tail. As forces such as turbulence and gusts act to displace maneuverability of the aircraft.

If the aircraft is to provide the aircraft, the pilot reacts by providing opposing control
maximum utility, it must be safely controllable to the full forces to counteract this
displacement.
extent of these limits without exceeding the pilot's strength
or requiring exceptional flying ability. If an aircraft is to fly Some aircraft are subject to
changes in the location of the CG straight and steady along any arbitrary flight path, the forces
with variations of load. Trimming devices, such as elevator acting on it must
be in static equilibrium. The reaction of trim tabs and adjustable horizontal stabilizers, are
used to any body when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as counteract the moments
set up by fuel burnoff and loading stability. The two types of stability are static and
dynamic. or off-loading of passengers or cargo.
Static Stability Aircraft Design Characteristics
Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of Each aircraft handles
somewhat differently because each movement, back to equilibrium. In aviation, it
refers to the resists or responds to control pressures in its own way. For aircraft's
initial response when disturbed from a given pitch, example, a training aircraft is
quick to respond to control yaw, or bank. applications, while a transport aircraft feels
heavy on the
Positive static stability—the initial tendency of the controls and responds to
control pressures more slowly.
aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium These features can be
designed into an aircraft to facilitate
after being disturbed. [Figure 5-21] the particular purpose of the aircraft by considering
certain stability and maneuvering requirements. The following
Neutral static stability—the initial tendency of discussion summarizes the more
important aspects of an
the aircraft to remain in a new condition after its aircraft's stability, maneuverability, and
controllability equilibrium has been disturbed. [Figure 5-21] qualities; how they are
analyzed; and their relationship to Negative static stability—the initial tendency of
the various flight conditions.
aircraft to continue away from the original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed. (Figure 5-21] Stability Stability is the inherent
quality of an aircraft to correct for
Dynamic Stability conditions that may disturb its equilibrium and to return to or to
continue on the original flight path. It is primarily an
Static stability has been defined as the initial tendency to
return to equilibrium that the aircraft displays after being aircraft design characteristic.
The flight paths and attitudes an aircraft flies are limited by the aerodynamic
characteristics of
disturbed from its trimmed condition. Occasionally, the
initial tendency is different or opposite from the overall the aircraft, its
propulsion system, and its structural strength.
tendency, so a distinction must be made between the two. These limitations
indicate the maximum performance and
Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time

Positive Static Stability

Neutral Static Stability
Negative Static Stability

Applied force
Applied force
Applied force
CG

Figure 5-21. Types of static stability.

5-14
considered to be the most affected by certain variables in various flight conditions.
when disturbed from a given pitch, yaw, or bank. This type of stability also has three
subtypes: (Figure 5-22]
Positive dynamic stability—over time, the motion of the displaced object
decreases in amplitude and, because it is positive, the object displaced
returns toward the equilibrium state. Neutral dynamic stability—once
displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor increases in amplitude.
A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency. Negative dynamic
stability-over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and becomes more
divergent.
Longitudinal stability is the quality that makes an aircraft stable about its
lateral axis. It involves the pitching motion S as the aircraft's nose moves
up and down in flight. A longitudinally unstable aircraft has a tendency to dive or
climb progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even a stall. Thus, an
aircraft with longitudinal instability becomes difficult and sometimes dangerous
to fly.

Static longitudinal stability, or instability in an aircraft, is dependent upon three

factors:
1. Location of the wing with respect to the CG 2. Location of the
horizontal tail surfaces with respect
to the CG 3. Area or size of the tail surfaces

In analyzing stability, it should be recalled that a body free to rotate always turns
about its CG. to
Stability in an aircraft affects two areas significantly:
Maneuverability—the quality of an aircraft that permits it to be maneuvered
easily and to withstand the stresses imposed by maneuvers. It is governed
by the aircraft's weight, inertia, size and location of flight controls,
structural strength, and powerplant. It too is an aircraft design
characteristic. Controllability—the capability of an aircraft to respond to the
pilot's control, especially with regard to flight path and attitude. It is the quality of
the aircraft's response to the pilot's control application when maneuvering
the aircraft, regardless of its stability characteristics.
To obtain static longitudinal stability, the relation of the wing and tail moments must
be such that, if the moments are initially balanced and the aircraft is suddenly
nose up, the wing moments and tail moments change so that the sum of their
forces provides an unbalanced but restoring moment which, in turn, brings the
nose down again. Similarly, if the aircraft is nose down, the resulting change in
moments brings the nose back up.
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) In designing an aircraft, a great deal of
effort is spent in developing the desired degree of stability around all three axes. But
longitudinal stability about the lateral axis is
The Center of Lift (CL) in most asymmetrical airfoils has a tendency to change
its fore and aft positions with a change in the AQA. The CL tends to move forward
with an increase in AOA and to move aft with a decrease in AOA. This means

Damped oscillation

Undamped oscillation

Divergent oscillation
/
/

Positive static (positive dynamic)

Time
Displacement

Positive static (neutral dynamic)

Positive Static (negative dynamic)
Figure 5-22. Damped versus undamped stability.

5-15

Cruise Spee
-

that when the AOA of an airfoil is increased, the CL, by

moving forward, tends to lift the leading edge of
the wing still more. This tendency gives the
wing an inherent quality of instability. (NOTE: CL is
also known as the center of pressure (CP).)
C

Balanced tail load

Figure 5-23 shows an aircraft in straight-and-
level flight. The line CG-CL-T represents the
aircraft's longitudinal axis from the CG to a point T
on the horizontal stabilizer.
Low Speed ::
ILIIT
IMANE
III
II!
VI
/
1777

-
-
-

Lesser downward tail load

I11
IIIII IIIII
ILULUI
PLOI

High Speed
IIIII
ILIIT
LILIT
.
ILII
ILIR
11 IVO
P111
ILIM
11 III
TRE:

Most aircraft are designed so that the wing's CL

is to the rear of the CG. This makes the aircraft
"nose heavy" and requires that there be a slight
downward force on the horizontal stabilizer in order
to balance the aircraft and keep the nose from
continually pitching downward. Compensation for
this nose heaviness is provided by setting the
horizontal stabilizer at a slight negative AOA. The
downward force thus produced holds the tail down,
counterbalancing the “heavy” nose. It is as if the line
CG-CL-T were a lever with an upward force at
CL and two downward forces balancing each
other, one a strong force at the CG point and the
other, a much lesser force, at point T (downward air
pressure on the stabilizer). To better visualize this
physics principle: If an iron bar were suspended at
point CL, with a heavy weight hanging on it at the
CG, it would take downward pressure at point T to
keep the "lever" in balance.
Greater downward tail load

Figure 5-24. Effect of speed on downwash.

Even though the horizontal stabilizer may be level
when the aircraft is in level flight, there is a
downwash of air from the wings. This downwash
strikes the top of the stabilizer and produces a
downward pressure, which at a certain speed is just
enough to balance the "lever." The faster the aircraft is
flying, the greater this downwash and the greater the
downward force on the horizontal stabilizer (except T-
tails). (Figure 5-24) In aircraft with fixed-position
horizontal stabilizers, the aircraft manufacturer sets the
stabilizer at an angle that provides the best stability
(or balance) during flight at the design cruising
speed and power setting.
flow of air over the wing, the downwash is
reduced, causing a lesser downward force on
the horizontal stabilizer. In turn, the
characteristic nose heaviness is accentuated,
causing the aircraft's nose to pitch down more.
(Figure 5-25] This places the aircraft in a nose-low
attitude, lessening the wing's AOA and drag and
allowing the airspeed to increase. As the aircraft
continues in the nose-low attitude and its speed
increases, the downward force on the horizontal
stabilizer is once again increased. Consequently,
the tail is again pushed downward and the nose rises
into a climbing attitude.
Liit

Thrust
If the aircraft's speed decreases, the speed of the
airflow over the wing is decreased. As a result of
this decreased
Weight

Normal downwash
Lift

Thrust
8 Weight

Reduced downwash

Figure 5-23. Longitudinal stability.

Figure 5-25. Reduced power allows pitch down.

5-16
As this climb continues, the airspeed again decreases, causing the
downward force on the tail to decrease until the nose lowers once more.
Because the aircraft is dynamically stable, the nose does not lower
as far this time as it did before. The aircraft acquires enough speed in
this more gradual dive to start it into another climb, but the climb is not as
steep as the preceding one.
Thrust
CG!
SRS

_
—
—
—

Cruise power

Thrust

CG
 After several of these diminishing oscillations, in which the nose
alternately rises and lowers, the aircraft finally settles down to a speed at
which the downward force on the tail exactly counteracts the tendency
of the aircraft to dive. When this condition is attained, the aircraft is once
again in balanced flight and continues in stabilized flight as long as
this attitude and airspeed are not changed.
Idle power

Thrust
-
-
-
-
-
-

A similar effect is noted upon closing the throttle. The downwash of the wings
is reduced and the force at T in Figure 5-23 is not enough to hold the horizontal
stabilizer down. It seems as if the force at T on the lever were allowing the
force of gravity to pull the nose down. This is a desirable characteristic
because the aircraft is inherently trying to regain airspeed and
reestablish the proper balance.
Full power

Figure 5-27. Power changes affect longitudinal stability.

Power or thrust can also have a destabilizing effect in that an increase of
power may tend to make the nose rise. The aircraft designer can offset this
by establishing a “high thrust line” wherein the line of thrust passes above
the CG. (Figures 5-26 and 5-27] In this case, as power or thrust is
increased a moment is produced to counteract the down load on the tail. On
the other hand, a very “low thrust line” would tend to add to the nose-up effect
of the horizontal tail surface. Conclusion: with CG forward of the CL and with an
aerodynamic tail-down force, the aircraft usually tries to return to a safe flying
attitude.

Thrust
-
-
-
-
-
-

Below center of gravity

The following is a simple demonstration of longitudinal stability. Trim the
aircraft for "hands off" control in level flight. Then, momentarily give the
controls a slight push to nose the aircraft down. If, within a brief period, the
nose rises towards the original position, the aircraft is statically stable.
Ordinarily, the nose passes the original position (that of level flight) and a
series of slow pitching oscillations follows. If the oscillations gradually cease,
the aircraft has positive stability; if they continue unevenly, the aircraft has
neutral stability; if they increase, the aircraft is unstable.
Thrust

Through center of gravity

Lateral Stability (Rolling) Stability about the aircraft's longitudinal axis, which
extends from the nose of the aircraft to its tail, is called lateral stability.
Positive lateral stability helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect" when one
wing gets lower than the wing on the opposite side of the aircraft. There are four
main design factors that make an aircraft laterally stable: dihedral,
sweepback, keel effect, and weight distribution.
Thrust

Above center of gravity

Figure 5-26. Thrust line affects longitudinal stability.

5-17

Restoring lift
Dihedral Some aircraft are designed so that the outer tips of the wings
are higher than the wing roots. The upward angle thus formed by the
wings is called dihedral. (Figure 5-28] When a gust causes a roll, a sideslip will
result. This sideslip causes the relative wind affecting the entire airplane to be
from the direction of the slip. When the relative wind comes from the side,
the wing slipping into the wind is subject to an increase in AOA and develops
an increase in lift. The wing away from the wind is subject to a decrease
in angle of attack, and develops a decrease in lift. The changes in lift
effect a rolling moment tending to raise the windward wing, hence dihedral
contributes to a stable roll due to sideslip. [Figure 5-29]
Wing has decreased AOA, hence reduced lift
due to sideslip.

Sideslip
Wing has increased AOA, hence
increased lift due to sideslip.

Figure 5-29. Sideslip causing different AOA on each blade.

Sweepback and Wing Location Many aspects of an aircraft's
configuration can affect its effective dihedral, but two major
components are wing sweepback and the wing location with respect to
the fuselage (such as a low wing or high wing). As a rough estimation, 10° of
sweepback on a wing provides about 1° of effective dihedral, while a high
wing configuration can provide about 5° of effective dihedral over a
low wing configuration.

A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes backward.

(Figure 5-30) When a disturbance causes an aircraft with sweepback to slip or
drop a wing, the low wing presents its leading edge at an angle that is more
perpendicular to the relative airflow. As a result, the low wing acquires more
lift, rises, and the aircraft is restored to its original flight attitude.

Figure 5-30. Sweepback wings.

Keel Effect and Weight Distribution A high wing aircraft always has the
tendency to turn the longitudinal axis of the aircraft into the relative wind,
which is often referred to as the keel effect. These aircraft are laterally
stable simply because the wings are attached in a high position on the
fuselage, making the fuselage behave like a keel exerting a steadying
influence on the aircraft laterally about the longitudinal axis. When a high-
winged aircraft is
disturbed and one wing dips, the fuselage weight acts like a pendulum
returning the aircraft to the horizontal level.

Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater portion of the
keel area is above the CG. [Figure 5-31] Thus, when the aircraft slips to one
side, the combination of the
--
-C
D
:-+
----

Dihedral
Dihedral

Figure 5-28. Dihedral is the upward angle of the wings from a horizontal (front/rear
view) axis of the plane as shown in the graphic depiction and the rear view of a
Ryanair Boeing 737.
5-18

CG centerline
inna
--
Area forward of CG
Area aft of CG
UUUUU

Figure 5-31. Keel area for lateral stability.

aircraft's weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of
the keel area (both acting about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft back to
wings-level flight.
aw

Relative wind
DUUDUDIDUD

Directional Stability (Yawing) Stability about the aircraft's vertical

axis (the sideways moment) is called yawing or directional stability.
Yawing or directional stability is the most easily achieved stability in
aircraft design. The area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft
of the CG are the prime contributors that make the aircraft act like the well
known weather vane or arrow, pointing its nose into the relative wind.
Figure 5-32. Fuselage and fin for directional stability.

to the right, there is a brief moment when the aircraft is still moving along its
original path, but its longitudinal axis is pointed slightly to the right.
In examining a weather vane, it can be seen that if exactly the same
amount of surface were exposed to the wind in front of the pivot point as
behind it, the forces fore and aft would be in balance and little or no
directional movement would result. Consequently, it is necessary to have
a greater surface aft of the pivot point than forward of it.
The aircraft is then momentarily skidding sideways and, during that moment
(since it is assumed that although the yawing motion has stopped, the excess
pressure on the left side of the fin still persists), there is necessarily a
tendency for the aircraft to be turned partially back to the left. That is,
there is a momentary restoring tendency caused by the fin.
Similarly, the aircraft designer must ensure positive directional stability by
making the side surface greater aft than ahead of the CG. (Figure 5-32] To
provide additional positive stability to that provided by the fuselage, a
vertical fin is added. The fin acts similar to the feather on an arrow in
maintaining straight flight. Like the weather vane and the arrow, the farther aft
this fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the aircraft's
directional stability.
This restoring tendency is relatively slow in developing and ceases
when the aircraft stops skidding. When it ceases, the aircraft is flying in
a direction slightly different from the original direction. In other words, it will
not return of its own accord to the original heading; the pilot must reestablish
the initial heading.
If an aircraft is flying in a straight line, and a sideward gust of air gives the
aircraft a slight rotation about its vertical axis (i.e., the right), the motion is
retarded and stopped by the fin because while the aircraft is rotating to the
right, the air is striking the left side of the fin at an angle. This causes
pressure on the left side of the fin, which resists the turning motion and
slows down the aircraft's yaw. In doing so, it acts somewhat like the
weather vane by turning the aircraft into the relative wind. The initial
change in direction of the aircraft's flight path is generally slightly behind
its change of heading. Therefore, after a slight yawing of the aircraft
A minor improvement of directional stability may be obtained through
sweepback. Sweepback is incorporated in the design of the wing primarily
to delay the onset of compressibility during high-speed flight. In lighter
and slower aircraft, sweepback aids in locating the center of pressure
in the correct relationship with the CG. A longitudinally stable aircraft is
built with the center of pressure aft of the CG.

Because of structural reasons, aircraft designers sometimes cannot

attach the wings to the fuselage at the exact desired

5-19
point. If they had to mount the wings too far forward, and at right angles to the
fuselage, the center of pressure would not be far enough to the rear to result in the
desired amount of longitudinal stability. By building sweepback into the wings,
however, the designers can move the center of pressure toward the rear.
The amount of sweepback and the position of the wings then place the center of
pressure in the correct location.
comparatively weak dihedral lags in restoring the lateral balance. Due to this yaw, the
wing on the outside of the turning moment travels forward faster than the inside wing
and, as a consequence, its lift becomes greater. This produces an overbanking
tendency which, if not corrected by the pilot, results in the bank angle becoming
steeper and steeper. At the same time, the strong directional stability that yaws the
aircraft into the relative wind is actually forcing the nose to a lower pitch attitude.
A slow downward spiral begins which, if not counteracted by the pilot, gradually
increases into a steep spiral dive. Usually the rate of divergence in the spiral motion
is so gradual the pilot can control the tendency without any difficulty.
When turbulence or rudder application causes the aircraft to yaw to one side,
the opposite wing presents a longer leading edge perpendicular to the relative
airflow. The airspeed of the forward wing increases and it acquires more drag than
the back wing. The additional drag on the forward wing pulls the wing back, turning
the aircraft back to its original path.

The contribution of the wing to static directional stability is usually small. The
swept wing provides a stable contribution depending on the amount of sweepback,
but the contribution is relatively small when compared with other components.
Many aircraft are affected to some degree by this characteristic, although they
may be inherently stable in all other normal parameters. This tendency explains
why an aircraft cannot be flown "hands off" indefinitely.

Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll) Dutch roll is a coupled

lateral/directional oscillation that is usually dynamically stable but is unsafe in
an aircraft because of the oscillatory nature. The damping of the oscillatory
mode may be weak or strong depending on the properties of the particular
aircraft.
Much research has gone into the development of control devices (wing leveler) to
correct or eliminate this instability. The pilot must be careful in application of
recovery controls during advanced stages of this spiral condition or
excessive loads may be imposed on the structure. Improper recovery from spiral
instability leading to inflight structural failures has probably contributed to more
fatalities in general aviation aircraft than any other factor. Since the airspeed in the
spiral condition builds up rapidly, the application of back elevator force to reduce
this speed and to pull the nose up only “tightens the turn,” increasing the load
factor. The results of the prolonged uncontrolled spiral are inflight structural
failure, crashing into the ground, or both. Common recorded causes for pilots who
get into this situation are loss of horizon reference, inability to control the aircraft
by reference to instruments, or a combination of both.
If the aircraft has a right wing pushed down, the positive sideslip angle corrects
the wing laterally before the nose is realigned with the relative wind. As the
wing corrects the position, a lateral directional oscillation can occur resulting
in the nose of the aircraft making a figure eight on the horizon as a result of two
oscillations (roll and yaw), which, although of about the same magnitude, are out
of phase with each other.
In most modern aircraft, except high-speed swept wing designs, these free
directional oscillations usually die out automatically in very few cycles unless the air
continues to be gusty or turbulent. Those aircraft with continuing Dutch roll
tendencies are usually equipped with gyro-stabilized yaw dampers. Manufacturers
try to reach a midpoint between too much and too little directional stability. Because it is
more desirable for the aircraft to have “spiral instability” than Dutch roll tendencies, most
aircraft are designed with that characteristic.
Effect of Wing Planform Understanding the effects of different wing planforms is
important when learning about wing performance and airplane flight characteristics. A
planform is the shape of the wing as viewed from directly above and deals with airflow
in three dimensions. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform
design that are very important to the overall aerodynamic characteristic of a wing.
(Figure 5-33]

Spiral Instability Spiral instability exists when the static directional stability of the
aircraft is very strong as compared to the effect of its dihedral in maintaining lateral
equilibrium. When the lateral equilibrium of the aircraft is disturbed by a gust of air and a
sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability tends to yaw the nose into the
resultant relative wind while the
Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span to wing chord. Taper ratio can be either in
planform or thickness, or both. In its simplest terms, it is a decrease from wing root to
wingtip in wing chord or wing thickness. Sweepback is the rearward slant of a wing,
horizontal tail, or other airfoil surface.

