ç¶, qqï|ü<˚$ s¡e÷<˚$.
Websites
10. CK-12.org
11. concepts of biology.openstak.org
12. nin.res.in/NICE.html
13. on being the right size - J.B.S. Haldane
14. Swachh Bharat Mission. Government of India
15. http://nswai.com/success_stories.php

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