There are two general means by which the designer can change the planform of a
wing and both will affect the

5-20

$ 23.161
14 CFR Ch. I (1-1-11 Edition)
(4) The airplane trimmed at VREF. (4) Approach with landing gear
ex
tended and with [Amdt. 23-14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973, as amended by Amdt. 23-45,
58 FR 42158, Aug. 6,
(i) A 3 degree angle of descent, with 1993; Amdt. 23-50, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9,
1996]
flaps retracted and at a speed of 1.4 Vsı;
(ii) A 3 degree angle of descent, flaps TRIM
in the landing position(s) at VREF; and
(iii) An approach gradient equal to $23.161 Trim.
the steepest used in the landing dis (a) General. Each airplane must meet
tance demonstrations of $23.75, flaps in the trim requirements of this section
the landing position(s) at VREF. after being trimmed and without fur- (d)
In addition, each multiple air ther pressure upon, or movement of, plane
must maintain longitudinal and the primary controls or their cor- directional
trim, and the lateral con responding trim controls by the pilot trol force must
not exceed 5 pounds at or the automatic pilot. In addition, it the speed used
in complying with must be possible, in other conditions of $23.67(a), (b)(2), or (C)(3),
as appro
loading, configuration, speed and power priate, with to ensure that the pilot will not
be un- (1) The critical engine inoperative, duly fatigued or distracted by the need
and if applicable, its propeller in the to apply residual control forces exceed-
minimum drag position; ing those for prolonged application of (2) The
remaining engines at max $23.143(c). This applies in normal oper- imum
continuous power; ation of the airplane and, if applicable, (3) The landing gear
retracted; to those conditions associated with the (4) Wing flaps retracted; and
failure of one engine for which per- (5) An angle of bank of not more than
formance characteristics are estab- five degrees. lished.
(e) In addition, each commuter cat (b) Lateral and directional trim. The egory
airplane for which, in the deter airplane must maintain lateral and di- mination of the
takeoff path in accord rectional trim in level flight with the ance with $23.57, the
climb in the take landing gear and wing flaps retracted off configuration at V2
extends beyond as follows:
400 feet above the takeoff surface, it (1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
must be possible to reduce the longitu category airplanes, at a speed of 0.9 VH
dinal and lateral control forces to 10 Vc, or VMO/Mo, whichever is lowest; and
pounds and 5 pounds, respectively, and
(2) For commuter category airplanes, the directional control force must not at all
speeds from 1.4 Vsi to the lesser exceed 50 pounds at V2 with, of VH or
VMO/MMO.
(1) The critical engine inoperative (c) Longitudinal trim. The airplane and its
propeller in the minimum drag must maintain longitudinal trim under position;
each of the following conditions:
(2) The remaining engine(s) at take (1) A climb with
off power; (i) Takeoff power, landing gear re- (3) Landing gear retracted;
tracted, wing flaps in the takeoff posi- (4) Wing flaps in the takeoff posi tion(s),
at the speeds used in deter- tion(s); and mining the climb performance
required
(5) An angle of bank not exceeding 5 by $23.65; and
degrees. (ii) Maximum continuous power at the speeds and in the
configuration
(Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 16, used in determining the climb perform
1978; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, 1987; ance required by $23.69(a).
Amdt. 23 42, 56 FR 351, Jan. 3, 1991; 56 FR (2) Level flight at all speeds from the
5455, Feb. 11, 1991; Amdt. 23-50, 61 FR 5189, lesser of Vh and either Vno or
VMO/MMO Feb. 9, 1996] (as appropriate), to 1.4 Vsi, with the landing gear and
flaps retracted.
STABILITY (3) A descent at VNO or VMO MMO, whichever is applicable,
with power off
$23.171 General. and with the landing gear and flaps re- The airplane
must be longitudinally, tracted.
directionally, and laterally stable

212

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT

$23.177
(3) Maximum continuous power; and
(4) The airplane trimmed at the speed used in determining the climb perform ance required
by $23.69(a).
(b) Cruise. With flaps and landing gear retracted and the airplane in trim with power for
level flight at represent ative cruising speeds at high and low altitudes, including
speeds up to Vno or VMO/MMO, as appropriate, except that the speed need not
exceed VH
(1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic category airplanes, the stick force curve
must have a stable slope at all speeds within a range that is the great er of 15
percent of the trim speed plus the resulting free return speed range, or 40 knots
plus the resulting free re turn speed range, above and below the trim speed,
except that the slope need not be stable
(i) At speeds less than 1.3 Vsı; or
(ii) For airplanes with VNE estab lished under $23.1505(a), at speeds
VO

under $823.173 through 23.181. In addi- tion, the airplane must show suitable
stability and control "feel" (static sta- bility) in any condition normally en- countered in
service, if flight tests show it is necessary for safe operation. $ 23.173
Static longitudinal stability.
Under the conditions specified in $ 23.175 and with the airplane trimmed as
indicated, the characteristics of the elevator control forces and the friction within
the control system must be as follows:
(a) A pull must be required to obtain and maintain speeds below the speci- fied trim
speed and a push required to obtain and maintain speeds above the specified trim
speed. This must be shown at any speed that can be ob- tained, except that
speeds requiring a control force in excess of 40 pounds or speeds above the
maximum allowable speed or below the minimum speed for steady unstalled flight,
need not be considered.
(b) The airspeed must return to with in the tolerances specified for applica- ble
categories of airplanes when the control force is slowly released at any
speed within the speed range specified in paragraph (a) of this section. The ap
plicable tolerances are
(1) The airspeed must return to with in plus or minus 10 percent of the origi nal
trim airspeed; and
(2) For commuter category airplanes, the airspeed must return to within plus or
minus 7.5 percent of the original trim airspeed for the cruising condition specified
in $23.175(b).
(c) The stick force must vary with speed so that any substantial speed
change results in a stick force clearly perceptible to the pilot. [Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR
17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31820 Nov. 19, 1973; Amdt.
23-34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, 1987]
$23.175 Demonstration of static longi-
tudinal stability. Static longitudinal stability must be shown as follows:
(a) Climb. The stick force curve must have a stable slope at speeds between 85
and 115 percent of the trim speed, with
(1) Flaps retracted; (2) Landing gear retracted;
(iii) For airplanes with VMO/MMO es tablished under $23.1505(c), at speeds
greater than VFc/MFC.
(2) For commuter category airplanes, the stick force curve must have a sta ble
slope at all speeds within a range of 50 knots plus the resulting free return speed
range, above and below the trim speed, except that the slope need not be stable
(i) At speeds less than 1.4 Vsı; or
(ii) At speeds greater than VF/MFc; or
(iii) At speeds that require a stick force greater than 50 pounds.
(c) Landing. The stick force curve must have a stable slope at speeds be tween
1.1 Vsi and 1.8 Vsı with
(1) Flaps in the landing position; (2) Landing gear extended; and (3) The airplane
trimmed at
(i) VREF, or the minimum trim speed if higher, with power off; and
(ii) VREF with enough power to main tain a 3 degree angle of descent. [Doc. No.
27807, 61 FR 5190, Feb. 9, 1996]
$23.177 Static directional and lateral
stability. (a) The static directional stability, as shown by the tendency to
recover from a wings level sideslip with the rudder free, must be positive for
any landing gear and flap position appropriate to

213

$ 23.181
14 CFR Ch. I (1-1-11 Edition)
contained in $23.143 is reached, the ai leron and rudder control movements
and forces must not reverse as the angle of sideslip is increased. Rapid entry
into, and recovery from, a max imum sideslip considered appropriate for the airplane
must not result in un controllable flight characteristics. [Doc. No. 27807, 61
FR 5190, Feb. 9, 1996]
the takeoff, climb, cruise, approach, and landing configurations. This must
be shown with symmetrical power up to maximum continuous power, and at
speeds from 1.2 Vsi up to the maximum allowable speed for the condition being
investigated. The angel of sideslip for these tests must be appropriate to the type
of airplane. At larger angles of sideslip, up to that at which full rudder is
used or a control force limit in $23.143 is reached, whichever occurs first, and
at speeds from 1.2 Vsi to Vo, the rudder pedal force must not re verse.
(b) The static lateral stability, as shown by the tendency to raise the low wing in a
sideslip, must be positive for all landing gear and flap positions. This must be
shown with symmetrical power up to 75 percent of maximum continuous
power at speeds above 1.2 Vsı in the take off configuration(s) and at
speeds above 1.3 Vsi in other con figurations, up to the maximum allow
able speed for the configuration being investigated, in the takeoff, climb,
cruise, and approach configurations. For the landing configuration, the
power must be that necessary to main tain a 3 degree angle of descent in co ordinated
flight. The static lateral sta bility must not be negative at 1.2 Vsi in
the takeoff configuration, or at 1.3 Vsi in other configurations. The angle of
sideslip for these tests must be appro priate to the type of airplane, but in
no case may the constant heading sideslip angle be less than that obtainable with a
10 degree bank, or if less, the max imum bank angle obtainable with full rudder
deflection or 150 pound rudder force.
(c) Paragraph (b) of this section does not apply to acrobatic category air
planes certificated for inverted flight.
(d) In straight, steady slips at 1.2 Vsi for any landing gear and flap positions, and
for any symmetrical power condi tions up to 50 percent of maximum con-
tinuous power, the aileron and rudder control movements and forces must in
crease steadily, but not necessarily in constant proportion, as the angle of
sideslip is increased up to the max imum appropriate to the type of air plane.
At larger slip angles, up to the angle at which full rudder or aileron control
is used or a control force limit
$ 23.181 Dynamic stability.
(a) Any short period oscillation not including combined lateral-directional
oscillations occurring between the stalling speed and the maximum
allow able speed appropriate to the configu ration of the airplane must
be heavily damped with the primary controls
(1) Free; and (2) In a fixed position.
(b) Any combined lateral-directional oscillations (“Dutch roll”) occurring be
tween the stalling speed and the max imum allowable speed appropriate to the
configuration of the airplane must be damped to 1/10 amplitude in 7 cycles with the
primary controls
(1) Free; and (2) In a fixed position.
(c) If it is determined that the func tion of a stability augmentation sys tem,
reference $23.672, is needed to meet the flight characteristic require ments of
this part, the primary control requirements of paragraphs (a)(2) and (b)(2) of this
section are not applicable to the tests needed to verify the ac ceptability of that
system.
(d) During the conditions as specified in $23.175, when the longitudinal con
trol force required to maintain speeds differing from the trim speed by
at least plus and minus 15 percent is sud denly released, the response of the air
plane must not exhibit any dangerous characteristics nor be excessive in rela tion
to the magnitude of the control force released. Any long-period oscilla tion
of flight path, phugoid oscillation, that results must not be so unstable as to
increase the pilot's workload or oth erwise endanger the airplane. [Amdt. 23–
21, 43 FR 2318, Jan, 16, 1978, as amended by Amdt. 23-45, 58 FR 42158, Aug. 6,
1993]

214

t-r t-J t t

25.
Static Stahiliry

DEFINITION OF STABILITY
,I:, T.
property when
Stability is the of a-bodv t"h]Ll' the body is ,lrsburbed from a conaitioo oi equilibrium' causes
condition'
forces or moments ,vhich act to re$tore ti"tl *""t't*J The greater the ,lisburbance or change fi*-
iJ "iotilibrium position' the greater rvill be the m'rgniturle of the forces or moments tending to return ;r'; fur to its
original attitude'
airplane the sanre
Stability of uo ui'ptu"l";;;t that the tends to rem&rn ^t atiitudeTirrr'r".0""t t, the relative
wind' It does

,,ot imply that the d'il; i'I"'a" ""lXt.*"."1t"*lfr""i.,nff: -"uiL"i'tt,tt respect to the ground or to a n
* with respect
',,'o.e If the air '"J*t';n:';;il;3ut * constantlv changing
,i^.
"iri,ua" to the grouno'
The fastors *bith ;;k; i"' i ""ur" airplane sre factors whLh preclude -*to""'"Of ior. stebility'^whenever
attempt is rnade to change ro" ""riiria" of the plane, forces resist this change. In naneuvering, these forces
oppo.se o,
any alteration in the flight oath. Ra'ing p"";t ;1"""t tttoufa have little or no stability'
"'iniJo"-E'*t"itt""1o'1iju"'*Il*:lilu"rf,l'#o?Tt "r'"rii"t*t "cting in all
directions equals :
 *t;'-The first
moments "bott "ov'ffi"";;t part of the fore'

goingstatemen'P"tffi l;="t*:l):,i"ll;U"'Uttnf" il; il sum of the vertical

forces
rs ze
fopces zV
honzontd is zero. =o
2H=0
2M =O
If the body is disturbed from its equilibrium position'
for
406

*.r, ii,ir' .'.tl.jftii.if; .,'; llll .;i":.i:, .-';'.j-

].:ir:+:i. tlll
Ll I

I,ONGITUDINAL BALANCE

stability there must be a restoring moment, and this moment must be larger for la.rger
displacements from equilibrirrn position. To be statically stable, the airplane must have the
e,haracteris
tic that a restoring moment or force acts in a direstion to move the airplane back to
 the attitude {rom which it was disturbed. In discussing siatic stability, no thought is given to
the magni."ride of the restoring mcmert. This ;aomcnt rvhich acfs to return the airplane to its
equilibriunl position may (:ause the airpiane to acquire angular momentum so that it will srving
past that position. Owing to the siability characteristic, another restoring moment will then act
in the opposite direction, so that even with static stability there may be oscillation.
For dynamic stability, in addition to the requirement for static stability tirat there shall be a
restoring moment, there is the further requirement that the moments created shall be of such
nature that the amplitudq of any displacement shall be of de creasing size so that the airpiane
rvill cease to cscillate and come ls rest in ik equilibrium position. Dynainic instability would
mean that the restoring moment is so strong that each successive oscillation would have a bigger
amplitude; such an action would mean impossibility of control, and disaster. The calcrrlation
of dynamic stability is an involved process and will not be treated in this book.
As there are three axes of rotation" so there are three classes of sweestability-longitudinal or
fore-and-aft stability, lateral stability, aud directional stability. They are interrelated, as rolling
may produce turning, and vice verga.

25.2. LONGITUDINAL BALANCI]

By using the convenlion of & me&n aerodynamic chord, the forces resulting from biplane
wings or from a 4onoplane wing having taper, dihedral, or sweepback can be considered as
the stickforces acting on a rectangular monoplane wing. In the following discussion, thogsh r
simple wing will be alluded to, it may be considered as the (imaginary) rectangular monoplane
wing whose chord ie the M.A.C. of the actual wing or wings.
I: level flight, the forces which must be considered a.re the weight, acting downward; the
propeller thrust,'acting forwardl the lift, acting upward; the total drag, acting backward; and the
tail load, which may be either upward or .iownward

,J

lr,r,.t'
i,^..ri;.'..;:... I -J ll
J STATIC
STABILITY

lrr the conventional trigh-wing monoplane-shown ,i*rt, and drag UottrLt to-produce stallfng or
in Fig' 25'1c' ,,.

positive pi$- ;; ;;;"ri. The iift prJo."" a negat'ive ;r divibg moment'- The ,l,"."i"i ln" tail load ^"tt
'oth t" to be equal in magnitude
u*

,,,fr" ainu.ur,ce of ttre plus and ininus moments and of the same rflu as the smeller. fo oiae' to ensure
lhat the-lift' alwaVs nrodlces
 o)
Frc. 25.1. Momentg

a diving moment, the center of gravity must be ahead of the most ;"il;;;;;itt* of the center of pt""tt"" of the

r"si"t
"i ;rtack, for som6 sirfoils the center of pressure moves f"i""tato a position iS p"t cent of the chord
airplane' At high

;i'i, symmetrical
back cf the leading ;J*", t" ,tt*'the center of -q1vit1.must be in front of that' The " airt-
oit with constant center-of-pressure position. ^r --^.-:+., -,.^,,o rho ''io-fig. 25.1c, the distance of the
center of gravity th1 tb;; iiot i, a, its disianee below the line of action of the total lr"g It b,
-ab-ove

its distance aUt"A of t'he line of action of lift is e' and the

distance from the.center of gravity tothe cebier of pressure of the t&il is d. Then, -. ,, ,,,
ii,.;+r-
;*l,.uirh,-'. .

Tx d+ bX b - t x i'i'trill'*d xd : o (2s.2.1)
Whether the airplane is high-wing or low-wing, the tiistribution of weights should be dtich that tbe
center of funavity rvill be on, or as cloge ap-po1$ble to;- tle thrust [ne._ Ihe lgrpc5g of this !9 tg_ make the
moment duc to the thrust, T X a, in Eq. (25.2.1) either zero or as small as possible. Changes in
thrust or complete engine failure will then cause little or no change in the longitudinal
balance.
In Fig. 2-5.1b are ghown the moments in a'lorv-wing monoplane. If the center of gravity is located
as shown, below the thmst line and abovc the line of action of the total drag, both thrusi, and
drag will cause diving or negative moments. As the line of action of the lift is to the rear of the
center of gravity, the lift causes a diving or negative moment. It is necessary then that the horizontal
tail st'{ace have a dorvnrvard force acting on it so as to prodttce a stalling moment. For balance
with'the forces as shown in F;g. 25.tb,
il
-T x o - DX - L X e* iail
b loa-d X
: 0 (25.2.2)
25.3. LOCATION OF CENTER OF GRAVITY EXPBRTMEN TATLY
The center of gravity of an airplane is the point;here the entire weight may be consider€d to be
acting. The dekrmination of iLs lo'ation may be made in the following manner.
The front wheele are placed on scales as is the tail wheel, as shown iu Fig. 25.2. The sum of
the wbights on the front wheels is W1, the weigbt .on the rear wheel is Wy Tbe distance b is the
horizontal distance, parallel to the longitudinal axis; froT the line connecting the contact points of
the two front wheels to the point of contaot of the ta;l whee!. If the iail is elevated, as in Fig. 25.2b,
measunement is made to the vertical projqction of the point of contact of the rear wheel. The
distance o is the horizontal distance from the line connecting the points of contact of the two front wheels
to the vertical projection of some conyenient point of rcferBnce on the airplane. This reference
point is guite ofton the
. rts weight just balances the moment due to the air pressure on r,u
underside.
horizontal tail so"f".e, which is normally a symmetricel ,rfoil with the elevator in its
'I'he

neutral position, becomes a cambered urfoil with a free elevator. The additional lift force
upward on ,ln tail (and added negative moment on the airplane) is a function I l,he ratio of elevator
area to the total horizontal tail area.

lt0. I"ATERAL STABILITY

 Iiecause the airplane is symmetrical about a vertical the longitudinal axis,
plane lrrough

lateral balance may be secured by turlributing weights symmetrically on either eide of the
cockpit r cabin. Lateral stability id complicated by the fact that it is rrl,crrelated to
directional stability in that, if the airplane rolls, r
rvill tend to turn, and vice versa.
rIi.IO. DIHEDRAL
One of the most effeotive ways of Becuring lateral etability is *ith dihedral. Inatead of the
wings being straight auoss',ho span, rhcy Blope outward and upward from the center. Dihedral
angle ,n l,he an3io at which the wings slope tipward from the horizoutal, \ smell dihedral angle
of L)$o or'2o is numcient to give ample rnteral stability.
Wben an airplane tips sideways, it wil sidealip. If tho wings nre tipped up to & vertical
position, there ri'ill be a great deal of nideslip; but, if tho plane is gnly slighily tilt€d, there
will still bo i()me nmount of slip as the r€sultant of lift und weight will have a
nido component. As Eoon &s any slip takes place, the relative wind, rnstead of coming directly in
front of the wing, will come from a rlirection which is.to one side of doad ahead.
flith " straight wing, ejren when the relative wind comes from
thb sido inst€ad of from dead ihead, the angle of attack will etiU l€ the eame on the right wing
as on the left wing. With dihedral; rf i,he right.iring diops, the plane vnll slip to the rigbt. The
relative wind.is l[6a seming at the airplane from the right of d€ad a\egd. Owing to the dihedral
angle, the right wiug will have a grrater nnd the left wing a, nma,llpr angle of attack.'This will give
more lift on the low wing and less on the high, tending.to restoro the air plane to ar even keol.
The firsi,. Wright airplane happened to have greet inherent
 _sv^rv^A,j Drrrrrr&lt.r

421

decrease il.
staliliJv,_ so the upper wings were given negative dihedre.!, calletl .cathedral,-to t+i' ie
lateral stabitity makes
io-_Ju; p;." construction, Too'muc[
rever ai"" ---.-'
in
l4ading extremely rliffisulf. " "ro."_nlirra An erplanation.sometimes given'of the action of dihedrar
horizontal.lrrojecterlauea
aiding lateral stability is that in9 #"g aor"o n* " f"rt", goiog

thJtis'or
than the q;;going up. As diledlal angle'is l)f or 2",the addiri;nal
projectcd wing^dropping
from normal to a horizontal ";-;i* (i _ cos 2o) X area or (l -
position
woura ue
0.ggg4)
X area, which would Uu u ,r".y small part of the area. Some tapered-wing monoplanes
have a straight
surflt:r:.
upper sur{trx:,
the decrease jn thickness."o-iog entiiely. on the under This helps laterai stability; it is
known as'effective
dihedrol. 25.I1. DIRECTIOJiAL STABILITY
Directional stability is closely alried to lateral stability. lf airplane starts to tu3, th9 outer wing will move
^rr th.ough

,f" at a greater speed than tire'inner *i""g. sio"" lift varies'as [ht: squa,re of the speed, the outer wing will-
rri,

have lifr t\3n inner wing, so that the airpla.ne wiU Uant. An-alysis "f Ji;p;li";;i and lateral
greater g111.

considered book.
stability is beyond the scope of this Deep fuselages havlbee.n found togive good
aii""tiooriri;ii;r, to airplanes' rn'p'rsuit planes,
wuich have shallow, *.rr-roria"ir fuselage, use is
sweepback. ;i;;;
often m{9.of Sweepback ". ,h"
ing of the wings backward from the center section aids in
 tn" rouuJu-
ing manner. When an airplane turns to the left, the J*d;;; nght wing witl b€ more nearry at
greaLr,
right angles to the Jlr"ii"" qqt,t-t" effective sqan will be *i "i it, d""g *ili ir;;;; while the drag on tne tett winb
;;i;;i;;
thow a-n oppoaite reaction. In each case, the chang"e t.
wiu i".**, A right tu.., ,u;ti drag of the tyo winge will bg
such as to cause the airplane returrr to its original hgading.
t<r

iti-iL-ili r.l tl L_J L-_J L-l

26.

Dynamic StabilitY

26.1. DYNAMIC STABILITY

 investigation
The subject of dynamic stability is the iT-it* U"en
of an ajr plane's motion
"tt"t
"oUiected to a small angular displacement while it it i" ti"dy flight' In static stability' ."q"it"-
the

airplane
"tt is merely iftut, lut'uttitte is disturbed from a

Frs. 2t.1. lypicsl airplane pitching motions'

condition of equilibrium, force or

moments
will come into actiou' ffiilii""ilil6 or"io"r c-9nd-rtion;
may, ani usually do' setup oscillations'
see Section 25'1' These forces or noments Dynamic stability is the propejf
of the "l"pl-.: which.causes it' when its il;;i rteadv iugit it ott"rbed, to da'mp the osciilations Tt :p It
airplane
ii"i*t tf;g tot "tJa morbents' so that the gradually returns to its original '-tn" p*tlUf" iotions of
state'

an airylane ar€ sbown il fig' ?9'-1: Figrue 26.1c sbowe tt"tit and dyna'mic instability' Flgure ffi;; *td"
26'1b

,.tutiie"*, dtaticallv and dvna'mically stable' un

', I'r-J il

Figure 26.1c shows -divergent oscillation, statically stable but d5rnemisa,lly unstable. .Figure 26.1d shows damped
oscillation, sl,atically and dynamically stable. In pitching, the flight path, the angle of attack, and
the airspebd change. The ordinates of Fig. 26.1 may represent the changes in any of these three
quantities. These changes in the three quantities do not occur simultaneously, there is a short time
lag between the maximum values for each,
An oscillation, such as shown in Fig. 26.ld, is relatively slow and is termed a phugoid
oscillation.
A proper analysis of dynamic stability is quite complicated and is beyond the scope of this text.
For a more exact treatment, the reader is referred to more advanced textbooks.l The remainder
of this chapter gives an approximate method of examining the longitudinal stability. Becar',oe
several factors are approximated, the method is necessarily inexact and has value only as a
rough estimation.

26.2. LONGITUDINAL STABILITY EQUATIONS In the following discussion, the X axis is horizontal ,
lhe Z axts
vertical. X is the air force in the direction of the X axis; exactly equal io the total drag
rvhen flight is h.orizontal, and sirrce only shght deviationS from straight flight are to be
considered, X can be considered at lesst approximately equal to drag. Z is the air force in lhe Z
direction; approximately equal to total lif.f. tr[ is the totai moment about the I axis (through the
center of gravity). Forces and vdiocities in the X direction are positive fonvardl forces and
 velocities in the Z direction are positive dorvnrvardl moments anC rotations about the I axis are
positive if tending to produce stalling.
Flight is in the X direction rvith a velocity of Iz1 incrernent to this velocity in the X.direction
is z, end in the Z direction it is rr. Any rotation in the plane.of symmetry abortt the Iz axis is meas
ured by the angle d, mC the rate of ihis roiatioir, d,0/dt,iB g. The conditions in steady flight are that tr
0 g 0.
: 7D
= : -
It is a^ssumed that thrust acts horizontally, thit,.if owing to a small engle of pitch, tbeJhrust
does not act borizontally, the small vertical component ie negligible and the horisontal
component
I
E. B. IVilsoq Aeronaulba, John Wiley & Qo*, 1920; W. F. Durao4 -'^croilynami* TheorVi Vol. V. Duraod Reprinting
Committoe, 1943.

'!r::-.
'--'1;l'.:-'- -';'

426

and
H

DYNAMIC STABILITY

s ax : !_to WAe ClAa

L.J

r
'. .:_+:::;
. .. ." " ..:,: , . . -* "--r, lfli-tilf't1ffi
SOLUIION OF TFN F,QUATIONS
g AM_ gc dCu
wk; ow - C 1Vleo2 da
(k) If it is assumed that the change in M due to the rotation

(e) The expression (AZ/Au)u is the change in the Z force due to the change in the velocity from V
to V * u. Il is treated in a lrsnner analogous to paragraph (o),
giving

dz 22
&uV
Since Z : r[ approximately,
s aZ _29 W0u V
U) The small drag component being neglected, the effect on Z of coangtrng the direction of the relative rvind by the
angle taD,-rfu/V) is dZ
-- (d.L/d.a)(./V), rvhere a is in radians.

az f,,t" o,
"
da
q e /dt)
dn is chiefly due to the
action on the tail, the tail being at a distance of d feet from the center of gravity,
the tail will have a downrvard velocity of d X g feet per second. This rvill give a change in the ingle
of attack of the tail of (CX q)/V radian. If o1 is the slope of the lift coefficient curve of the tail, the
change in the normal force on the tail will be (dxil/V at (p/2)5I2. The moment "I this force rvill be the product
of the force by its

moment grm d, so that the moment rvill be qa2b/Z)S!d2. It will give a negative moment.oM:
oq -o,2s,vd' '2
g aM__gatSd2
 Wkuz dq k;C LSv
(m) The expression (dM/a0)0 represents the change in M due to the change in attitude by the
angle 0.

g aZ _ g dCL W 0w CrV ila

g
Wku'
AM gc oCa C rko'

(g) The tarm (02/Eq)g is negligibly small and may be omitted. (n) The expression @Z /a0)0 is the
change in Z f orce due to the
change in pitch by angle 0. Since Z : L approximately, g aZ _ I dCL

W d0 Cr, ilo
26.4. SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS
The three equations, (26.2.4), (26.2.5), and (26.2.6), may be rbbreviared by uSing single letters for
the coefficients, these letters corresponding with the paragraphs in Section 26.3. Two terms are omitted
as being of negligible value.

(i) IS &n manner analogous to paragraph (a),

s _ 2sM _WC* W a,: *i7V: *V
aM

Q) The efrect on M of changing the direciion of the relative wind by the angle tan-l(u /V) is dM
- (dM/dd)(u/ Iz); where c is

in
radians

aM f,tr'" or* 6=T d^

i**r*bto*ile=O
&.

*"#*fu*he-o
-iu-ir+#-k#t-mo-o
Ae\' w=Blt 0-C)t
Each variable may be expreesed exponentially as u -

(26.4.1) (26.4.2) (26.4.3)

'-rfffi;:..: --,!'
ru- l-i l-i r r i...-- ._dt il\lr ' : ',.;1-.,.., 421' DYNAN{IC STA]]ILITY
.,

Ttien
l--/
,,,
?
SOLUTION OF Tffi EQUATTONS
the time requirel for one complete cycic is
4tn

#: *r" yr: )rBetr' fi:

xc,:.'
ffi: x'c"^' I
Substituting these values in the three equations above end dividing bv /'gives

I
P (seconds) - -L (26.4.9) t/Ec - nz

The time required to damp oo one-tenth amplitude is D1y1s (secondr) = ry-P

+bB+d,C:o
(I+@),4.

ez{. * (\ +f)B *hC:0

-iA - jB + - kr - m)c :0 ()\2

(26.4.4) (26.4.5) (26.4.6)

:
4.605
i (26.4.10)

In stability computations, the radius of gyration needs to be

Ia order for these three equa.tions to have.a solution, the following fourth-degree eqtlation must be
truc.
tr1 +B\3+Ctr2+Dr+E:0 (26.4.7)
In this equation, the coefficients B, C, D, and.E are not the same as the co€fficients appearing in Eqs.
(26.4.4) to (26:4.6), but they have the values
known. It may be found by the relation

1'
z - 2rzw

,vy _ Dw
Q 1ff-Jj) is the distance of the center of gravity of the individual weights ut from tire center of
where r

gravity of the airplane.

B p: E la_ v

+o+l-k
*aI-ak-be-lk-m
-afk - am * bek + di' - fm * hj -afm + ahj + bem
- bhi + dli - enj

EXAMPLE
Gft chord. The tail eurface has an area of 40 sq ft nith aspect ratio of
An airplane ';eighing 2,000 Ib has a Clark Y wing with 3&ft spen and

4.5. The radius of gyretion is 6.8 ft. Find out if this airplane is dynam ically stable when flying at 100 mph.
Solulion. From previous work (see Teble 18.1), for this eirplane,

For stability, all the coefficients in Eq. (26.4.7) must be also positive. Also, for stability, BCD - D2 -
B2E must be positive.
Equation (26.4.7) can be factored to a close degree of approxi mation
as

rx2 + Bx + o [r' - (: - "A^ + If:o (26.4.8)

The two roots of this equation are used to find the periods of oscillation and the deg'ee of damping.
The first root denotes a quick, heavily damped oscillation. The second root is a longer and more weakly
damped oscillation;it is a phugoid oscillation.
The short period should damp out quickly. A common require. ment is that the a,mplitude shaU be
da,rnped to one.tenth in one .:ycle, and this shall be possible at all speeds. For this ehort period,
flight at 100 mph G Jy':6.7 ft per sec) corresponds to 0o angle of attock,
where Cr, - 0.36 and.Cu: 0.039.

(o)
 d
2x-32.2X0.039 0.36 X 146.7 = 0.M77
(b)

b:-32'2=-0.152
t46.7

(d) From Table 18.r, by difrerencing, aince at -io Cpr - 0.036 an<i at -1o Cot: 0.042, tt Oo ACo/Ac : 0.fi)3 per
degree or 57.3 X 0.003 : 0.172 per railian.
d -32.2 -x 9.172 : LE.4
0.36

b-J L-l *l t I \-l tI

t--l €t'l 4n "...i
'r-J
L-j
SOLUTION OF TEE €1

G)
2j5322
. e'-57-0J04- ^a,.^
_ 4.605 0rrro:
Tlil
. : 0.73 s€c
 (f) From tr'tg. 18.8, AC ilAa = O.Otrlz per degree or 8.96 per
radian.

7-l?-'?xa'so:2'43 0.36 x 146.?

(t)
u= %if!9:856.0
(i) From Table 25.1, at 0o Crr - *0.03a.
J: : 0.fl)195 (6.8)t x 146.7
2X.82.2X6X0.034

(j) From Table 25.I, by differencing, since aL 0" Ca: *0.84 and at 1o CM: -0.027, ACu/Aa: -u.0152 per
degree or -0.87 per radian.
q:- , 32.2X6X(-0.87)
r 0.36 X - -0.0689 146.7 X (0.41' -
(&) Fron previous work for symmetri,:al tail, cr : 0,0748 per degree or 0.0748 X 57.3 : 4.3 per radian.
fto 32.2X 43XrtOX(18)! : (0.8)t
-3.40
x 0.36 x 216 x 146.7

(n)'82.2 X 6 X (-0.8?)
t=ffi=-1c'1
Making th6ss subetitutious gives
8-- *6.81 Q: +18.67
 .D - *0.96 -.*0.98
.O

BCD _ _ BrE = +40.1

D2

aerm?
Binco theso five items are positive, tbe rirplane b dyDsnically stsble. P-' - (o5iF
- Zllfgp
{
Then the oirplane damps to one-tenth originil atrplitude in less than hhe time required for one cycle.
Dihedral is the upward angle of an aircraft's wings. It increases stability in roll, also known as
lateral stability. Some airplanes need a lot, others need less or none or even negative
dihedral.

Why?
When an aircraft is disturbed from an upright position, it will
sideslip toward the down-going wing, increasing airflow along the
length of the wing from tip to root. The dihedral angle increases
angle of attack to this lateral flow, generating additional lift to restore
the aircraft to a level attitude.
Military combat aircraft often have small dihedral. This reduces
inherent stability but increases maneuverability. Birds and many
modern military aircraft are passively unstable; they depend on active
control by on-board computers.
But other forces affect roll stability too. If the center of gravity
is below the wing, the weight tends to restore the upright position.
This is known as pendulum stability or the keel effect. If the CG is
above the wing, the weight is destabilizing. In a bank, the center of gravity may yaw the airplane
into the direction of the bank if the CG is well forward, or it may yaw the airplane in the other
direction if the CG is well back. In a slip, the vertical stabilizer will be pushed by the side force,
yawing the airplane further into the turn. Sweepback of the wing, especially the
leading edge, causes greater drag and greater lift on
the wing panel that is rotated forward into the
relative wind, increasing the roll still further - three
to ten degrees of sweepback is approximately
equivalent to one degree of dihedral for most model
aircraft. Side-thrust in a bank becomes up-thrust in
one direction or down-thrust in the other direction.
In a turn, centrifugal force on the CG can either
reinforce or oppose further bank, depending on the
location of the CG. Even the surface area of the
side of the fuselage affects the degree of slide slip.
 Sometimes these other forces provide enough or too much lateral stability so that
dihedral is not needed.
Richard Steine’s B-25 has no dihedral in its outer wing panels. Unwanted yaw and roll are minimized if one engine fails. Mid-wing configuration plus
inboard dihedral raises the center of lift above the center of gravity, producing pendulum stability - a brilliant balance of compromises. Appearance
of negative dihedral is an optical illusion.

If too much, negative dihedral (anhedral—a down-sloping wing angle) may be needed to
counter their effects. An example of too much sweepback was the Republic F-105
Thunderchief. It required 45° of sweepback in order to fly at Mach 2. Anhedral was
used to offset the dihedral effect and other stability
factors of its highly swept wing and tail.

An airplane without dihedral and neutral in all

of the above forces will fly hands-off in level flight
and very slowly turn into an ever-tightening spiral
towards the ground. Many aerobatic airplanes are
intentionally designed this way. By eliminating self
righting forces, the aerobatic pilot has greater control
of the attitude of the airplane, i.e., ailerons cause

Anhedral in the Antonov 225 compensates for its extremely low center of gravity and reduces unwanted yaw and roll in the event of engine failure.

How Much?
only roll, rudder causes only yaw, elevator affects only pitch and throttle controls only thrust.

Alas, there can be too much of a good thing. Dihedral bestows stability at the expense of lift.
Only the vertical component of lift in level flight actually supports the airplane. It is
proportional to the cosine of the dihedral angle. The horizontal component of wing lift,
proportional to the square of the sine of the dihedral angle, is wasted. But the effect is small
if the angle is small. A wing of 3 degrees dihedral, for example, wastes only 0.137% of its
total lift (cosine 0° - cosine 3° = 0.00137). That may be insignificant in most models, but
important in a competition sailplane or the long-term fuel costs of an airliner.
Dihedral in a multi-engine airplane adds to undesirable roll when one engine quits.
Dihedral reduces stability in inverted flight and varies roll rate during the inverted part of a
slow roll. Rolls become corkscrew shaped instead of axial.
Dihedral makes an airplane more vulnerable to turbulence, especially side gusts.
Complicating things further, the optimum amount of dihedral
The gull wing of the author’s Borne Free aileron less sailplane raises the center of lift above the center of gravity to increase pendulum stability - a
desirable form of lateral stability, especially when circling in a thermal. Inboard panels of the wing add to the side area to resist side slip.

decreases with airspeed. It is needed most at very low airspeed, typically when landing.
Airplanes with very large speed ranges seek a compromise between low speed handling and
high speed instability.
Too much dihedral sometimes causes an annoying phenomenon known as Dutch roll. At high
speed, dihedral levels the wing so quickly that momentum carries the wing past the upright
position. Then dihedral overcorrects, over-rolling to the other side, back and forth, etc. The
nose drops slightly and rises each time it passes through level. This corkscrew motion is
annoying to passengers, wastes energy and, for a warplane, interferes with aiming. The F4U
Corsair and
the V-tailed Beechcraft Bonanza are
famously victims of this effect, even in
model form. Aircraft designers have a lot of

Anhedral in the Wright 1903 Flyer was intended to resist roll in a crosswind gust. It seemed like a
good idea at the time, but it didn’t work very well.

Page 2
conflicting factors to negotiate.

Where?
Rudder-only radio controlled airplanes need lots of dihedral. Their only means of turning is
by yawing with the rudder. The wing panel that swings forward presents a greater angle-of-
attack to the relative wind, increasing lift. The greater lift banks and
turns the airplane. For efficiency, this
method of turning is best implemented by
adding extra dihedral to the wingtips,
reducing the total dihedral. The three or
four-panel wing, typical of free-flight and
rudder-only airplanes, is known as
polyhedral. When the nose pulls up, the
angle of attack of the outer panels increases
at a slower rate than the inner panels. The
inner panels stall first. Polyhedral wings do
not require the negative twist known as
washout.
The gull-wing variant is typically used
to increase pendulum stability by raising the

wing without the drag of cabane struts. The inverted gull-wing of the F4U Corsair was used to
shorten the landing gear struts and lower the height of the airplane for below-deck storage.
Jeff Quesenberry’s Lavochkin La 7 displays the modest dihedral typical of WW2 single-engine fighters—just enough for hands-off stability during
long flights but not enough to interfere with fighter aerobatics or gun aiming or to cause Dutch roll at high speed.

Dihedral or anhedral is sometimes

added to the tail. Reasons are varied:
ground clearance, raising the stab out of
turbulent airflow, augmenting the vertical
stabilizer, structural necessity, or appear
ance. Dihedral or anhedral in the stab adds
to the total vertical surface area of the tail,
effectively increasing the vertical fin area,

Bristol Beaufighter after addition of stab dihedral to clear prop turbulence.

thus adding to yaw stability.
Dihedral in the horizontal stabilizer and the

dihedral of the wing are complementary. Sometimes, field trials indicate that a new airplane
design has too much or too little wing dihedral. It is generally much easier to modify the dihedral
of the stab than the wing. A well-known example is the F-4 Phantom.

C-5 Galaxy demonstrates all forms of lateral

stability as it takes off in a cross wind: high
wing for pendulum stability, anhedral for roll
resistance when engine-out or in a cross wind,
swept wing for yaw stability, T-tail in clean
air, and stab anhedral matching wing anhedral
for efficiency and control.

Page 3
Mitsubishi Babs, a reconnaissance/courier airplane, does not need the maneuverability of a fighter so it has more
dihedral for more stability, especially at lower airspeeds.
Airflow over the tail of the Phantom was being blanked by the wing at high angles of attack.
To take the tail out of the wing wake, it had to be lowered. But the tail could not be moved
lower on the fuselage because of the jet engine. The solution was to add extreme anhedral to
the tail. But this reduced the effectiveness of the wing’s dihedral, so dihedral was added
to the wingtips.
Another well-documented example is the modification to the Bristol Beaufighter, a twin-engine
heavy fighter/bomber. The vertical fin was too small, and the flat horizontal stab was in the
turbulence of the massive propellers, causing handling

problems at full power. The solution was to add 12 degrees of dihedral to the stab. This would
have reduced the effectiveness of the stab by 2% (1 - cosine12° = 0.02185) so the area of the
stab was increased to compensate. The horizontal lift component of
stab dihedral added to the effective area of the
vertical stabilizer. Even so, a dorsal fin was
added.

When a swept wing yaws, the upwind panel generates

greater drag and greater lift due to a difference in lateral
airflow of the panels. The difference in drag resists the
yaw, but the difference in lift tries to roll the wing.
Depending on the wing design, three to ten degrees of
sweepback are the equivalent of one degree of dihedral.

Thanks to Joe Grice, Derek Micko and Benny Lanterman for their excellent

technical assistance. ###

Further reading:

-- Dihedral, Beron-Rawdon, B., Model Aviation Magazine, August through November

1988. Available online at: www.modelaircraft.org

-- Understanding Washout, David P. Andersen, Model Aviation Magazine, March

2012.

-- Giant Scale Aircraft Design…a common sense approach, David P.

Andersen, High Flight Magazine, Spring 2010.

-- I learned About Flying From That: ‘Dick Steine’s Engine-Really-Out’

Technique, David P. Andersen, High Flight Magazine, Spring 2011.

-- The Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics, H.C. “Skip” Smith, 1992, Tab Books

Page 4
7.1
| BASIC NOMENCLATURE
Airplane performance is governed by forces along and perpendicular to the flight path. The translational
motion of the airplane is a response to these forces. In con trast, airplane stability and control are governed by
moments about the center of gravity, and the rotational motion of the plane is a response to these moments.
Much of the information in this chapter is motivated by content in Anderson’s Introduction to Flight [33],
which is recommended for a more detailed discus sion of stability and control. This chapter introduces basic
nomenclature, defines airplane stability, derives the equations of motion for airplane stability, provides an
interactive animation of stability and control where use of the CD-ROM is suggested, and concludes with an
example to facilitate practice implementing the governing equations.
Figure 7.1 shows a rectangular right-handed coordinate system attached to the aircraft. The origin of the axes is
at the aircraft’s center of gravity. The x axis is along the fuselage, the y axis is along the wingspan, and the z
axis points downward.
The aircraft’s translational motion is given by the velocity components U, V, and W along the axes. Thus, the
net velocity of the aircraft is the vector sum of these three velocity components. The rotational motion is given
by the angular
# # #
1f ,u ,c 2
velocity components about the x, y, and z axes.
In summary, the nomenclature associated with rotational motion is as follows: ■ z axis: yaw axis, N yawing moment,
c yawing velocity. # u# f#
■ x axis: roll axis, L rolling moment, rolling velocity.
■ y axis: pitch axis, M pitching moment, pitching velocity.

147
148 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

Figure 7.1 | Definition of the airplane’s axis system.

Pitch

y
V

CG

Roll
Yaw
W

x
L'
N

A classic airplane has three basic controls: ailerons, elevator, and rudder. They
are designed to change and control the moments about the roll, pitch, and yaw axes.
 These control surfaces are flaplike surfaces that can be deflected back and forth at the
command of the pilot.
Figure 4.1 introduced and defined airplane control surfaces. The ailerons are
located at the trailing edge of the wing. Similarly, the elevator is located at the trailing
edge of the horizontal stabilizer, and the rudder is at the trailing edge of the vertical
stabilizer.
A downward deflection of a control surface will increase the lift, since this makes
the airfoil shape of the wing or tail “more bent downward” (in aeronauti cal jargon, it
has a larger camber) and thus produces more lift. An increase or decrease of the
deflection will change the moment and thus will result in a rota tion about an axis.
■ Rolling. The ailerons control the roll or lateral motion and are therefore often called
the lateral controls.

Aileron down

Roll
L'
Aileron up

■ Pitching. The elevator controls pitch or the longitudinal motion and thus is often called
the longitudinal control.
SECTION 7.2 Airplane Stability 149

Elevator up
M

Pitch

■ Yawing. The rudder controls yaw or the directional motion and thus is
called the directional control.

Rudder deflected

Yaw N

7.2
| AIRPLANE STABILITY
 There are two types of stability: static stability and dynamic stability.

7.2.1 Static Stability

Static stability can be visualized by a ball (or any object) on a surface. Initially the ball
is in equilibrium. The ball is then displaced from the equilibrium posi tion, and its
initial behavior is observed.

■ Statically stable. If the forces and moments on the body caused by a

disturbance tend initially to return the body toward its equilibrium
position, the body is statically stable.

■ Statically unstable. If the forces and moments are such that the body
continues to move away from its equilibrium position after being
disturbed, the body is statically unstable.
150 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

■ Neutrally stable. If the body is disturbed but the moments remain zero, the body stays
in equilibrium and is neutrally stable.

Of importance to us are only the first two cases; neutral stability occurs very
rarely. A very important point is that static stability deals only with the initial
tendency of a vehicle to return or diverge from equilibrium.

7.2.2 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic stability deals with the time history of the vehicle’s motion after it ini tially
responds to its static stability.
Consider an airplane flying at an angle of attack (AOA) ae such that the
moments about the center of gravity (cg) are zero. The aircraft is therefore in equi
librium at ae and is said to be trimmed, and ae is called the trim angle of attack. Now
imagine that a wind gust disturbs the airplane and changes its angle of
attack to some new value a. Hence, the plane was pitched through a displace ment
a ae. The plane’s behavior could be as shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2 | Dynamically stable behavior.

tn

m
e

a
l

Initial
disturbance
tn

a
l

Initial
disturbance

p
Time Time
p

s
s
i
i

D
D

In both situations the airplane eventually returns to its equilibrium position

after some time interval. In the first case the vehicle approaches monotonically the
equilibrium position (aperiodic behavior), while in the second case, it over shoots the
equilibrium position (damped oscillation). A body is dynamically sta ble if, out of its
own accord, it eventually returns to and remains at its equilib rium position over a
period of time. It is important to note that static stability does not imply dynamic
stability, as Figure 7.3 shows. The plane is dynamically unstable but still statically
stable.
SECTION 7.3 Static Forces and Moments on an Aircraft 151

Figure 7.3 | Dynamically unstable behavior.

a
l

si

Time
 7.3
| STATIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRCRAFT
7.3.1 Resulting Force on a Wing
There is an aerodynamic force created by the pressure (and shear stress1) distri bution
over the wing surface. The resultant (net) force R can be resolved into two
components: the lift L (perpendicular to the relative wind v∞) and the drag D (in the
direction of the relative wind v∞).

7.3.2 Resulting Moment on a Wing

Consider just the pressure on the top surface of the wing. The net force due to that
pressure distribution, called F1, points downward and is acting through point 1 on the
chord line. The pressure distribution on the bottom surface results in a net force F2,
pointing upward and acting through point 2 on the chord line. The total aerodynamic
force on the wing is of course a summation of F1 and F2. If F2 F1, there is lift. Since
the two forces do not act through the same point, there will be a net moment on the
wing. See Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 | The origin of the moment acting on an airfoil.

F
1

12

F
2

1. Pressure is the force perpendicular to the surface per unit area, while shear stress is the force along
the surface per unit area. Both have units of pascals (or newtons per meter squared).
152 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

The magnitude of the moment depends upon the reference point about
which the moment is taken. If the moment is taken with respect to the leading edge, it
is denoted by MLE. For subsonic wings it is often customary to take the moment about
the quarter-chord point (i.e, the point that is a distance c/4 away from the leading
edge). This moment is denoted by Mc/4.
Both MLE and Mc/4 vary with the angle of attack. However, a special point
exists about which the moment essentially does not vary with a. This point is called
the aerodynamic center (ac). For that point,

Mac constant 1independent of angle of attack2

The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is defined as CM, ac Mac

qq Sc
 [7.1] [7.2]

where q∞ is the dynamic pressure, S the wing area, and c the chord length. (Recall the
definition of the coefficient of lift and drag from Chapter 3, “Aerodynamics.”) The
value of CM, ac is zero for symmetric airfoils and varies from 0.02 to 0.3 or so for
cambered airfoils.

7.3.3 Moment on an Aircraft

Having looked at a wing only, we can now consider a complete airplane, as shown in
Figure 7.5. In examining a whole aircraft, the pitching moment about the center of
gravity (center of mass) is of interest. The moment coefficient about cg is defined
analogous to the moment coefficient about the ac:
CM [7.3] ,cg Mcg
qqSc

e 7.5 | Contributions to the moment acting about the center of gravity. Lwing Ltail

Mac
T
D

αe acW Mcg = 0
SECTION 7.4 Attaining Airplane Longitudinal Static Stability 153

An airplane is in pitch equilibrium when the net moment about the center of
gravity is zero.

Mcg CM, cg 0 airplane is trimmed

[7.4]

Note that while drag plays an essential part in performance determination, its role
is small for stability and control. Its value is much less than that of the lift, and its acts
not too far from the center of gravity, so its effects are often neglected.

7.4
| ATTAINING AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY
Static stability and control about all three axes is necessary in the design of con
ventional airplanes. However, a complete description of lateral, longitudinal, and
 directional stability is difficult. We will focus on longitudinal motion (pitching motion
about the y axis), which is the most important.
Consider an airplane with fixed control surfaces. Wind tunnel testing may reveal
the following behavior (see Figure 7.6): The plot is almost linear and shows the value
of the CM, cg versus angle of attack a. The slope of the curve is CM, cg/ a, and is sometimes
denoted with the letter “a.” (A partial derivative rather than a total derivative is used
since the coefficient does not depend on a alone.) The value of CM, cg at an angle of
attack equal to zero is denoted by CM, 0. The angle at which the moment coefficient is
zero is, of course, the trim angle of attack.

Figure 7.6 | The moment coefficient about the center of gravity as a

function of angle of attack for a longitudinally stable aircraft.

C
(+)
M,CG

Slope=∂CM,cg ∂α

(–)
Trimmed

αα
e

If the airplane is flying at its trim angle of attack ae and suddenly encoun ters a disturbance
that causes it to pitch up or down (e.g., due to a wind gust), the moment will be such
that the plane will return to its equilibrium position. To see that, imagine a wind gust
pitching the plane up from ae to some larger a. By looking at the plot in Fig. 7.6, you
can see that the moment coefficient (and hence the moment) will be negative, which
makes the plane pitch down and return to equilibrium.
154 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

Suppose the curve of CM, cg versus a is as shown in Figure 7.7. The plane
would be unstable, as you can verify yourself. Thus, we can state the necessary
criteria for longitudinal static stability and balance as
0CM,cg

0a6 0 and CM,0 7 0

Figure 7.7 | The moment coefficient about the center of gravity as a function of angle of attack for a longitudinally unstable
aircraft.
[7.5]
C

(+)

(–)

CM,0
M,cg

Trimmed

αα
e

That is, the slope of the moment coefficient curve versus angle of attack has to be
negative, and the moment coefficient at zero angle of attack has to be positive. An
airplane can fly trough a range of angles of attack, but ae must be within this range, or
else the plane cannot be trimmed. If the aircraft can be trimmed, it is said to be
longitudinally balanced.
We can now answer the question, Why do airplanes have horizontal stabi lizers?
If you have a wing by itself, it will usually have a negative CM, ac and thus a negative CM,
(this is characteristic of all airfoils with positive camber). There fore a wing by itself is unbalanced. To
0

correct the situation, a horizontal stabi lizer is mounted behind the wing. If the wing
is inclined downward to produce a negative lift, then a clockwise moment about the
cg will be created. If this clockwise moment is large enough, it will overcome the
negative CM, 0 for the wing-tail combination, making the aircraft as a whole
longitudinally balanced.
The horizontal stabilizer does not have to be placed behind the wing. If it is in
front of the wing, it is called a canard configuration.

7.5
| USEFUL CALCULATIONS
AND AN EXAMPLE
First consider the tail (horizontal stabilizer) by itself, as shown in Fig. 7.8. Since the
tail is behind the wing, it feels two interference effects:
1. The airflow arriving at the tail does not have the same direction as that arriving at
the wing, since the wing deflects the airflow downward due to
SECTION 7.5 Useful Calculations and an Example 155

Figure 7.8 | Forces acting on the tail and relative wind seen by the tail [33].
 the downwash effect (an effect due to the finite length of the wings).
Hence, the relative wind of the wing and tail makes up an angle .
2. Due to skin friction and pressure drag, the magnitude of the relative wind
seen by the tail is smaller than the magnitude of the relative wind seen by
the wing.
Now consider an idealized wing-tail configuration in steady, level flight
such as shown in Figure 7.9. The wing and the tail are set at incidence angles iw and it,
respectively, with respect to the longitudinal aircraft axis. The relative wind V∞ comes
in at an angle aw with respect to the wing. The relative wind V ∞ comes in at an angle at
with respect to the tail.

Figure 7.9 | Geometry of a wing-tail combination [39].

Lw

ε
αt
Lt

D
w
Dt

α
w

V
∞
cg

x
l
i
α

t
t
t
V'∞

156 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

The tail angle of attack can be computed as follows:

at aw e it iw
[7.6]

where is the downwash. Its value can be computed from the following equation:

e eaaw
where a 0.3 to 0.5. This allows us to rewrite the equation for at as at 11 ea 2aw it iw
[7.7] [7.8]

When the airplane is trimmed, the moments about the cg are zero. From this we
can find the trim condition. The coefficients of lift for the wing and for the tail and the
angle of attack can be defined as the product of the slope of the moment coefficient.

CL,w awaw
CL,t at 3aw11 ea 2 it iw4
[7.9] [7.10]

After several steps and a few simplifying assumptions, the trim condition can be

CM,cg
Awcaw 11 ea 2 d aw cCM,ac

aw cxac Atltat
aw At ltat
Awcaw 1iw it 2 d 0
[7.11]

The first term in brackets is the sensitivity to the angle of attack. Consider again the
situation where a wind gust disturbs a plane flying in trim and causes it to pitch up.
For the plane to be stable, the moment coefficient CM, cg (which was 0) has to be negative
in order for the plane to pitch down. For stability we can then write
0CM,cg
0a6 0 or xac6At ltat

Awcaw 11 ea 2
[7.12]

In designing your LTA vehicle, you can place the cg (and thus set the value of xa)
such that the vehicle is stable, using the above inequality. In the limiting case, when
the cg is as far back as possible,
a
ax c bmax Atltat

Awcaw 11 ea 2
The cg is said to be at the neutral point.
The trim angle of attack can be written as
1aw2 trim CM,ac>aw 3Atltat>1Awcaw241iw it 2 1xa>c2max xa>c
[7.13] [7.14]

For lift generation, aw 0, CM, ac 0, (usually), and iw it 0. Also, Lt may have to be

negative.
SECTION 7.5 Useful Calculations and an Example 157

An animation was created to help you visualize airplane pitch stability and
 control. Run the animation to become familiar with the governing equations and to
see the results of moments on the airplane resulting in stability and instabil

ity. Now that you have seen an airplane in motion, Example 7.1 provides addi tional practice in calculating
airplane stability parameters.

This numeric example illustrates the use of the equations presented. Consider a light aircraft with the following
characteristics:
■ Aw 15 m2, c 1.6 m.
■ At 2.3 m2, lt 4.0 m.
■ m 1,050 kg, Iy 1,600 kg m2.
■ aw 5 rad–1, at rad 1.
■ CM, ac 0.07, a 0.45.
■ V 50 m/s, r 1 kg/m3 (approximately 1,500 m altitude).
Question 1. Where is the neutral point of the aircraft?
The implied lift coefficient for level flight (neglecting the tail contribution) is
Pitch Stability and Control Movie.

EXAMPLE 7.1

CL,w mg 1
2 rV 2Aw
11,0502 19.82
10.52 112 1502 2 1152 0.549
[7.15]

The angle of attack of the wing is then

aw CL,w
aw 0.546
5 0.11 rad 6.3°

The neutral point can be calculated as follows: Awcaw 11 ea 2 12.32 14.02 142
c bmax Atltat

[7.16]
ax a

1152 11.62 152 11 0.452 0.264 1xa 2 max 0.42 m

[7.17] [7.18]

Question 2. Suppose that the cg is placed halfway between the ac and the neutral point,
that is, xa 0.21 m and xa/c 0.132. What is the angle of attack of the tail and the lift produced
by the tail?
First the difference between the wing and tail incidence angles needs to be
computed:

1aw 2 trim 0.11 0.07>5 52.3142 142>31152 11.62 152 461iw it 2 0.264 0.132
1 iw it 0.093 rad 5.3°
The tail angle of attack is then
at 11 ea 2aw it iw
11 0.452 10.112 0.093
0.0325 rad 1.9°
[7.19] [7.20]

158 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

The lift generated by the tail is

Lt 12rV 2Atatat
1
a 2 b 112 1502 2 12.32 142 1 0.03252 374 N 1negative lift!2

[7.21]

Note that since this lift is negative (i.e, a downward force), it adds to the weight of the
vehicle as far as the required wing lift is concerned!
 PROBLEMS
7.1 Design and make a paper airplane, focusing on performance and stability. (a)
Sketch a multiview drawing of your paper airplane. Necessary viewpoints are the
side view, top view, and frontal view.
(b) Describe your design. vert
(c) Make five trial flights and discuss your results. Bring your design to the
lecture ready to fly.
(d) Your in-class challenge will be to describe and then demonstrate your
chosen aspect of performance or stability (you are to demonstrate only one
stated objective). For example, use elevators to demonstrate pitch.
7.2 Sketch (in full scale) your rendition of an early Egyptian bird model (legless,
featherless, sycamore wood) that is actually an ancient model airplane with an 18
cm wingspan and vertical stabilizer.

7.3 One definition of stability is the following:

Given a system in equilibrium [e.g., the position of a mechanical component is not
changing, or the current in an electric circuit is constant, or the temperature in a furnace is
constant, or the concentration of a species in a chemical reaction is con stant] if the system
is subjected to a perturbation and returns to its initial equilib rium position after the
perturbation has disappeared, the system is said to be stable.
Consider the pendulum represented here; it is in equilibrium in both positions and
can freely rotate around A.

Vertical

A
B
Problems 159

(a) Given the above definition of stability, which of the above systems is
in a stable equilibrium?
(b) Sketch the evolution of the angle u(t) between the segment AB and
the vertical as a function of time following a brief perturbation for
the two systems in the figures above. Justify your answer to part (a).
(c) Now consider the two pendulums immersed in a vat of honey!
Sketch u(t) for the two systems. How does it differ from your answer
to part (b)? Suggest a physical explanation for this difference.
7.4 A block diagram is a graphical representation of a system (a model or an equation).
The following conventions are used:

x
Ky
 x is said to be the input, i.e., a quantity that is prescribed or imposed on
the system, and y the output. The above graph represents the equation y
Kx (the input multiplies what is in the box).
(a) Consider a mass M on a frictionless surface. Apply a force F to the
mass (F is the input). Give a graphical representation of the
fundamental equation of dynamics.
(b) The following blocks are said to be in series or in cascade. What is
the relationship between x and z?

Kx
Gz

(c) The block here represents the equation t x y:

x
t
+–

y
160 CHAPTER 7 Introduction to Airplane Stability and Control

The following is the fundamental block diagram of a feedback control

system. Find the equation that relates x to y (the input to the output).

$23.143
14 CFR Ch. I (1-1-11 Edition)
maximum operating altitude estab- lished under $23.1527, and without re-
quiring exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or strength. [Doc. No. 26269,
58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993]
CONTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY

$23.143 General.
(a) The airplane must be safely con trollable and maneuverable during all flight
phases including
(1) Takeoff, (2) Climb; (3) Level flight; (4) Descent; (5) Go-around; and
(6) Landing (power on and power off) with the wing flaps extended and re tracted.
(b) It must be possible to make a smooth transition from one flight con dition
to another (including turns and slips) without danger of exceeding the limit
load factor, under any probable operating condition (including, for multiengine
airplanes, those condi tions normally encountered in the sud den failure of any
engine).
(c) If marginal conditions exist with regard to required pilot strength, the control
forces necessary must be deter mined by quantitative tests. In no case may the
control forces under the condi tions specified in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this
section exceed those prescribed in the following table:
lows prompt acceleration to the trim speed with
(1) Maximum continuous power on each engine;
(2) Power off, and (3) Wing flap and landing gear (i) retracted, and (ii)
extended.
(b) Unless otherwise required, it must be possible to carry out the following
maneuvers without requiring the appli cation of single-handed control forces
exceeding those specified in 23.143(c). The trimming controls must not be ad justed
during the maneuvers:
(1) With the landing gear extended, the flaps retracted, and the airplanes as
nearly as possible in trim at 1.4 Vsı, extend the flaps as rapidly as possible and
allow the airspeed to transition from 1.4Vsi to 1.4 Vso:
(i) With power off; and
(ii) With the power necessary to maintain level flight in the initial con dition.
(2) With landing gear and flaps ex tended, power off, and the airplane as
nearly as possible in trim at 1.3 Vso: quickly apply takeoff power and re tract
the flaps as rapidly as possible to the recommended go around setting and allow
the airspeed to transition from 1.3 Vso to 1.3 V51. Retract the gear when a
positive rate of climb is estab lished.
(3) With landing gear and flaps ex tended, in level flight, power necessary to
attain level flight at 1.1 Vso, and the airplane as nearly as possible in trim, it must be
possible to maintain ap proximately level flight while retract ing the flaps as
rapidly as possible with simultaneous application of not more than maximum
continuous power. If gated flat positions are provided, the flap retraction may
be demonstrated in stages with power and trim reset for level flight at 1.1 Vsı, in
the initial con figuration for each stage
(i) From the fully extended position to the most extended gated position;
(ii) Between intermediate gated posi tions, if applicable; and
(iii) From the least extended gated position to the fully retracted
position.
(4) With power off, flaps and landing gear retracted and the airplane as
nearly as possible in trim at 1.4 Vsı,
Values in pounds force applied
to the relevant control
Pitch
Roll
Yaw

(a) For temporary application:

Stick .... Wheel (Two hands on rim) ... Wheel (One hand on rim) ......
Rudder Pedal ........ (b) For prolonged application ....
150 20
10

[Doc. No, 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as amended by Amdt, 23-14, 38 FR 31819, Nov.
19, 1973; Amdt. 23–17, 41 FR 55464, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt. 23-45, 58 FR 42156, Aug. 6, 1993;
Amdt. 23–50, 61 FR 5188, Feb. 9, 1996]
$ 23.145 Longitudinal control.
(a) With the airplane as nearly as possible in trim at 1.3 Vsi, it must
be possible, at speeds below the trim speed, to pitch the nose
downward so that the rate of increase in airspeed al-

208

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT

$23.147
apply takeoff power rapidly while $23.147 Directional and lateral con
maintaining the same airspeed.
trol. (5) With power off, landing gear and
(a) For each multiengine airplane, it flaps extended, and the airplane as
must be possible, while holding the nearly as possible in trim at VREF, ob
wings level within five degrees, to tain and maintain airspeeds between
make sudden changes in heading safely 1.1 Vso, and either 1.7 Vso or VFE,
in both directions. This ability must be whichever is lower without requiring
shown at 1.4 Vsı with heading changes the application of two-handed control
up to 15 degrees, except that the head forces exceeding those specified in ing
change at which the rudder force $23.143(c).
corresponds to the limits specified in (6) With maximum takeoff power,
$23.143 need not be exceeded, with the landing gear retracted, flaps in the
(1) Critical engine inoperative and its takeoff position, and the airplane as
propeller in the minimum drag posi nearly as possible in trim at VFE appro
tion; priate to the takeoff flap position, re
(2) Remaining engines at maximum tract the flaps as rapidly as possible
continuous power; while maintaining constant speed.
(3) Landing gear (c) At speeds above Vmo/MMO, and up
(i) Retracted; and to the maximum speed shown under
(ii) Extended; and $23.251, a maneuvering capability of 1.5
(4) Flaps retracted. g must be demonstrated to provide a
(b) For each multiengine airplane, it margin to recover from upset or inad
must be possible to regain full control vertent speed increase
of the airplane without exceeding a (d) It must be possible, with a pilot
bank angle of 45 degrees, reaching a control force of not more than 10
dangerous attitude or encountering pounds, to maintain a speed of not
dangerous characteristics, in the event more than VREF during a power-off glide
of a sudden and complete failure of the with landing gear and wing flaps ex
critical engine, making allowance for a tended, for any weight of the airplane,
delay of two seconds in the initiation up to and including the maximum
of recovery action appropriate to the weight.
situation, with the airplane initially in (e) By using normal flight and power
trim, in the following condition: controls, except as otherwise noted in
(1) Maximum continuous power on paragraphs (e)(1) and (e)(2) of this sec
each engine; tion, it must be possible to establish a
(2) The wing flaps retracted; zero rate of descent at an attitude suit
(3) The landing gear retracted; able for a controlled landing without
(4) A speed equal to that at which exceeding the operational and struc
compliance with $23.69(a) has been tural limitations of the airplane, as
shown; and follows:
(5) All propeller controls in the posi (1) For single-engine and multiengine
tion at which compliance with $23.69(a) airplanes, without the use of the pri
has been shown. mary longitudinal control system.
(c) For all airplanes, it must be (2) For multiengine airplanes
shown that the airplane is safely con (i) Without the use of the primary di
trollable without the use of the pri rectional control; and
mary lateral control system in any all (ii) If a single failure of any one con
engine configuration(s) and at any necting or transmitting link would af
speed or altitude within the approved fect both the longitudinal and direc
operating envelope. It must also be tional primary control system, without
shown that the airplane's flight char the primary longitudinal and direc
acteristics are not impaired below a tional control system.
level needed to permit continued safe [Doc. No. 26269, 58 FR 42157, Aug. 6, 1993;
flight and the ability to maintain atti Amdt. 23-45, 58 FR 51970, Oct. 5, 1993, as
tudes suitable for a controlled landing amended by Amdt. 23-50, 61 FR 5188, Feb.
9, without exceeding the operational and 1996)
structural limitations of the airplane.

209

$23.149
14 CFR Ch. I (1-1-11 Edition)
If a single failure of any one con operative must be established and des
necting or transmitting link in the lat- ignated as the safe, intentional, one eral
control system would also cause engine-inoperative speed, VSSE. the loss of
additional control sys- (e) At VMC, the rudder pedal force re tem(s), compliance
with the above re- quired to maintain control must not quirement must be
shown with those exceed 150 pounds and it must not be additional systems also
assumed to be necessary to reduce power of the opera inoperative.
tive engine(s). During the maneuver, [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5188, Feb. 9, 1996]
the airplane must not assume any dan
gerous attitude and it must be possible 8 23.149 Minimum control speed.
to prevent a heading change of more
than 20 degrees. (a) Vmc is the calibrated airspeed at
(f) At the option of the applicant, to which, when the critical engine is sud
comply with the requirements of denly made inoperative, it is possible
$23.51(c)(1), VMCG may be determined. to maintain control of the airplane
VMCG is the minimum control speed on with that engine still inoperative, and
the ground, and is the calibrated air thereafter maintain straight flight at
speed during the takeoff run at which, the same speed with an angle of bank
when the critical engine is suddenly of not more than 5 degrees. The method
made inoperative, it is possible to used to simulate critical engine failure
maintain control of the airplane using must represent the most critical mode
the rudder control alone (without the of powerplant failure expected in serv
use of nosewheel steering), as limited ice with respect to controllability.
by 150 pounds of force, and using the (b) VMC for takeoff must not exceed
lateral control to the extent of keeping 1.2 Vsi, where Vsı is determined at the
the wings level to enable the takeoff to maximum takeoff weight. VMC must be
be safely continued. In the determina determined with the most unfavorable
tion of VMCG, assuming that the path of weight and center of gravity position
the airplane accelerating with all en and with the airplane airborne and the
gines operating is along the centerline ground effect negligible, for the takeoff
of the runway, its path from the point configuration(s) with
at which the critical engine is made in (1) Maximum available takeoff power
operative to the point at which recov initially on each engine;
ery to a direction parallel to the cen (2) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
terline is completed may not deviate (3) Flaps in the takeoff position(s);
more than 30 feet laterally from the (4) Landing gear retracted; and
centerline at any point. VMCG must be (5) All propeller controls in the rec
established with, ommended takeoff position through
(1) The airplane in each takeoff con out.
figuration or, at the option of the ap (c) For all airplanes except recipro
plicant, in the most critical takeoff cating engine-powered airplanes of
configuration; 6,000 pounds or less maximum weight,
(2) Maximum available takeoff power the conditions of paragraph (a) of this
on the operating engines; section must also be met for the land
(3) The most unfavorable center of ing configuration with,
gravity; (1) Maximum available takeoff power
(4) The airplane trimmed for takeoff; initially on each engine;
and (2) The airplane trimmed for an ap
(5) The most unfavorable weight in proach, with all engines operating, at
the range of takeoff weights. VREF, at an approach gradient equal to the
steepest used in the landing dis- [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9, 1996]
tance demonstration of $23.75;
$ 23.151 Acrobatic maneuvers. (3) Flaps in the landing position; (4) Landing
gear extended; and
Each acrobatic and utility category (5) All propeller controls in the posi- airplane must
be able to perform safely tion recommended for approach with the acrobatic
maneuvers for which cer all engines operating.
tification is requested. Safe entry (d) A minimum speed to inten- speeds for these
maneuvers must be de tionally render the critical engine in termined.

210

Federal Aviation Administration, DOT

$23.157

$ 23.153 Control during landings.

$ 23.157 Rate of roll. It must be possible, while in the land- (a) Takeoff. It
must be possible, using ing configuration, to safely complete a a favorable
combination of controls, to landing without exceeding the one- roll the airplane
from a steady 30-de hand control force limits specified in gree banked turn
through an angle of $23.143(c) following an approach to 60 degrees, so as to
reverse the direc land
tion of the turn within: (a) At a speed of VREF minus 5 knots; (1) For an airplane of
6,000 pounds or
(b) With the airplane in trim, or as less maximum weight, 5 seconds from nearly
as possible in trim and without initiation of roll; and the trimming control being
moved (2) For an airplane of over 6,000 throughout the maneuver;
pounds maximum weight, (c) At an approach gradient equal to the steepest
used in the landing dis
(W+500)/1,300 tance demonstration of $23.75; and
seconds, but not more than 10 seconds, (d) With only those power changes,
if
where W is the weight in pounds. any, that would be made when landing
(b) The requirement of paragraph (a) normally from an approach at VREF.
of this section must be met when roll [Doc. No. 27807, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9,
1996]
ing the airplane in each direction
with $ 23.155 Elevator control force in ma
(1) Flaps in the takeoff position; neuvers.
(2) Landing gear retracted; (a) The elevator control force needed
(3) For a single-engine airplane, at to achieve the positive limit maneu
maximum takeoff power; and for a vering load factor may not be less
multiengine airplane with the critical than:
engine inoperative and the propeller in (1) For wheel controls, W/100 (where
the minimum drag position, and the W is the maximum weight) or 20
other engines at maximum takeoff pounds, whichever is greater,
except
power; and that it need not be greater than 50
(4) The airplane trimmed at a speed pounds; or
equal to the greater of 1.2 Vsı or 1.1 (2) For stick controls, W/140 (where w
Vmc, or as nearly as possible in trim for is the maximum weight) or 15
pounds,
straight flight. whichever is greater, except that it
(c) Approach. It must be possible, need not be greater than 35 pounds.
using a favorable combination of con (b) The requirement of paragraph (a)
trols, to roll the airplane from a steady of this section must be met at 75 per
30-degree banked turn through an angle cent of maximum continuous power for
of 60 degrees, so as to reverse the direc reciprocating engines, or the
maximum
tion of the turn within: continuous power for turbine engines, and with the wing
flaps and landing
(1) For an airplane of 6,000 pounds or
less maximum weight, 4 seconds from gear retracted
(1) In a turn, with the trim setting
initiation of roll; and used for wings level flight at Vo; and
(2) For an airplane of over 6,000 (2) In a turn with the trim setting
pounds maximum weight, used for the maximum wings level
(W+2,800)/2,200 flight speed, except that the speed may not exceed VNE or
VMO/MMO, whichever seconds, but not more than 7 seconds, is
appropriate.
where W is the weight in pounds. (c) There must be no excessive de- (d) The
requirement of paragraph (c) crease in the gradient of the curve of of this
section must be met when roll stick force versus maneuvering loading the
airplane in each direction in factor with increasing load factor. the following
conditions,
(1) Flaps in the landing position(s); [Amdt. 23–14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973; 38 FR 32784,
Nov. 28, 1973, as amended by Amdt. 23–
(2) Landing gear extended; 45, 58 FR 42158, Aug. 6, 1993; Amdt. 23-50, 61 (3) All
engines operating at the power FR 5189 Feb. 9, 1996]
for a 3 degree approach; and

211

$ 23.161
14 CFR Ch. I (1-1-11 Edition)
(4) The airplane trimmed at VREF. (4) Approach with landing gear
ex
tended and with [Amdt. 23-14, 38 FR 31819, Nov. 19, 1973, as amended by Amdt. 23-45,
58 FR 42158, Aug. 6,
(i) A 3 degree angle of descent, with 1993; Amdt. 23-50, 61 FR 5189, Feb. 9,
1996]
flaps retracted and at a speed of 1.4 Vsı;
(ii) A 3 degree angle of descent, flaps TRIM
in the landing position(s) at VREF; and
(iii) An approach gradient equal to $23.161 Trim.
the steepest used in the landing dis (a) General. Each airplane must meet
tance demonstrations of $23.75, flaps in the trim requirements of this section
the landing position(s) at VREF. after being trimmed and without fur- (d)
In addition, each multiple air ther pressure upon, or movement of, plane
must maintain longitudinal and the primary controls or their cor- directional
trim, and the lateral con responding trim controls by the pilot trol force must
not exceed 5 pounds at or the automatic pilot. In addition, it the speed used
in complying with must be possible, in other conditions of $23.67(a), (b)(2), or (C)(3),
as appro
loading, configuration, speed and power priate, with to ensure that the pilot will not
be un- (1) The critical engine inoperative, duly fatigued or distracted by the need
and if applicable, its propeller in the to apply residual control forces exceed-
minimum drag position; ing those for prolonged application of (2) The
remaining engines at max $23.143(c). This applies in normal oper- imum
continuous power; ation of the airplane and, if applicable, (3) The landing gear
retracted; to those conditions associated with the (4) Wing flaps retracted; and
 failure of one engine for which per- (5) An angle of bank of not more than
formance characteristics are estab- five degrees. lished.
(e) In addition, each commuter cat (b) Lateral and directional trim. The egory
airplane for which, in the deter airplane must maintain lateral and di- mination of the
takeoff path in accord rectional trim in level flight with the ance with $23.57, the
climb in the take landing gear and wing flaps retracted off configuration at V2
extends beyond as follows:
400 feet above the takeoff surface, it (1) For normal, utility, and acrobatic
must be possible to reduce the longitu category airplanes, at a speed of 0.9 VH
dinal and lateral control forces to 10 Vc, or VMO/Mo, whichever is lowest; and
pounds and 5 pounds, respectively, and
(2) For commuter category airplanes, the directional control force must not at all
speeds from 1.4 Vsi to the lesser exceed 50 pounds at V2 with, of VH or
VMO/MMO.
(1) The critical engine inoperative (c) Longitudinal trim. The airplane and its
propeller in the minimum drag must maintain longitudinal trim under position;
each of the following conditions:
(2) The remaining engine(s) at take (1) A climb with
off power; (i) Takeoff power, landing gear re- (3) Landing gear retracted;
tracted, wing flaps in the takeoff posi- (4) Wing flaps in the takeoff posi tion(s),
at the speeds used in deter- tion(s); and mining the climb performance
required
(5) An angle of bank not exceeding 5 by $23.65; and
degrees. (ii) Maximum continuous power at the speeds and in the
configuration
(Doc. No. 4080, 29 FR 17955, Dec. 18, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 23–21, 43 FR 2318, Jan. 16, used in determining the climb perform
1978; Amdt. 23–34, 52 FR 1828, Jan. 15, 1987; ance required by $23.69(a).
Amdt. 23 42, 56 FR 351, Jan. 3, 1991; 56 FR (2) Level flight at all speeds from the
5455, Feb. 11, 1991; Amdt. 23-50, 61 FR 5189, lesser of Vh and either Vno or
VMO/MMO Feb. 9, 1996] (as appropriate), to 1.4 Vsi, with the landing gear and
flaps retracted.
STABILITY (3) A descent at VNO or VMO MMO, whichever is applicable,
with power off
$23.171 General. and with the landing gear and flaps re- The airplane
must be longitudinally, tracted.
directionally, and laterally stable

212
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

Figure XVI-15 indicates both poor and good scoop design. The dimen sions may be
obtained from the following information:
 1. The length L of the straight portion of the pipe should be as long as
practical up to 4 diameters.
2. The radius r should be a minimum, preferably not over 34 inch and may even be
sharp.
3. The radius R should be as large as possible, up to such a value that R/D = 2 when
r is greater than 34 inch.
4. The ratio of W/D should approach 6 as the upper limit, although
generally it is more practical to keep W equal to the width of the
carburetor flange. When the length L is comparatively short, good
distribution can be obtained by introducing vanes in the elbow to
direct the flow.
ublic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
FUEL
SYSTEMS
The fuel system consists of tanks, piping exterior to the engine, pumps not integral
with the engine, strainers, gauges, pipe fittings, and valves and cocks.
The primer is operated from the instrument panel board in the pilot's cockpit. A
shut-off cock is located in the primer line.
For starting the flow of fuel, it is necessary to use the hand or “wobble" pump which
should be as far below the fuel tank as possible so that it is flooded at all
times. As soon as the engine is started, the engine-driven gear pump will continue
the pumping of fuel. The hand or wobble pump is so arranged that fuel will
flow through it even when it is not being oper ated. If its location is at some
distance from the cockpit it may be oper ated through a suitable linkage system
to a crank near at hand to the pilot.
The engine-driven gear pump has a by-pass so that, in case of failure, the hand or
wobble pump becomes the emergency pump and will force the fuel past the gear
pump through the by-pass.
In case the pump supplies the fuel at a greater pressure than the car buretors are
designed to take, the adjustable relief valve permits the fuel to flow back into
the tank.
All tanks must be vented in order to prevent partial vacuums from form ing since these may
reduce or prevent proper fuel flow. This vent is usu ally located at the topmost
point, usually the filler unit of the gasoline tank.
A strainer must be included in any fuel line and is usually located at the lowest
possible point in the line and in a place where it is easily accessible; for, the strainer
collects the water, grit, and dirt which may have collected in the fuel system even with
the best of precautions.
The three-port, two-way cock is operated from the
cockpit.
A pressure gauge is used in all fuel systems in order to indicate constantly the pressure in the
fuel lines just ahead of the carburetors. If the pressure
 Digitized by
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Original from
UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN
THE POWER
PLANT
2
7
9
should fall below a predetermined value it is usually a sure sign
of danger
- either the line is clogged or the fuel has
given out.

Pump
s
1. If a mechanical pump is used, an emergency hand pump
is also re quired.
2. Hand pumps may be used for pumping fuel from an
auxiliary to a main tank.
3. The hand or wobble pump should be placed at least 50 per cent be
low the top of the main fuel supply. In some cases, it may be desirable
to place it as far below the fuel system as the design will permit. Opera
tion of the pumps may be done from the cockpit by means of a
suitable push-pull operating system.
4. The hand-operated pump must be so installed as to be
operated readily from the cockpit without requiring any opening of
valves or cocks in the system.
ublic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
Tank
s,
1. Fuel tanks should be capable of withstanding an internal test pres sure
of 372 pounds per square inch without failure or leakage. Fuel tanks
that have a maximum fuel depth greater than 2 feet should be
investigated for the pressure developed during the maximum applied
acceleration with full tanks.
2. No fuel tank may be closer to the engine than the remote side of the firewall.
3. Surfaces of the tank or tanks should be so ventilated that the fuel fumes
cannot accumulate in case of leakage. At least 1/2 inch of air space
should be allowed between the tank and the firewall.
4. Each tank must be suitably vented from the top portion of the air space. Such
air vents should be arranged so as to minimize the possibility of stoppage
by ice formation.
5. If two or more tanks have their outlets interconnected, the air space in
the tanks should also be interconnected. This will prevent the flow of fuel
between tanks that is often caused by differences in pressure at air vents
of each tank of sufficient magnitude.
6. Where large fuel tanks are used, the size of the vent tubes should be so
proportioned as to permit rapid changes in internal air pressure, thereby
preventing collapse of the tanks in a steep glide or dive.
7. Each fuel tank should be provided with a pump and a drain located at
the lowest point when the airplane is in the normal position on the ground.
The main fuel supply shall not be drawn from the bottom of this pump.

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Original from
UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN

280
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
8. The minimum available gasoline capacity
should be at least 0.15 gallon per rated engine
horsepower. If the fuel is other than gasoline,
the available fuel capacity with full payload
should be sufficient for a 2-hour flight at
cruising speed. Consult the appropriate
Civil Aeronautics pub lications for specific
instructions.

FIGURE XVI-16. A typical oil system for a single

radial-engine installation.

LUBRICATING SYSTEMS The lubricating

system consists of the oil tank or tanks, oil
pumps. not integral with the engine,
temperature regulators, piping, fittings,
www
valves,
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 FIGURE XVI-17. A phantom view of a multi-engine
oil system, similar to that employed on the Curtiss C-
46.

Control
Systems
ublic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
The control system incorporates all the operating mechanisms located in the cockpit, the
connections between these mechanisms, and the control surfaces.
TYPICAL SYSTEMS The systems
commonly employed are:
1. The push-pull system (Figure XX-1) consists of tubes which may take tension and
compression and whose direction may be conveniently changed by
suitable mechanical devices, usually bell-cranks.
The push-pull system is likely to be heavy since any member subjected to
compression is larger than one subjected to tension. Where the struc ture, as
the wing for example, has large deflections, the push-pull contr system
may be bent
with the wing causing difficulty of operation. It may be used for part of
the system in combination with others, and for engine controls, and
rudder and elevator controls. Its advantage is that it has no appreciable
stretch to cause lag in operation of the movable controls.
2. T'he cable system, most extensively employed because deflections of the
structure to which it is attached do not affect its operation, consists of a
continuous system of cables operating over pulleys and through fairleads.
Since cables have a tendency to stretch, they are prestretched before in stallation to
about 60 per cent of their rated strength; some manufacturers install them with an
initial tension of 100 to 150 pounds. Long cables, particularly, may have a large
amount of stretch unless these special precautions are taken to limit it.
3. The torque-tube system, which converts lineal motion into rotary mo tion, has relatively
few members and usually its installation is compara tively simple structurally.
Long members under torsion have consider able angular deflection which is
liable to cause a time lag in operation of
41
2

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UNIVERSITY OF
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esetze==76
G
FAS

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por-
 7090

trol surface it is to operate. rigid members (offering greater

weight) have to be employed.
To limit the angular deflections,
relatively
may be large enough to reduce seriously the angular depression
of the con controls or, if stops are provided in the system, the
angular deflections
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
 UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN
Original
from
FIGURE XX-1. Schematic diagram of a push-pull system for ailerons and elevators. The direction
of motion is obtained by means of bell cranks. The aileron and elevator spars act as
torque members. The simple control or joy stick is shown.
41
3
414
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

In designing control systems, especial care should be given to assure that there
is no binding, change in tension, or interference of the various
components comprising the system as well as possible interference
with the attaching structure. Extreme weather conditions require considera tion
of thermal expansion and contraction.
Adjustable stabilizer-elevator combinations, especially when the stabi lizer is
adjusted to its extreme position, may cause either interference with other parts
of the control system or excessive tension in the rigging of the surfaces or in the
control system.

PULLEYS Cables passing over pulleys are kept in place by guards. These
should be close-fitting to prevent jamming or to prevent cables from slipping off
when they slacken due to temperature variations.

.
.
.
..
.

----

FIGURE XX-2. Schematic diagram of the tension cable system for control surface operation. Motion
caused by rotation of control wheel for aileron, and by fore and aft motion of the control column.
Rudder operation is obtained by another control system employing a cross-bar or a
pedal assembly actuated by the foot.
The pulleys should be located in such a way that the plane of rotation of the
pulley lies in the plane determined by the cables. There should be no rubbing of
the cable against the side of the pulley flanges.
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CABLES Control cables are designated by the number of strands such as
6 x 19 or 7 X 19 extra flexible. These are generally preferred because of their
greater sturdiness, but 6 X 7 or 7 x 7 flexible cable of 42-inch diameter may
be used where especial care is taken to provide against wear.
Cable smaller than %3-inch diameter may not be used in the primary control

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CONTROL
SYSTEMS
415

system except for tab-control systems, provided the airplane may

still be controlled should such cables fail.
In general, cable sizes are determined by considerations
of control-system deflections previously discussed as well as
by strength requirements.
Table XX-1 shows weights and lengths of
cables.

FAIRLEADS

Cable systems, or chains, or connecting links of the control

system
should be supported at
inter vals to prevent
chafing of the system
against adjacent struc
ture or possible
interference with other
components of the same
system. For such pur
poses, fairleads are
employed. These should
not be used to change
 the direction of the
cable, although for
relatively low cable
loads, a change up to 3
degrees is permitted.
eads are used, means should be available for easy inspec
tion and maintenance.
FIGURE XX-3. A fairlead block attached to
In "open" systems for the a
metal bracket to prevent chafing of the metal control cable.
aileron-control system
where
the balance cable between
the ailerons is the only system for returning the ailerons to
neutral, the effects of opposite loads on the wheels or sticks of a
dual-control system may cause such deflections (stretch) in
the control cables or chains that jamming may occur unless
close-fitting fairleads or guards are used.

STOPS

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Adjustable stabilizers require stops at their extreme limits in case the
adjusting mechanism should fail. Elevator trailing-edge tab systems
also should be provided with stops to limit the travel. It is generally
wise to incorporate some form of stops on all movable surfaces to
avoid interfer ence with the adjacent structure. It is also desirable to
have additional stops located close to the operating force in order to avoid
a "springy" control.

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-
-
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416
TabLE XX-1. Weights and strength of cable. (Courtesy of Air Associates,
Inc.)
Digitized by Google
Extra flexible cable 7 x 19 construction
Flexible cable 7 x 7 construction
Nonflexible cable 7-wire or 19-wire construction
Size
(in.)
Minimum
breaking
strength (lb)
Weight per
thousand
feet (lb)
Size
(in.)
Minimum
breaking
strength (lb)
Weight per
thousand
feet (lb)
Size
(in.)
Minimum
breaking
strength (lb)
Weight per
thousand
feet (lb)
Yo
480
42
11
2.2
5.6
8.8
60
79
2,000
2,800
4,200
5,600
7,000
8,000
9,800
12,500
14,400
13.7
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
%
103
131
161
550
920
1,350
2,600
3,200
4,600
5,800
7,200
9,200
13,100
61
8/10
1432
195

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
Original from
432 7-wire
%4 7-wire
Ko 19-wire
%4 19-wire
72 19-wire
764 19-wire
19-wire
%19-wire
ho 19-wire
72 19-wire
44 19-wire
%2 19-wire
Ko 19-wire
% 19-wire
185
300
500
780
1,100
1,600
2,100
3,200
4,600
6,100
8,000
10,000
12,500
17,500
81
106
138
166
230
232
20.0
28.1
35.0
57.0
75.0
106.0
136.0
177.0
214.0
301.0

CONTROL SYSTEMS
417
NEUTRAL

ANGLE DETERMINED BY STOP ON OPPOSITE AIL UNIT.

OF WORM

STOP

C
VERTICAL

REAR SPAR
AILERON HINGE

236 NORMA,
WAX.709
169.3 m

I ST. PILOT
2 NO. PILOT
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FIGURE XX-4. Aileron control schematic.
(Courtesy Convair.)

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418
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

NEURAL A
MMOKEO YA
WING CONTOUR
MEROW

TIMKEN ROLLER
- STOP
STOP

GREASE TEST HOLE

-TIMKEN ROLLER
SHIM

GREAS
SEALS
SHIMS (BOTH ENOS) FOR LONGITUDINAL ADVUSTMENT OF WORM
ZERK

SPROCKET

-t
-
-
-
-
-

REAR SAAR

SHIMS FOR LATERAL ADJ. -OF QUADRANT

ECCENTRIC SKAFT FOR RADUL ADJUSTMENT

FELTS

TIMKEN ROLLER BEARING

TIMKEN
ALLOWASU MCKLAN THU THE TWEL
.001 TO Dos
ALLOWA wa
TAU Tu Thana
.00 TO .005

QUADRANT ALERON COW

QUADRANT ALLRON UC

tft & OF WORM

QUADRANT AT STOP
QUADRANT NOUTAL FOTON
QUADRANT AT STOP

A-A
BACK LASH DIAGRAM
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FIGURE XX-5. Aileron control unit. The mechanism
employed here may be used with equal effectiveness
for the operation of any movable surface. (Courtesy
Convair.)

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CONTROL
SYSTEMS
41
9

DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS Aileron-control

systems incorporating extreme ranges of
differential motion or a large amount of aerodynamic balance
require a system rea sonably free from excessive friction in order to
permit the ailerons to re turn to normal.

ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER To reduce the effort of

the pilot to keep the airplane at trim in the nor mal cruising range
at which time the horizontal tail surfaces are more or less
neutral, an adjustable stabilizer or a trimming tab may be
used to take care of variations in center of gravity locations.
Moving the center of gravity forward from the normal produces a "nose
heavy conditio ing
it to the rear of normal produces a "tail heavy"
condition, the adjust able stabilizer or the trimming tab is
designed to take care of such a con dition, within limits.

Control cable
to gyropilot
and
pilo
t
return
arm

Air load

Hot
Vibration
damper
an
d
lost motion linkage load feel arm

Boost
ratio
Control
Cable

FIGURE XX-6. One method to reduce pilot effort by hooking the booster cylinder
into the control system through the de-booster and relief valve.
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Adjustable stabilizer controls should be free from creeping
tendencies. This may be accomplished by means of an adjusting
screw or worm whose lead angle does not exceed 4 degrees, or by
means of friction, or detent, or equivalent means. The screw or worm
is one form of an irreversible mechanism which is particularly
suitable, especially when the stabilizer is hinged near its trailing
edge.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
TAB CONTROLS Irreversible and nonflexible control systems should
be used for tab con trols. When the tab is statically balanced about its
hinge line, other sys
Wing rear spar

Aileron spar

Tab motor
V
Position transmitter

Aileron
Push-pull
tube
tab
706 Horn

FIGURE XX-7. Aileron servotab control system as developed by Consolidated-

Vultee.

tems may be used. Small travel for the tabs should be avoided because of possible
abrupt action of the tab. Precautions should be taken in de sign to prevent the
possibility of inadvertent, abrupt, or opposite opera tion of the tab. Indicating
devices are considered essential for showing not only the relative position but
also direction of motion required to ob tain the necessary control.
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FLAP CONTROLS

In the operation of the flap, loss of lift may result when the flap is first opened. It is
for this reason that sudden, inadvertent, or automatic oper ation of the flap is not
desirable except in cases where the flap is used in landing and the airplane is
coming in on a glide approach when a sudden loss of lift merely causes a settling
which is not disastrous.
The flap should not be capable of full extension or retraction in less than 15 seconds.
Means should be provided for indicating the position at any

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
421
Wing contour
CA
Torque tube

Aileron
hinge
Tab hinge &
Rear spart
Rear spart
Bearing No lubrication required

Retainer ass'y ball bearing

Control ass'y aileron trim tab
FIGURE XX-8. Aileron trim-tab control system. (Courtesy Convair.)

Fairing
Counterbalance
Stabilizer
Elev. N
boost
N
Frame assy. -Down spring
unit
Counterbalance

HHH

Arm
Trim tab
 Control tab
Torque tube

Elevator

Elevator lock inst.

19 +2°

28°+1°
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20°+1°

*
17°+2
Section A-A
FIGURE XX-9. Elevator control system. The linkage system can be used for
flaps, tabs, and other movable surfaces. (Courtesy Convair.)

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42
2
AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
time. Positive means should also be incorporated for providing positive retention of the
flap in the fully retracted position.

WING FLAPS In addition to the usual air loads acting upon the
deflected wing flaps, high local loads may also be caused
by the impact of water, especially when low-wing airplanes
are operated from wet fields or water. For these reasons, it is
desirable to make the flaps sturdy. When the piano-type hinge is
used, a series of short sections rather than one long section
should be used not only for ease of maintenance but also for
better operation.
Ground clearance of the flap for low-wing installation should be carefully
considered, especially in the initial design stages because subsequent flight tests may
indicate that a greater angular deflection of the flap may be de sirable.
The ground clearance is least for the largest angular depression of the flap.
For a start, 12 inches of ground clearance is assumed reason able.
 TABS Tabsfor control surfaces should be rigid and
well anchored to prevent damage or misalignment from
handling. For small airplanes, such tabs usually consist of
thin sheets attached to the trailing edge. In this case,
care should be taken that successive bendings of these tabs do
not interfere with the performance of the main surface or do not
damage the tab itself.
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HINGES Hinges for control surfaces need careful
study. It is usually desirable to provide at least three hinges for control
surfaces to assure operation of the surfaces. The deflections of the
surfaces and the structure to which they are attached should be
studied.
Usually it is desirable to so space these hinges that the load for each hinge is the same.
However, a study of deflections may indicate another disposition. For
initial design, hinges may be spaced equidistant since subsequent
stress analysis is necessary to indicate likely deflections.
Bearings usually allow a few degrees for misalignment, but if deflections cause too
much misalignment, the surface cannot be deflected at all.
Closed piano-type hinges are acceptable when they are positively at tached
(other than wood screws) as close to the hinge line as possible. Several
sections should be used to reduce inspection and maintenance problems
and they should not be located near the control horns where the load is
concentrated.
Strap-type hinges are generally not desirable since the wear is appre ciable, and their
repair relatively difficult.
Provision for lubrication should be provided wherever self-lubrication methods or sealed
bearings are not used.

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CONTROL
SYSTEMS
42
3
 FLAP- AND TAB-CONTROL LOADS For the upper
limit, a torque of 133 inch-pounds applied to the control knob
in "twist” controls may be considered a design factor. Where con
trol wheels, cranks, levers, or handwheels with a well-defined
rim are used, a torque of T = 100 R (where R is the radius of
the wheel) should be con sidered.

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are increasingly used to
replace manual operation of all devices which are changed from one
position or condition to another for which the time element may not
be important and where rapid reversals of such motions are not
required.
The widest application so far has been for cases requiring lineal motion
although rotary motion can also be obtained through the use of
hydraulic motors employing a variable-volume hydraulic pump as a
pressure source.
Hydraulic systems have been used extensively for
actuating:
1. Retractable landing gears 8. Fuel dump valves 2. Wheel brakes
9. Tail wheels 3.
Automatic pilot
10. Hydraulic motors for starting 4.
Trailing-edge wing flaps
auxiliary engines 5.
Engine-cowling flaps
11. Remotely-mounted fuel
6. Windshield wipers
pumps 7. Full-feathering hydromatic 12. Folding wings or
wing tips.
propellers

All these could also be operated by electrical means and for military pur poses.
Such means would be preferable because of the vulnerability of the
hydraulic systems. However, weight saving is always an
important matter in commercial design and the hydraulic systems are
considerably lighter than a comparable electrical system.
Hydraulic systems are generally preferred
because of:
1. Flexibility of control permitting immediate and positive starting
and stopping of operating mechanisms.
2. Simple variation of output by modification of bore and stroke. 3.
Ease of installation.
Case of inspection and maintenance-both of which are done by
any mechanic more quickly than for the equivalent electrical
system.
5. Reserve power available (when pressure accumulators
are used) when the engine quits.
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In large airplanes several hydraulic systems may be required since
pres sure and fluid requirements vary. Usually one system is installed for u
with engine oil for operation of full-feathering hydromatic
propeller, and

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

another for use with Lockheed hydraulic fluid for operating

brakes, re tractable mechanisms, flaps, and the like.
per
Hydraulic systems for aircraft may operate from 1000 to 1500 pounds
square inch for which 52SO aluminum alloy tubing is usually
employed. Occasionally the systems may be required to operate
at 3000 pounds per
square inch or higher, for which stainless-steel tubing may be employed.

UI

Support bracket
Hydraulic tubing
Support bracket
-
--
-

Actuating cylinder
FIGURE XX-10. Sketch showing one method of installing a hydraulic actuating
cylinder.

The diameter of the tubing is selected on the basis of fluid flow required. The
wall thickness is determined on the basis of allowable stress, required load
factor, and commercial thickness available. The average fluid flow for certain
tubing sizes is listed here.

Nominal Tubing, Outside Diameter (in.)

弘
Average Flow Desired (gal per min)
1.2 2.3 3.5 6.0 10.5
%
----

%%%%1
16.0
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-

29.0
--
-
-
--
-

Barlow's formula for wall thickness is

KPD t
-
=
-

2F tu

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CONTROL
SYSTEMS
42
5
4
2
5
 where t = wall thickness in
inches,
K = safety factor required (usually about
5), P = nominal operating pressure, pounds
per square inch, D = outside diameter of tube
in inches,
Flv = ultimate tensile stress of the
material.
Pneumatic systems, because of the availability of a large air supply and the
absence of extreme changes in viscosity, are used for aircraft
powered with jet engines.
Above 70,000 feet, air compressors will probably not be used since the
ambient air is too thin to compress efficiently. Furthermore, the turbo jet
engine will need all the air it can get, leaving none for such functions as
cabin pressurization or operation of controls.
A pneumatic source will probably still be necessary, but the use of air will most likely
be restricted to emergency operations such as canopy or stores
jettisoning. Seals and joints of the entire operating system would
have to be completely leak-free. The power or supply source may be high-
pressure air bottles or specially designed compressed-air storage areas
within the aircraft structure.
Another source of pneumatic po:ver could be nitrogen or another gas in
liquid form. This would require an insulated, high-strength container.
"Pseudo-pneumatics"—still another source of power-makes use of the
expanding gases produced by the firing of explosive cartridges to
operate certain pneumatic components, such as starters, and could be
adapted for other functions requiring reliability and instantaneous action.

TRAVEL OF CONTROLS It is generally desirable to standardize

on the travel allowed for the various controls so that a pilot, in
----
transferring from one type of airplane
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-
--
-
-
--
-
-
-

FIGURE XX-11. A schematic diagram of a simple irreversible control mechanism. (See also
detail in Figure XX-5 for irreversible control.)
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426
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

to another, does not have to become accustomed to a new set of controls and lose
much valuable time in the learning process. The travel of pri mary control
elements seems to be dependent to a great degree on the size

FIGURE XX-12. Pulleys guiding and supporting control cables. Pulleys are also used to
change the angular direction of the cables.

of the aircraft. Stick travel at the grip may vary 18 inches fore and aft, and 18 inches
side to side, to somewhat smaller dimensions for the light airplane. Angular
travel of the control wheel from neutral may vary cor respondingly from 270
degrees to 90 degrees. The usual pedal travel amounts to a total of 6 inches.
Adjustment in the controls, especially in the rudder controls, seems to be
preferred to fore and aft adjustment of the pilot's seat.
----

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Irreversible Controls
In subsonic designs where the control forces caused by hinge moments are not
too severe, irreversible controls are used primarily for reducing the
chances of futter. For higher-speed designs, especially those employ ing
boost controls, irreversible controls are required.
Above Mach 0.8, effectiveness of the control surfaces drops off since the
upstream surfaces are no longer influenced by the control surface
deflections. However, the stick forces, and the hinge moments that cause
them, increase rapidly as the speed of the aircraft increases. Ir reversible power
controls are therefore required for such craft. An artificial feel
corresponding to the actual pressures exerted is usually introduced in such
systems so that the pilot may also have some psycho logical response to the
increased forces.
-
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-
-
--
-
-
-

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
427

DETAIL REQUIREMENTS Detail requirements specified for a

design may be of interest.
Controls
1. A dual set of controls should be readily removable. All controls not duplicated
should be so located as to be conveniently accessible to the
co-pilot but no control should be so located as to constitute a hazard when the
front seat is occupied by a pas senger.
2. All control surfaces should be adequately balanced.
3. Adequate controllable trimming tabs should be fitted to the elevator and
rudder.
4. Ball- or roller-bearing hinges should be used throughout.
5. The rudder pedals should be ad justable fore and aft.
6. The rudder pedals should con trol the differential action of the brakes. (Note:
The brake controls preferably should be mounted on the rudder pedals and
provided with ad ditional parking brake lock.)
7. A suitable parking brake ca pable of holding the plane against maximum
thrust should be provided.
8. Full operation of high-lift de vices should not require an independ ent
readjustment of the trim control
for trim. FIGURE XX-13. A detail of the con trol wheel: 1-2 elevator up cables; 3-4
9. Electric, hydraulic, or mechan elevator down cables; 5-6 aileron cables. ical
operation of high-lift devices and
retractable landing gear, if provided, is required and full operation in either
direction should not require more than one minute.
1
----

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-
--
-
-

Engine Controls
1. Engine controls consist of all mechanisms exterior to the engine required for
controlling spark, throttle and mixture adjustments, as well as cowling shutter
controls, and the like.
-

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
428
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
kooor
WYNVAN

FIGURE XX-14. Extruded components of a piano hinge (A); machined (B); assembled (C). The
bottom figures show the top view and cross section of such a hinge.

2. Engine controls should be placed at the left of the pilot's seat, except for
side-by-side seating of pilots, when they should be located between
the pilots' seats.
3. All engine controls should be marked plainly to show their
function and method of operation.
4. Throttle control and ignition switches should be easily accessible to the
pilot and so arranged as to afford a positive means of controlling all
engines separately or simultaneously.
5. A positive means for shutting off all ignition must be readily
acces sible to the pilot.
6. Throttle controls may be operated by an approved positive-action cable or wire
control system.
7. The controls should be positively operated and springs should
not be relied upon to actuate the controls in either direction. Push-and-pull rods
should be used wherever possible.
8. Engine controls should be so designed as to avoid the undoing of a
large number of bolts or unions to take the rods apart.
9. Ball-bearing supports should be provided wherever possible. 10. Each control
system should have one lever of adjustable length.
11. All rod lengths should be adjustable and stiff enough to take 70 pounds on the
control handle without failure.
12. Adjustable stops should be provided.
----

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-
--
-
-
--
-
-
-

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CONTROL
SYSTEMS
429

FIGURE XX-15. Piano hinge, unbalanced control

surface.
Aluminum alloy
casting Fitted with
hydraulic brake FIGURE XVIII-15. A detail drawing of the landing gear used on
the Ercoupe.

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380
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

FIGURE XVIII-16. Representative proportions of a typical shock absorber

are shown in this figure. The piston has the smaller diameter.

TABLE XVIII-2. Representative dimensions of hydraulic-type shock

absorbers.

Static load, in pounds,

per strut
Stroke, in inches
Piston diameter,
in inches
Length, in inches

1.50
1.75
2.00
500- 1000 1000- 1500 1500- 2000 2000- 2500 2500- 3000 3000- 4000 4000- 5000 5000- 6000 6000-
8000
8000-10,000 10,000-12,000 12,000-14,000
OOOOOOOOOOOO
2.25 2.50 2.75 3.125 3.50 4.125 4.625 5.00 5.50
19.5 19.5-23.5 19.5-24.0 19.5-25.5 19.5-26.0 19.5-28.0 20.0-30.5 20.0-32.5 20.0-32.5 20.5-34.0 20.5-
34.0 20.5-34.0
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SPECIAL PROBLEMS Speeds approaching hypersonic flight are
posing special problems in the design of landing gear and
associated equipment. It is possible that these equipment
items will someday all but disappear.
Wings for transonic and supersonic flight are already too thin for stowing
complicated retractable landing gear. It is also difficult to find room for the
gear in the crowded fuselage, which must carry increasing quantities
of avionics, fuel, cooling systems, and other equipment. As planes fly
deeper into the thermal region, the landing-gear wheel wells would
have to be cooled to preserve such components as shock strut and
brake seals and tires. This would require larger cooling systems and better
sealed and insulated wheel-well doors.
Recent detailed studies of landing-gear accidents indicate that aft retracting
nose gears have often been the cause. Inadequate fairing doors,
mechanisms
inadequate tires, inadequate brakes, and inadequate retracting
have also played a part. All of these items merit special consideration
in design.

Tail Surfs

The tail surfaces serve two functions. The fixed portions of the tail surfaces, together
with the movable, provide stability while the movable portion in conjunction
with the fixed portion provides a means for control.

LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
CONSIDERATIONS

Imagine an airplane flying along in horizontal flight at constant speed struck

by a sudden gust of wind, either on the wing or on the tail surfaces, so that
the airplane is forced suddenly nose upward or nose downward. Without
any control exerted by the pilot, or any change made in the throttle setting, the
airplane should return to its original angle of attack after cessation of the gust
and continue to fly in its original direction. It may not return to its original
angle of attack instantaneously, but may oscillate back and forth, with the
oscillations gradually diminishing. Definitions

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Stability is that
property which tends
to return an airplane
to its orig inal
condition of
equilibrium or line
of motion when it
has been disturbed
from that condition.
This deviation from
equilibrium or
steady motion may
be caused by an
external force, such
as acea gust, or it
may be caused by
the pilot when he
depresses the
elevator and then
returns it to its
original position
almost
immediately.
When the airplane
regains equilibrium
or line of motion
(flies at a given
angle of attack at
constant speed)
due to forces and
moments developed
inherently and of
 such character as
to counteract the
disturbing force or
moments, it
demonstrates this
property of stability.
An example of
longitudinal stability
has been cited in
the previous
paragraph. There
are similar cases of
stability about the
longi tudinal axis, or
lateral stability, and
about the vertical or
normal axis, or
directional stability.
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There are two distinct types of stability, aside from their relationships to
particular axes. An airplane, for example, is so designed that at one
angle of attack the resulting moment of all forces about the center
of gravity will be zero. This satisfies the condition of equilibrium
together with the fact that the sum of all forces along the 3 axes equals
zero, but this is known as static longitudinal stability. It was
mentioned earlier that the airplane does not come back to its original
condition of equilibrium immediately but continues to oscillate. This
oscillation is a manifestation of dynamic longitudinal stability.
 There are also three different states of static stability and of dynamic
stability, whether applied to longitudinal stability, to lateral stability, or
to directional stability.

kda
Pitching moment coefficients about airplane center of gravity
./
6
Mcg
1

-
4°
0
°

4
°
8
°

12
°
20
°
tehing momenete
airplane be
measured
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FIGURD XIX-1. Pitching moment coefficients about the center of gravity plotted
for the wing, the tail, and the complete airplane. The diagram shows how and
where the slope of the pitching moment curve should be measured.
 For example, an airplane may be neutrally stable. It may be disturbed from its
original attitude, and instead of coming back to it, will continue in its new
attitude.
Or, the airplane may be unstable: When disturbed from its original
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tude, instead of coming back to it, it will go farther and farther, not re
maining at any attitude.
If the airplane does come back to its original attitude, then it is said to be stable.
These three examples are cases of static stability. Similar cases of dynamic stability
would be:

1. Stable when the oscillations of the airplane gradually decrease to zero after they
are once started.
2. Neutral when the oscillations do not decrease or increase in amplitude when once the
oscillations have been set up.
3. Unstable when the oscillations increase with time after they have been once set
up. Preliminary Calculations for Static Longitudinal Stability
Static longitudinal stability of an airplane may be determined with reasonable accuracy
by calculating the pitching moments about the center of gravity of the fully
loaded airplane. See Figure XIX-1.
The equation for the pitching moments has been derived in Chapter IX and
reads as follows:

C Mow. = CM... + x1(Cu cos a + Co sin a) + yı(Cų sin

a - Co cos a) –
0.8yn Cz. (1) or
simply,
CM.r. = Cm. +
Cmi.
 (la) This
equation may be used for the initial calculations to determine
whether stability is adequate. When the designer is reasonably
satisfied with his design configuration, then a more accurate
equation may be derived to take into consideration effect of fuselage,
landing gear, and the like.
The student may set up his own tables, which are always desirable where repetitive
calculations are called for, to evaluate numerically the various values of the
equation
CM.. = CM, +
CM

ADEQUACY OF STATIC
STABILITY
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To determine whether or not the longitudinal stability is adequate, the degree of
stability is determined by calculating the value of the so-called Diehl's
stability coefficient:
(dCM.q./
da).
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If, therefore, the value of CM... is found for a series of angles of attack 0,
and plotted as the ordinate with values of a as the abscissa, then
the value of the slope of the resulting curve, particularly in the
region in the angle of trim will give the yalue of dCv/da. This value
divided by the wing loading W/S for the airplane will give the
value of the stability coefficient.
For commercial airplanes of the passenger transport type, the value for
dCm... da of the stability coefficient lies between -0.0005 and -0.0010.

FLIGHT CRITERIA FOR STABILITY AND CONTROLS

The designer attempts to build into the airplane such
characteristics as will insure adequate stability and control.
The particular recommenda tions and procedures outlined in
this book are relatively brief and are in tended to point out
the high lights. They are believed to be all that a student can cover
in a reasonable time. The practicing engineer, how ever, has to
make a careful study of all existing reports and research
papers in order to be able to select those features necessary to
achieve the quali ties desired for a given design.
To give an idea of some of the free flight characteristics desired for air
planes, the following synopsis based upon NACA
reports (for example, NACA Wartime Report L-276) may be
useful.

Longitudinal Stability and

Control
When the elevator is held in a given position, the airplane should
main tain the attitude assumed:
1. With engines idling, flaps up or down, at all
speeds above the stall;
2. With engines at cruising, flaps down, landing gear
down, as for land ing approach, at all speeds above the
stall;
3. With engines at full power, flaps up, at all speeds above 120 per
cent of the stalling speed;
4. At maximum and minimum speeds in
level flight.
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The elevator should be
designed to
1. Obtain control forces such that “pull forces” are required
at all speeds below the trim speed, and “push forces” at all speeds
above;
2. Obtain control forces always sufficient to return the airplane to its trim
position;
3. Obtain the allowable load factor (G's) of the airplane as well as the maximum
lift coefficient of the airplane by use of the elevator alone;
4. Obtain at least 4 inches of rearward movement of the stick for a highly
maneuverable airplane, such as a fighter, for a change in lift co
efficient from 0.2 to the maximum lift coefficient of the wing;

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5. Obtain control forces varying not more than 50 pounds for every G attained in
steady turning flight for heavy transports, but less than 6 pounds per G for
highly maneuverable types, and at least 30 pounds of stick force for every
type to attain the allowable load factor;
6. Hold the airplane off the ground until the minimum speed of the air plane has
been reached with the control force not exceeding 50 pounds on control wheels, and
35 pounds on control sticks;
7. Hold the airplane level after one-half of the take-off speed has been reached;
8. Be capable of trimming the airplane, after it has been trimmed in level flight
with zero stick forces, without obtaining forces greater than 50 pounds for the
wheel and 35 pounds for the stick, regardless of the changes in power or flap
settings.
Elevator trim tabs must be capable of reducing stick forces to zero under the
following conditions:
1. Cruising condition at any speed between high speed and 120 per cent of the
stalling speed of the airplane;
2. In the landing condition at any speed between 120 to 140 per cent of the
landing speed;
3. Must maintain a given setting for an indefinite period of time.

Stick-free damping may be examined in flight by moving the stick sud denly
and releasing it with the airplane in steady and level flight. The resulting pitching of
the airplane and movement of the elevator must dis appear completely after 1
cycle in order to insure stability in rough air without aggravating the pitching of the
airplane and thereby incurring loss of control. Short period damping depends
on:
1. Elevator hinge moment coefficients, 2. Mass balance of the control
system, 3. Moment of inertia of the control system.
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GENERAL REQUIREMENTS It is very important that these tail surfaces

be so located that they are not blanketed by the fuselage. If the fuselage has a
relatively large cross section for the greater part of its length and then tapers
suddenly near the tail post, it is very likely that the horizontal tail surfaces will be
blanketed unless the aspect ratio of these surfaces is high.
The vertical tail surfaces are most likely to be blanketed not only by the fuselage
but also by the horizontal tail surfaces, especially when the airplane is at a high angle of
attack. In order to minimize this effect, it would be desirable to get some of the vertical
tail surfaces below the hori zontal tail surfaces.
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Aerodynamically, it would be nice to have a large aspect ratio for both the vertical
and horizontal tail surfaces, but unfortunately the greater the aspect ratio the more
difficult it becomes to get an efficient structure that will be rigid. Since the movable
surfaces are a reasonably large propor tion of the total area, the fixed portion,
which supports the movable sur faces, must contain all the necessary structure.
If the aspect ratio is too great for the area, there is relatively little depth with the
result that the fixed surfaces may deflect so much under a load that the hinges of
the movable surfaces bind.
The proportion of the movable surfaces to the whole depends upon the
degree of control desired. A large movable surface, for example, needs less angular
deflection than a smaller-sized surface. If the airplane is to be very
maneuverable, it is desirable to have relatively large movable sur faces. In
any case it is necessary to have sufficient control at the slowest and at the highest
speeds the airplane will attain.
The elevator should be able to trim the airplane at the lowest, or stall speed, at
which time the elevator will usually have its maximum angular deflection upward.
The elevator should also be able to trim the airplane practically at zero lift, at
which time the elevator may have its maximum angular deflection downward.
Control, however, is not measured only by the change in angle of trim of
the airplane caused
by a definite angular deflection of the elevator (and the discussion here applies
equally to the vertical tail surfaces) but also by the hinge moments produced. If
for the same angular deflection of the movable surface one has greater hinge
moments than another, it should be obvious that the one with the smaller hinge
moments can be actuated far more quickly, and the response of the entire
airplane will be quicker therefore.

CONTROL SURFACES Typically, control surfaces are flapped surfaces

located at the trailing edge of a stationary surface. Therefore an aileron, a
rudder, an elevator, a tab, or a combination of these are control surfaces of the flap
variety. They are designed to change the lift of the entire surface (whether wing, or
horizontal or vertical tail surface) and thereby create a moment about one of three
axes of the airplane for motion or control about that axis.
Some discussion on flaps and ailerons in Chapter XVII, Design of the Wing, dealt
with increase in lift versus flap deflection and with hinge moments. The student is referred to
that discussion since it is equally applicable to tail surfaces.
The magnitude of these hinge moments is becoming an increasingly im
portant problem. There are several solutions available. In some cases, (for example,
the aileron) it helps materially in reducing the hinge mo
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ments to have a smaller chord so that the ratio of the chord of the
movable surface to that of the entire surface is 15 to 20 per cent.
This necessitates a larger span in order to get the same total
control but, unfortunately, the rudder or elevator seldom has the
ratio of its chord to the chord of the com plete surface less than 45
or 50 per cent. In order to reduce the hinge moments, the surfaces may
be partially aerodynamically balanced either by having the hinge line of the
movable surface somewhat in rear of its leading edge, or by
 having a small movable surface or tab attached near the trailing
edge of the main movable surface. This small surface has an
angular deflection opposite to that required for the main movable
surface.
conditions change the
If the tab is small or its setting fixed and changed only when the load
center of gravity, then its purpose is for trim only, and is known as a
trimming tab. It takes the place of the adjustable stabilizer.
If the tab can be controlled from the cockpit, it may be used to operate the larger
surface and is then called a control tab or a servotab.
Aerodynamic balance is generally used, even if trailing-edge tabs are present. The
design of this balance is very critical and is still the subject of much
experimental work. For greater effectiveness, a slot in front of the
leading edge of the balance is provided. Although this slot helps to increase
the effectiveness of the movable surfaces, yet, more often than not, the
relatively large gap caused by the slot increases the parasite drag.
Great care should be taken in designing the leading edge of the aero
dynamic balance so that it is not too sharp and does not project too far
above the upper or lower contour of the fixed surface when the movable
surface is deflected. Such projections collect ice very quickly under
icing conditions and may lead to unbalance of the control surface, or jamming of
the controls.
Design details of the tail surfaces are given under the various paragraph
heads immediately following.
For high-speed aircraft at or near transonic speeds, flaps for controls produce an
appreciable increase in drag, known as trim drag. For that reason, instead
of flapped surfaces, the entire surface is sometimes moved (as on the Wright
Brothers' original airplane).
AIRFOIL SECTIONS
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Symmetrical airfoils are usually used for tail surfaces so that equal effec tiveness
per degree of deflection may be obtained for both up and down movements.
The airfoil section used should have a thickness ratio of from 6 to 9 per cent and not more
than 12 per cent. Unless the tail surfaces are ex ceptionally large, the same airfoil
is used from tip to root. The NACA 0006, 0009 and 0012 series are recommended.
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(b)

(c)

FIGURE XIX-2. Three forms of aerodynamic balance for movable surfaces. (A) is called an
unshielded horn balance; (B) is a shielded horn type; (C) shows the more commonly used
aerodynamic balance. All have a certain amount of area ahead of the hinge pin.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE When the flap or control surface is deflected,
the center of pressure or the aerodynamic forces on the flapped surface is
behind the hinge line, producing hinge moments. These hinge moments
divided by the lever arm of the control arm in the cockpit give rise to the
stick force that the pilot has to exert in order to move the control surface.
Figures XIX-2 and XIX-3 show a number of means for obtaining aerodynamic
balance, each of which has special merits of its own. There are various NACA
reports which should be consulted for aerodynamic details.
The ratio of aerodynamic balance area to the movable surface usually is from
.15 to 20 for the rudder and the elevator. It is generally not desirable to overbalance
the movable surface since it is considered psycho logically sound to have the stick
forces that are to be overcome increase with the angular deflection of the surface.
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FIGURE XIX-3. The balancing tab reduces the hinge moments. The hinge moment, H, for
the illustration, is equal to Pia – P2b.

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Fig. XIX-4
Fig. XIX-5 FIGURE XIX-4. Bulge contour for control surfaces. These
tend to float, and thereby to reduce the control forces.
FIGURE XIX-5. Pressure diaphragm balance, shown schematically. A flexible
membrane is used for the diaphragm.

Fig. XIX-6
Fig. XIX-7 FIGURE XIX-6. Cord or bead along the trailing edges of control
surfaces may be used in place of trimming tabs.
FIGURE XIX-7. Wedge or bevel contour for control surfaces may be used in
place of trim tabs.
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FIGURE XIX-8. Different arrangements for the operation of trim tabs. The top two
diagrams illustrate fixed trim tabs adjustable, by trial and error, to the proper
degree on the ground, while the two lower diagrams show arrangements which may
be operated from the cockpit.
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FIGURE XIX-9. Different arrangements of servo-control and

boost-type tabs.

Trailing-Edge Tabs and Other

Devices
Trailing-edge tabs on movable surfaces are another means of
obtaining aerodynamic balance.
A tab on the aileron is used to overcome engine torque. It may be used with
the rudder for the same purpose as the offset fin and on the elevator
for the same purpose as the adjustable stabilizer.
Trimming tabs have a chord varying from 5 to 10 per cent of the mov
able surface chord and approaching 25 per cent of the chord if
used as servocontrol tabs. The aspect ratio should be as high as
possible, varying usually from as low as 5 to as high as 20.
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STATIC BALANCE A control surface is said to
be statically balanced when the center of gravity of the plane
containing the hinge line acts through that hinge line. Static
 balance is one of the design features required to avoid flutter
possibilities.
For low-speed aircraft having maximum speeds below about 200 miles, static
balances are generally not necessary. For greater speeds, static
balance for movable surfaces becomes a necessity.
For a surface that has its hinge line at the leading edge, static balance can be
obtained only with a concentrated weight ahead of the hinge line to
counterbalance the weight of the movable surface.
For the surface having its hinge line at some distance to the rear of the
leading edge, the structural weight can be so distributed that the center of
gravity falls on the hinge line. Usually, however, this is more easily
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FIGURE XIX-10. Three different ways by which static balance of a movable surface could
be obtained. By proper positioning of the added weight ahead of the hinge line,
dynamic balance may also be achieved.

complished with a fabric-covered surface than with one that is metal covered. For
the latter, some counterbalancing of the nose section may become necessary.

DYNAMIC BALANCE For a movable control surface to be fully balanced

dynamically, the principal mass axes of the surface in the plane containing the
hinge line must coincide with the hinge axis and an axis perpendicular to the hinge line
about which angular deflection could take place when subjected to
aerodynamic or inertia loads. For the rudder and elevator, this per pendicular
axis would be the neutral or longitudinal axis of the fuselage.
For airplanes with a speed greater than 150 miles per hour, it is de sirable to
have the rudder and elevator dynamically balanced. The criterion for such balancing is
a dynamic balance coefficient of not more than 0.08.
The dynamic balance coefficient is nondimensional, which may be ex pressed by the
formula:
(S S p xydady) = (SS o dxdy) = Cab.
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(5)! (+)
| 41

31+)

FIGURE XIX-11. Designation of quadrants for rudder dynamic-balance calculations. The

hinge line is the Y-axis, while the neutral axis of the fuselage is the X-axis.

Figure XIX-11 shows a typical surface with the axes designated and the terms
indicated for the equation above, in which the numerator is the resultant product of inertia
of the control surface, and the denominator is the product of the mass and the
aerodynamic area of the control sur face. In the formula expressed, p is the unit
weight or mass referred to the surface area, x is the distance between the center of gravity
of the mass and the Y-axis, y is the distance between the center of gravity of the
mass and the X-axis, and dx dy is the area of the mass under con sideration, S = dxdy.
The products of inertia in the first and third quadrants are considered positive;
the products of inertia in the second and fourth quadrants are considered
negative. For movable surfaces the hinge line is one axis, and the principal or
longitudinal axis the other.

FLUTTER PREVENTION

The Department of Commerce at one time suggested the following gen eral
principles to be observed for flutter prevention on all airplanes in the design of
control surfaces and control systems.
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1. Structural stiffness. 2. Elimination of all play in hinges and control-system joints.

3. Rigid interconnections between elevators. 4. A relatively low amount of
aerodynamic balance. 5. High frictional damping. 6. Adequate wing fillets
and fairing. 7. Sharp leading edges on movable surfaces should be
avoided.
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The following features are considered essential for flutter prevention.
8. When separate elevators are used, the interconnecting
structure that is required must be as stiff in torsion as practicable.
9. Trailing-edge controls should be irreversible, relatively rigid, and the tab
installation should be designed to prevent any development of free motion
of the tab. When the tabs are completely statically balanced, irreversible
controls are not required, provided that the tab control system cannot be
manipulated abruptly through a large range. A small amount of overbalance
of the tab, obtained by putting its center of gravity ahead of the hinge line, will
help to offset harmful effects of any possible looseness or tab-control system
flexibility.
10. When trailing-edge tabs are used to assist in moving the main sur face,
the areas and relative movements must be so proportioned that the
main surface is not aerodynamically overbalanced at any time.
11. Experimental determination of the natural frequency of vibration of
certain components of the airplane may be desirable in cases where dan
gerously low frequencies or the coincidence of the natural frequencies of two or
more structural components exist. Where such cases do occur, re design is
necessary to change such natural frequencies.

- Front spar fixed surface

Rear spar

· Spar of moveable surface

FIGURE XIX-12. Layout of the principal elements of the tail-surface structure. Unlike the
wing, the spars of the tail surfaces need not be located at a constant percentage of the
chord.
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CONSTRUCTION The structural details of the vertical and horizontal tail surfaces
are similar to a simplified version of the wing tip which includes the aileron.
A spar at or near the hinge line is desirable for the elevator or rudder. This spar is
supported by at least three hinge brackets, which in turn
e supported by the rear spar of the fixed surface, which usually has another spar located at
about 10 or 15 per cent of the chord.
Figure XIX-12 shows a schematic layout of the primary structure of the tail
surface. While spars in the wing are located at or close to a constant percentage of
the chord spanwise, such is not the case for tail
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FIGURE XIX-13. The box structure at the hinge of this movable surface carries
the torsional moment around the hinge cut-out of the leading edge D-spar.

surfaces. Here, the location of the spars is dictated by other

considera tions, such as hinge-bracket distances, location of
attachment to the fuselage, and rigidity requirements.
For aircraft operating at speeds less than 350 miles per hour or
there abouts, the movable surfaces are usually fabric covered
in order to obtain
ing in weight and to reduce difficulties in static and dynamic balanc
ing of the surface.
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HORIZONTAL TAIL
SURFACES Location
The horizontal tail surfaces should be so located that any
blanketing by the wing or the fuselage is avoided.
 Partial blanketing usually exists, however, but certain
features may be incorporated to limit the effect of blanketing
In some cases, the location of the horizontal tail surfaces is determined
by clearance requirements for the elevator, as shown in Figure XIX-14,
when the elevator is deflected downward through its total
angular range and with the tail-wheel assembly fully deflected.
Conventional airplanes of today locate the tail surfaces about 242 to 3
chord lengths (mean geometric chord of the wing) behind the center
of gravity so that the observance of this rule will assure reasonable
static longitudinal stability.
The horizontal tail surfaces may be ahead of or behind the vertical tail
surface or somewhere between these two extreme positions, as
shown in Figure XIX-15.

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FIGURE XIX-14. Layout of the horizontal tail surfaces showing cut-out of elevators to
prevent interference with the movement of the rudder. Each movable surface should be
supported by at least three hinges.

For the small airplane, because of structural and dimensional considera tions,
the rear stabilizer spar and the rear fin spar usually intersect and are
 built in integrally with the fuselage frame at that station unless either or both the fin
and stabilizer are adjustable in flight or on the ground.
A position of the horizontal tail surfaces ahead of the vertical t surfaces may
be considered if it results in less complication of the control system. One
disadvantage of such a location is the blanketing of the vertical tail surfaces at
high angles of attack.
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FIGURE XIX-15. Location of horizontal tail surfaces. They may be located
ahead or behind the vertical tail surfaces. or located vertically anywhere between
the two extremes of the vertical tail surfaces at the bottom of the fuselage or at the
top of the vertical tail surfaces.

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A position of the horizontal tail surfaces behind the vertical tail surfaces would clear
both, so that neither would be blanketed by the other.
Vertically there may also be some choice of location. The lowest position would
probably be determined by the ground clearance of the deflected elevator,
whether or not the nose-wheel or tail-wheel type landing gear is used.
The location of the horizontal tail surfaces where they can be securely attached
to the fuselage structure is advantageous from the structural point of view.
For the higher-speed airplanes, especially those having the exhaust duct
or ducts of the jet engines in the tail of the fuselage, the horizontal tail surfaces
have to be located above the fuselage. Thus the horizontal surfaces have
to be secured to the vertical tail surfaces. Under asym metrical
conditions, the aerodynamic load on the horizontal tail surfaces
produces a torsional moment upon the vertical tail surfaces. It there fore
becomes necessary for those surfaces to be constructed more rigidly,
thereby entailing greater weight.
Consideration has been given to the use of a biplane set of horizontal tail
surfaces, whereby the smaller elevator could, in its operation, be used as
a booster control for the larger surface through suitable linkage.
A design used occasionally is the so-called canard type, which locates the
horizontal tail surfaces ahead of the wing. In that position, the surfaces
are acting in the up-wash, rather than the down-wash of the wing. For this
 reason, the horizontal tail surfaces are apt to stall before the wing, so
that sufficient control may not be available at a critical time.
However, this feature has been considered an advantage since the tail
surfaces could act as a stall-warning for the wing. The location of the tail
surfaces ahead of the wing may interfere with the vision forward. It is
considered psychologically bad to be able to see the deflection of the
surfaces at practically all times. Another advantage, in addition to the
stall-warning device, is that the arrangement of the surfaces forward may
serve as a suitable crash-absorber in case of an accident. Angular
Deflection
Elevators are designed to have an equal angular movement up and down
from neutral. About 30-degree movement is considered maxim and,
with efficient design, a 25-degree deflection up and a 25-degree
deflection down should be sufficient.
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Adjustable
Stabilizer
The stabilizer may be adjusted through a small angular displacement either on
the ground or in the air from the cockpit (usually the latter, if at all,
since trimming tabs are displacing adjustable stabilizers).

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If an adjustable stabilizer is used, a total of 6- to 8-degree movement (about 5 degrees
up and 3 degrees down) is usually used.
The adjustable stabilizer is used to change the trim angle of the air plane without
displacing the elevator. The elevator can then operate from the new neutral
position determined by the stabilizer. In the first prototype to be flown, the
range of angles provided may be greater than is absolutely necessary until flight
tests have determined the desirable range.
For high-speed airplanes operating through the transonic regime, the adjustable
stabilizer is preferred over the elevator trim tab, since the trim drag is
 becoming an important factor in the performance of the airplane. Where power
operation has been provided, a one-degree-per-second rate of change through
11-degree travel has been used.
On small airplanes it has been customary to make the stabilizer adjust able
through a limited angular range, about 3 degrees up and 3 degrees down.
This adjustment has been possible either on the ground or in the air by
means of a control located in the pilot's cockpit. The adjustment in
the air is preferable. On the large transport airplanes, variations in trim
(the object of the adjustable stabilizer) are obtained by means of trailing-
edge tabs.

Aspect
Ratio
The aspect ratio of the tail surfaces should be as high as possible (usually from 3 to
5) in order to avoid blanketing of the structure to which they are attached.
Aspect ratios greater than 6 are seldom used unless they can be
adequately braced.
In proportioning the tail surfaces, it is not desirable to start with the aspect ratio because
the fuselage section increases the span of the tail sur faces seemingly beyond
the desirable limit.
For correcting airfoil data from the given aspect ratio to that of the tail surfaces, the
aspect ratio is calculated on the basis of the square of the span length from
tip to tip divided by the area including that covered by the fuselage. In
other words, exactly the same procedure is followed as in calculating the
aspect ratio of the wing.
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Angle of
Incidence
The incidence of the horizontal tail surfaces is determined by the amount of
downwash from the wing, its relative location with respect to the
wing, and the moment required to obtain the required trim angle.
The angle of trim of the airplane is defined at that angle at which the sum of the
pitching moments about the center of gravity of the airplane is zero.
Normally, it is expected that the elevator be in the neutral position, that is, undeflected
for that attitude of the airplane or angle of trim for
VI

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which the flying time is the greatest. This attitude is usually for
cruising. In order to determine this angle, it would be desirable
to have calculated the preliminary performance. In lieu of the
necessary data from such calculations, it may be assumed that the
desired angle of trim lies between the angle of the wing at which
the minimum drag coefficient occurs, and the angle at which the
maximum ratio of lift to drag occurs.
Once the angle of trim has been decided upon, the angle of incidence (or setting)
of the horizontal tail surfaces can be determined for at trim by:
CM... = 0 = Cm. + CMy or C1, = -
CM.; but
CM. = -
0.8y2 Cz.

CL. = 0.875 Csis)

at trim,
where Cm, has been calculated for that angle of attack of the
airplane cor responding to the angle of trim.
Once the lift coefficient of the tail surfaces at trim condition has been
determined, the required angle of attack of the tail surfaces can be deter
mined from the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail surface airfoil.
tion for this
Since the tail surfaces are affected by the downwash of the wing, correc
downwash must be made not only to determine the angle of incidence
of the tail surfaces, but to determine the angle of attack of the tail surfaces
corresponding to the angle of attack of the wing.
The downwash angle is given sufficiently accurately by the following
modified Diehl's equation:
*2-0.25 y-0.75, -
2
E

=
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where e is the downwash angle in
degrees,
Cl is the lift coefficient of the wing, R is the aspect ratio of the
wing, lo * is the number of mean aerodynamic wing-chord
lengths that 2 the 20 per cent point of the mean geometric
chord of the hori
ntal tail surfaces is behind the aerodynamic center of the wing, and is, similarly, the
number of chord lengths the horizontal tail surfaces are above or below the
mean aerodynamic chord of the
wing. For any given design, equation (3) could be written in terms
of the angle of attack of the wing since Cų = aqw where Q, is so
measured that a = 0 when CL = 0, and a is the slope of the lift curve.
By further evaluation, the formula would finally take the form

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AIRPLANE DESIGN
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E=
kowe
(3a)

wher
e
k = 0.40a 2-
0.25 g 0.76
Then, if the wing has an angle of incidence measured with relation to a
fixed reference line on the fuselage, the effective angle of downwash
meas ured with relation to this reference line would be e time. The angle of
 FIGURE XIX-16. Reference diagram for angles referred to
in equation (4a).
attack of the horizontal tail surfaces, when placed at zero angle of incidence to the
fuselage reference line, would be - (€ + 20). Should the horizontal tail surfaces
have an angle of incidence of its own, the angle of attack of the horizontal tail
surfaces would be is - (+iv).
Recapitulati
ng,
ar = -(€ + iv),
(4
)

(4a
)
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ar = ir - (€ +ive), depending upon whether the
horizontal tail surfaces have an angle of inci dence or not.
This angle of incidence can now be determined for the
re quired Qr, for Cų (as obtained from equation (2)] at
trim gives the neces sary information. For subsequent
calculations, it would be desirable to determine at from a
modified form of equation (4a) such as Qe = kaw - in tis.
Sweepback
Normally, any sweepback that the horizontal tail surfaces may have is due to the
trapezoidal planform. However, just as sweepback has been employed for the
wing as speeds approach M = 1, so sweepback has to be applied to the
horizontal tail surfaces. The discussion relating to sweep back in Chapter XVII,
Design of the Wing, is applicable to the design of the horizontal tail surfaces.

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In order to obtain relatively uniform down-wash conditions on the horizontal
tail surfaces, some sweepback may be employed to compensate for the
sweepback of the wing.

Dihedr
al
Normally horizontal tail surfaces are not given any dihedral, but it has
been found that the effectiveness of the horizontal tail surfaces can be
in creased considerably, particularly at high angles of attack, by
incorporat ing some dihedral in the horizontal tail surfaces. How large
the dihedral angle should be depends upon the downwash of the wing;
for purposes of symmetry, the span line of the tail surfaces may be
made parallel to the span line of the wings.

Are
a
Examination of airplanes of all sizes reveals that the ratio of the hori zontal
tail surfaces to the effective wing area varies from 20 to 25 per cent. The
greater the tail length is, in terms of the wing chord, the smaller per
centage area is required. Wings equipped with lift-increase
device usually require that the percentage area of the horizontal tail
surfaces be greater than if the wings were not so equipped.
The elevator area varies from 35 to 45 per cent of the horizontal tail sur
face area.

Constructi
on
For ease in assembly and disassembly, the horizontal tail surfaces are
attached to the top of the fuselage, especially if tubular steel construction is
used for both the tail surfaces and the fuselage. When reinforced
metal monocoque construction is used, the horizontal tail surfaces
may be located nearer the longitudinal centerline of the rear portion of the
fuselage and still obtain the necessary rigidity.
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Planfo
rm
Some indication of planforms used for horizontal tail surfaces may be obtained
from those shown in Figure XIX-17. Since the aspect ratios are about the
same for the horizontal tail surfaces as for the wing, and some other
considerations of design are similar, the planforms of the horizontal
tail surfaces look very similar to the wing planforms. Some modification
 may be made due to the greater role that the movable sur face, which
takes up almost half of the total area, plays in the design of the structure.

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11

FIGURE XIX-17. Typical planforms of horizontal tail surfaces. Only one half of the surfaces are
shown. Vertical tail surface planforms are similar.
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Other
Solutions
For some aircraft, especially those of the flying-wing type, the horizontal tail surfaces
disappear as separate entities, but their function is taken over by trailing-
edge flaps or wing-tip surfaces. The high-speed transonic and supersonic
designs employing the delta wing should be studied, es pecially with reference
 to the means employed in obtaining longitudinal stability and control through
flaps and other similar devices.
For other high-speed designs, there may be no elevator as such, but the entire horizontal
tail surface may be deflected angularly in order to elim inate the increase in
drag caused by the deflected flap.

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(b)

FIGURE XIX-18. Two illustrations showing the application of moveable wing tips that, freely
floating, would operate as an aileron on a normal wing, as in (A); or, for a
tailless airplane the tip surfaces could be operated differentially for aileron action or
unidirectionally for clevator action, as shown in (B).

Clearances
When the horizontal tail surfaces have been positioned on the fuselage or some
other component of the airplane structure, the student should check allowable
 clearances with the ground when the elevator is deflected, and with the vertical tail
surfaces, especially the rudder.

VERTICAL TAIL SURFACES The vertical tail surfaces consist of the fixed
surfaces (the rudder), the movable surface (the elevator), and the trim tab.
The function of these surfaces is to obtain the necessary directional stability and control
in flight.
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FIGURE XIX-19. A “canard-type" airplane with the horizontal tail surfaces located ahead of the
center of gravity. The vertical tail surfaces are located at the wing tip.

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Directional Stability and

Control
Straight flight should be attainable at any speed above 140 per cent of the minimum
speed by sideslipping without the use of the rudder and with a single engine
(of a multi-engine design) being inoperative.
The yawing moment in a sideslip should be such that right-rudder de flection
would be required for a sideslip toward the left, and left-rudder deflection
toward the right. For small angles of sideslip, the sideslip angle should be
proportional to the rudder angle.
The airplane should always tend to return from a sideslip without the use of the
rudder regardless of the angle of the sideslip.

Rudder control should be

such that:
1. A control force of not more than 180 pounds is required to maintain
the airplane in rectilinear flight with one engine inoperative and the other or
others at full rated power at all speeds above the minimum take-off speed;
2. To meet the spin recovery requirements of the
airplane;
3. To overcome the adverse yawing moment caused by aileron deflec tions at any
speed.
When all controls are released in flight, lateral oscillations of the air plane should always
damp to one half amplitude within two complete cycles. When the ailerons or
rudder are moved and released quickly, they should return to their neutral
position and damp any oscillations of the airplane in one cycle.
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Both rudder and aileron may employ trimming systems. They should be:
1. Used if the control forces for level flight are 10 per cent greater than 80 pounds
for the aileron control wheel or 30 pounds for the aileron control stick, or 180
pounds for the rudder pedals for any speed between the maxi mum speed
and 120 per cent of the minimum speed;
2. Powerful enough to maintain rectilinear flight with one engine inop erative (for a
multi-engine airplane) at speeds 140 per cent of the minimum or above.
Further, the approaching stall of the airplane should develop gradually and make itself
felt by increasing "pull force" on the control column, and by evidence of buffeting
of the airplane. Recovery, after complete stall has been attained,
should be possible by normal use of the controls.
Rolling or yawing moments of the airplane at less than 2 degrees
above the attitude required for a 3-point landing should not cause the airplane to
stall.

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From the flight criteria mentioned, the designer is able to work

back to the detail design so that the airplane will incorporate the
characteristics desired. Many features are arrived at through past
experience or from examination of existing designs. Other features
are subject to research in the wind tunnel, for there may be a
number of variables that require proper proportions to obtain the
desired effect.
 Locati
on
The location of the vertical tail surfaces depends upon the type and speed
range of the aircraft. For the small, single-engine private airplane,
the vertical tail surfaces are, almost without exception, located
above the horizontal tail surfaces in order to centralize control systems
and simplify the supporting structure contained in the fuselage.
It is desirable to locate about half of the rudder below the axis of sym metry
of the fuselage, but this may not be possible because of required
clearance with the
ground.
Large airplanes employ multiple vertical tail surfaces (see Figure XIX-20) for
several reasons, although the primary one is to obtain the advantage
of slipstream effect over one of the surfaces when an engine of a multi-
engine design quits. The increased slipstream velocity helps in pro viding
the greater yawing moment necessary to overcome that produced by the
offset thrust.
In large designs, it is often difficult to
prevent blanketing of the vertical tail
surfaces by the large fuselage so
that dividing the area into several
smaller ones and placing them at the
ends of the horizontal tail surfaces
increases their relative efficiency.
Where the required area is very large, three instead of two sets of
vertical tail surfaces are used. This reduces the tor- Figure XIX-
20. Arrangements sional load imposed by the outrigger type of
twin vertical tail surfaces. of vertical tail surfaces which also complicates
the control-system design.
The extension of the fin area ahead of the middle fin in triple vertical tail-
surface design has often been added after flight tests indicated that
additional vertical tail area was necessary. While inefficient
aerodynami cally, such extensions do not impose very much
additional torsion on the fuselage.
To a less extent, multiple vertical tail surfaces are used in order to re
duce the over-all height of the aircraft structure, especially in those
designs for which hangar door clearances are the
determining factors.
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For high-speed aircraft, the vertical tail surfaces may be displaced at the wing tips of
the swept-back wing, where they obtain a sufficiently long moment arm to
produce a satisfactory yawing moment.
The placing of the vertical tail surfaces at the end of the horizontal tail
surfaces helps, although to a very small degree, to increase the effective
aspect ratio of the horizontal tail surfaces.
In some cases the vertical tail surfaces are slightly tilted from the ver tical. This is
usually the result of the dihedral incorporated in the hori zontal tail-surface
design where dihedral is employed to account for the downwash of the wing.

Angular
Deflection
The rudder has an angular movement of a maximum of 30 degrees each side of
neutral. It is generally desirable to have all primary control surfaces
operate through the same angular range so that a pilot transferring from
one airplane to another is at least likely to be familiar with the
amount of control to be expected for the control-stick or rudder-pedal
movement.
The fin may be adjustable to offset the yawing moment induced by the
means used to produce a rolling moment of the wing to offset the torque
of the reciprocating engine. Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces may be somewhat restricted by the
possible torsional moment imposed upon the fuselage structure since the
vertical tail surfaces are usually asymmetrical about the longi tudinal axis.
Since the tail surfaces are at zero angle of attack throughout the flight
regime, aspect-ratio effects play a very small part, if any, in
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FIGURE XIX-21. For aspect-ratio calculations, the surface area represented by the side of the fuselage
aft of the dotted line is included in the total area; but it is not con sidered as part of the vertical
tail surface area in the evaluation of the ratios of tail surface area to wing area—which
ratio may vary from .08 to .12.

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the over-all aerodynamic drag of the airplane. The main consideration for the
vertical tail surface is to locate it so that it is not made ineffective by blanketing
of the fuselage or horizontal tail surfaces. To minimize such blanketing, a higher
aspect ratio for the vertical tail surfaces often becomes necessary.
The aspect ratio of the vertical tail surfaces should be between 2 and 4. It is difficult to
state exactly what the aspect ratio of the vertical tail sur faces may be, because
the rear portion of the fuselage influences the vertical tail surface effectiveness.
Area
The size of the tail surfaces is dependent upon the location; the greater the
distance between the center of gravity of the airplane and the center of
pressure of the vertical tail surfaces in terms of the mean aerodynamic chord
of the wing, the smaller the area needs to be. Where the vertical tail surfaces
are attached to the wing tips, the relative distance is likely to be smaller, so that
the area would have to be proportionately greater in order to obtain the same
degree of directional stability and control.
The area of the vertical tail surfaces ranges from 10 to 15 per cent of the
wing area, with about 30 to 50 per cent of the area devoted to the rudder.
An exception is provided by those designs where dorsal or ventral fins are
employed, in which case the movable portion of the vertical tail surfaces is likely to
be no more than 30 per cent of the total area.
The dorsal fin (see Figure XIX-22) may be used to increase the fin area in order to
(1) increase the directional stability if the original surface

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FIGURE XIX-22. The dotted lines show various ways of increasing the fin area. The top diagram
illustrates a dorsal fin, while the two bottom diagrams illustrate the vertical-type fin.
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proves inadequate, (2) transmit the loads on the fin to a greater

number of fuselage frames, (3) reduce the torsional moment about
the longitudinal fuselage axis, (4) reduce the over-all height
dimensions of the vertical tail surfaces, and (5) obtain a
possible weight saving, although the total fin area is likely to be
greater for a dorsal fin than for a normal fin-type surface.
The ventral fin (See Figure XIX-22) is another solution to increasing the fin area.
Since it is located below the fuselage, it is not blanketed by any of the
aircraft structure and is likely to be even more effective than the dorsal fin.
Planform
The vertical tail surfaces have a variety of planforms, depending some
what upon their location. A few likely designs are illustrated in Figure XIX-23.

FIGURE XIX-23. Typical planforms of vertical tail

surfaces.
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Sweepba
ck
For transonic and supersonic designs, the vertical tail surfaces must incorporate
sweepback. For lower-speed aircraft, on the other hand, the sweepback
observed in the design of the vertical tail surfaces is a result of other design
considerations such as planform, appearance, and position of the fin-post.

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Tail
Length
For subsonic designs of conventional layout, the tail surfaces have
been so located that the distance from the center of gravity of the
airplane to the estimated center of pressure of the horizontal or vertical
tail surfaces is from 2.5 to 3.25 times the mean geometric chord of the
wing.
As speeds approach the supersonic, the "trim drag", especially with
deflected surfaces, becomes an appreciable portion of the total drag of
the airplane. To ameliorate this condition, the tail length is made as long
as possible, so that smaller areas may be employed for the tail
sur faces and relatively little deflection is necessary for the desired amount
of control. Both are attempts to reduce the drag. However, there is a
point of diminishing return in that a longer fuselage also implies a
greater skin drag, and thus a gain in one may be offset by a loss in the other
A
FIGURE XIX-24. The distance A for conventional airplanes should be from 27/2
to 3 times the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing. The angle B, corresponding to
the maximum deflection of the elevator, should permit the tailing edge of the
elevator to
clear the ground
comfortably.

BUTTERFLY OR VEE TAIL This type of tail surface combines the

vertical and horizontal tail surfaces
in one, as shown
in Figure XIX-25. The vertical component of the
lift corresponds to the normal tail-surface load, while the horizontal
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FIGURE XIX-
25.
A “Vee" or "Butterfly" tail.

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component of lift when both halves of the surfaces are neutral is zero, unless both surfaces
are at an angle to the normal direction of flight when the horizontal component
of lift produces the necessary yawing moment to weather-cock the airplane.
The movable trailing-edge flaps act as elevators when both are deflected in the
same direction, and as rudders when operated in the opposite direction. It is also
possible to operate them in a combination of the two motions so that
simultaneous pitching and yawing moments are obtained.
The movable surfaces are called either ruddervaters or elerudders.
The cockpit controls are the same as for the normal type of rudders and elevators,
although the control mechanism from the cockpit to the tail surfaces is a little more
complicated.
The advantages claimed for such an arrangement are:
1. A saving in weight due to its simplicity of construction, its fewer elements, and the
smaller total area possible.
Higher maximum speed, due to less area and consequently less pro file drag as
well as less interference drag.
3. Better spin recovery due to less blanketing of the tail surfaces.
The detailed design information is to be found in an NACA report. For preliminary
design purposes, the following relationships may be considered:
The effective horizontal tail surface area
Su = S cos B;
(1)

OOO OO 9ooooo

SALLATUL
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lol

FIGURE XIX-26. Dive brakes are used to reduce speed of aircraft and may be used
as spoilers for additional aileron or directional control, depending upon the number used and their
location. When not in use, they recess-Aush-into the top surface of the wing.

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The effective vertical tail surface

area
Sy = S sin B.
Dividing (2) by (1),
tan B =
SY
so that using the proportion of areas needed for the conventional vertical and
horizontal tail surfaces, the value of tan B can be determined where B is the
dihedral angle for the tail surfaces. Once
Design of the Wing

VIn spite of its seeming simplicity, the wing of an airplane requires the
most careful study in its design for it is the vital part of the airplane which contributes
to the lift. A slight change in any one of the factors affecting the wing design is so
critical that only one slight difference in two other wise identical designs would
be apparent. These differences might be in performance, such as the top
speed, or landing speed, or in the rate of climb. Again, there might be differences
in stability-one might stable longitudinally, directionally, or laterally; or there might be
differ ences in maneuverability.
Pilots who fly externally braced biplanes will attest to the fact that rig ging the wings
differently by tightening lift wires or adjusting struts often will change an
otherwise beautifully maneuverable airplane to one that is "logy.” The change
of rigging may have altered the angle of incidence of the wings, and therefore the
decalage, so that entirely different charac teristics of the combination are
obtained.
wing alone that
From the foregoing statements, it should be apparent that it is not the
should be considered but its relationship to the rest of the airplane in
combination with the fuselage and tail surfaces.
The aerodynamicist is concerned with the ultimate performance of the airplane in
flight, and therefore he is particularly interested in the aero dynamic
characteristics of the wing. The structural designer of the wing is concerned
with the design of a structure that can meet the aerody. namicist's requirements as
well as withstand the loads imposed upon it. It is therefore important to consider some
general design aspects before any specific structural details are studied.
The wing is essentially a beam that is subjected to shear, bending, and torsion
imposed upon it by aerodynamic and inertia loads. Figures XVII-1 and XVII-2
indicate typical spanwise loadings and moments imposed on the wing by the
normal and chord components of these forces.
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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

Station
Station

Locus of a.c.
Locus of a.c.
dy

Plan
view

Front view
Locus of a.c.

CN, Cc, or

FIGURE XVII-1. Reference diagram for the development of equations for bending
and torsional moments for a typical wing.

In Figure XVII-1,
AP. – qcx Com
--

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-
-
-
if dx = 1 inch, and represents the load at any station x inches from the tip of the
wing. Similarly,
-
--
-

AP. = qc. Code

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UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN

DESIGN OF THE WING

301

and

AF. = qce AMoc = qc moc o els

AMac = QC mal

in inch-pounds.
The spanwise loads AFn, and AF. cause shears and bending or
torsional moments which may be expressed as follows for any station
n:

yən
yan
yən

qCN
»Cvdy;
y=i=0
v=i=0
Vsi so

y=
n
yan
yun
$ - - - 6:0,- Ecocami $. -Z - E.com - Üc.C.
v. - Zar» - Eccords
d2

i=
0
v=i=0
v=i=0

y=n
yan

M
.
=
.
(AFn)y =
CrCyydy;
v=i=0
v=i=0

Yn

M,
=
(AF)y =
CcCvydy;
144
v=i=0
y=i=0

Yən
y=n

w - Zaw - la cuc per

Mau

y=i=0
y=i=0

Due to sweepback, the normal forces cause a torsional moment which

may be expressed as follows:
y=
n
y=
n

Mac' = -1,AFnXin = -) ,AFnYin tan A = –M, tan A.

v=i=0
y=i=0
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Due to dihedral, the chord forces cause a torsional moment which may be
expressed as:
y=
n
yan

Mac" =
AFZin =)
AFYin tan r = M, tan r.
ysis
y=izo

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

| z or normal axis AFN

y or lateral
axis

x or longitudinal
axis

FIGURE XVII-2. Representation of shears and moments, shown as positive, at any

spanwise station of the wing. The aerodynamic center is taken as the point of origin of the
system of axes shown. The subscripts of the moments are determined by the designation
of the axis about which the individual moment acts.
In Figure XVII-2, M,' is the total of all these torsional moments or:

M,' = Mac + Mac' + Mac”, or

M,' = Mac – M, tan A + M, tan r, for the configuration shown. Similar
formulas may be derived for the inertia load components.
It should be noted that the bending moments M. and M, are inde pendent of
sweepback, dihedral, or the locus of the aerodynamic or elastic centers of the
wing.

The bending stress caused by the moments M. and M, at any station may be
found from the formula:
(M.I ze – M,1.). (M.I zz – M:1, II,I, - Ite? / | 1 l, - Idea /
For purposes of subsequent discussion, let it be assumed that M, is
insignificant with respect to Me (which is usually the case, as can be seen by
comparing the numerical value of Co with Cy), and that the principal axes of
the cross section of the beam are known. Then, the above formula becomes the
simple bending formula:
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fo== M.2
-
-
-
-
-
-

In a complex beam, such as the wing structure presents,

1x = l. + 2A212 = Azı,
- -
-
-
-
-

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DESIGN OF THE WING
303
303

Chord line

la)
- Original or real location of skin
Principal
I
X
axis
--Les

(6)

FIGURE XVII-3. (A) shows the principal components of a wing structure. (B) represents the
equivalent wing structure where the solid line segments represent the shear elements and the solid
circles the bending elements required to resist the transverse and torsional shear and the
bending moments.

from which it may be noted that all the longitudinal stringers, as well as the chord
members of the spars, will contribute to the strength of the wing. The skin, if
suitably supported so as to be able to sustain com pressive stresses, can be very
effective in adding to the beam strength.
Figure XVII-3 gives a typical representation of the structural elements important in
the design of a suitable wing.
The torsional moments are likely to be quite severe for a swept-back wing. If the
wing has a negative dihedral, then the torsional moments are all of the same
sign and therefore of considerable magnitude. The wing envelope must sustain
these torsional moments.
In general, the bending and torsional moments are the design deter-> minants for the
wing structure.
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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The first three-view, the preliminary weight
estimate, and the arrange ment of the balance diagram are the necessary steps in
furnishing the data for the type of wing for the position relative to the fuselage, and for its
size. The preliminary three-view has more or less set the shape of the wing and
determined whether it is to be a monoplane, a full cantilever or an externally
braced wing, or, for example, a biplane with wings of differ ent proportions.
The preliminary weight estimate is instrumental in determining the approximate wing
area needed, so that with at least this established, it

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 AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
becomes a comparatively easy matter to select a suitable aspect
ratio and thus be able to fix the governing dimensions of span,
chord, and taper.
The balance diagram is necessary to locate the wing relative to the cen ter of
gravity; otherwise, difficulty might be experienced later in obtaining
suitable static longitudinal stability.
The wing planform may be changed considerably owing to certain re quirements
of landing-gear retraction, flap attachments, and the like. Suppose it is
desired to retract the landing gear straight inboard towards the fuselage without
the necessity of swinging it back first and then in board in order to
retract the gear fully into the wing without interfering with the front
spar? Such retraction requires that the root portion of the wing be
somewhat forward of the leading edge of the mean geometric chord; or, in
other words, the wing should have the leading edge swept back so that the
root chord will come forward along the fuselage. The reason for this is that
there are two original conditions that must be met by the wing and the
landing gear. (The wing, for example, should be placed so that the 25
per cent point of the mean geometric chord falls directly under the center of
gravity. (The landing gear, if a rear tail-wheel type is used, on the other
hand, must be placed at a certain angle ahead of the center of gravity
to prevent nosing over. These conditions for the wing and landing gear
must be kept, and, unfortunately, these conditions may play havoc with
original ideas of wing planform and simple landing-gear retraction.
The incorporation of flaps and ailerons often affects wing planform. For simpler
operating mechanisms, it may be desirable to have the hinge lines
perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the airplane, or perhaps it
may be desirable to have a constant chord flap whose spanwise axis is per
pendicular to the plane of symmetry. Both of these more or less
arbitrary conditions will affect the ultimate planform of the wing. It is a good
plan, therefore, to list at first all the various ideas that the designer wants to
incorporate, and then, perhaps, make preliminary sketches of possible solutions to
determine whether the various ideas are compatible.
Before the design of the wing may be begun it is necessary to study various
features which affect its final design. The more important fea tures are
considered here although it is impossible to point out all the pos sible effects of
miscellaneous items such as landing lights, engine nacelles, landing gear,
and fuel tanks.
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WING LAYOUT PROCEDURE Since the wing design has to
allow for so many factors-planform, spar and stringer location, landing-
 gear attachment and retraction, power plant, ailerons, flaps, and a
host of others—it is desirable to make preliminary studies to make
sure that every design feature has been properly in

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DESIGN OF THE
WING
30
5
corporated. The following suggestions may be followed to advantage. The instructions
are for a two-spar wing and may be modified for any other type of design.

1. Draw planform of wing with the necessary dimensions, to scale, to satisfy

aspect ratio, area, and sweepback.
2. Determine the mean geometric chord and check that the relation of the
wing to the fuselage is such that the center of gravity lies in the lateral
plane perpendicular to the mean geometric chord at the mean
aerodynamic center.
3. Locate the front spar at a constant percentage of the chord, from root to tip.
The front spar is located at between 12 to 17 per cent of the chord.
Note that the constant percentage line of the chord is not parallel to the
leading edge of the wing. Indicate the spar location by its center line.
4. Locate the rear spar similarly. The rear spar is located at from 65 to 75% of
the chord- usually 70% to accommodate a 25 per cent chord aileron.
Neither the front nor rear spar need extend to the extreme wing tip, since
the extreme wing-tip structure is inherently rigid and capable of transmitting
tip loads to the spars and adjacent structure.
5. Mark out the aileron. The leading edge of the aileron may be parallel to the rear spar
centerline. If the rear spar is located at 70 per cent of the chord, then the
aileron chord cannot exceed about 27 per cent of the chord, since some
allowance must be made for rear spar width, aileron gap, and the like.
6. If a flap is used for a lift-increase device, it may extend the entire distance
inboard of the aileron. Here some additional study may be necessary
if a considerable flap area is desired. In that case, the aileron chord might
be increased, even if such an aileron has some adverse charac
 teristics. Increasing the aileron chord may necessitate moving the rear
spar slightly forward to give sufficient clearances. The flap chord is
usually less than the aileron chord perhaps 15 to 20% of the wing
chord. A false spar, needed to support the flap hinges, may have to be
added to the wing structure.
7. The wing rib spacing may be spotted in next. There are certainly likely to
be ribs located at each aileron and flap hinge (unless a piano-type hinge is
possible). The aileron must have at least three hinges for sup port. The rib-
spacing distance is determined from panel-size considera tions, to which
reference should be made. Some adjustments in the rib spacings may be
desirable to get hinge-rib locations to coincide with the rib stations.
Reinforced ribs are also called for for engine-mount attach ments,
landing-gear-member attachments, and fuel-tank supports. Also,
crea
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AIRPLANE DESIGN
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such ribs may suggest relocations of the other ribs in order to obtain a more pleasing pattern.

Vuvoara.

8. Spanwise stringers may be located. These may be placed parallel to each other or
at constant percentages of the wing chord. These span wise stringers are
not normally carried out to the tip, but are rather discontinued at intervals
inboard of the tip so that fewer and fewer stringers are left from the mid-span
outboard.
9. The main elements of the wing structure have now been located. If the layout is
considered satisfactory, other details may now be added. Some of them
may cause reconsideration of the structure locally. For example, the well for
the retraction of the landing gear may necessitate some re-design.
10. The layout outlined above is shown primarily in outline form by means of
centerlines, with subsidiary sketches showing structural details. Until
the stress analysis is completed, such dimensions as thicknesses, limiting
 dimensions, and the like should be omitted. After the stress analysis is
completed, a more detailed drawing is possible.
Before the structural layout has progressed too far, it may be wise to check on the
effect of the spar and spanwise stringer location on the fuselage
structure. If the front spar necessitates the installation of a double frame just
where the pilot has to be provided with the best vision, it may be wise to
relocate the spar, or even change the wing planform.
If the wing fuel tanks interfere with the landing-gear retraction, some re-design
considerations are in order.
In considering the wing layout, it is necessary to keep the requirements of the
fuselage, the power plant, and the landing gear constantly in mind.
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MEAN GEOMETRIC CHORD The center of gravity
of the complete airplane is placed, usually, at the
maximum forward position of the center of pressure on the mean
aero dynamic chord in order to get the desired stability,
The mean aerodynamic chord is difficult to determine unless the pressure
distribution for the wing being designed is definitely known. Moreover,
the pressure distribution varies with the angle of attack. It is customary,
therefore, to use the mean geometric chord of the wing instead.
The mean aerodynamic chord, or the mean geometric chord, is deter mined
for only one-half of the wing, either up to the side of the fuselage for a wing whose
center portion is blanketed by the fuselage, or up to the plane of symmetry
as in the case of a parasol monoplane.
The mean geometric chord of a rectangular wing is located just halfway out along the
semispan out from the fuselage.

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DESIGN OF THE WING

307
 hou

FIGURE XVII-4. To determine the ordinates of the airfoil at station 2, when the root and
tip airfoils are known, at one-half of the chord,
(hu), = (hi) - (hiu , hau)z, etc.
-
-
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--

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..
.
-
-
--
-
-
--
-
-

FIGURE XVII-5. Determining the equivalent semispan for mean geometric chord
calculations.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

Lay

FIGURE XVII-6. Geometric determination of the mean geometric chord for a simple
trapezoidal wing.

If the tip of the wing is tapered or rounded off, an equivalent semispan can be determined
such that the area included in the equivalent semispan is equal to the area
excluded.
A geometrical method for finding the mean geometric chord of a trape zoidal planform
wing is shown in Figure XVII-6.
The length of the mean geometric chord may also be calculated by means of the
formula:
C. = {(c+63 -
Come )
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The distance out from the side of the fuselage or plane of symmetry may be calculated
from
_b (C +
2C1)
3(C + C) where b is the dimension as shown in
Figure XVII-5, and the distance in rear of the leading edge of the
root chord
Yi (C + 2C1)
3 (C + C1)

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When the wing is made up of a rectangular and a tapered

portion, the procedure is to
1. Determine the mean geometric chord of the trapezoidal and the
rectangular section separately.
FIGURE XVII-7. Geometric determination of the mean geometric chord for a com
bined rectangular and trapezoidal planform. If the wing is elliptical in planform,
an equivalent trapezoid may be used.

2. If the area of the rectangle is A, and the trapezoid A, then the mean
geometric chord of the combination is
C2 = Cr Ai +
CA,
Al + A2 Its distance from the mean geometric chord of the
rectangular section is
- - [4. (X. + X)] + (As +
----
4s).
----

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If the root section is not rectangular, the method is
similar.
The mean aerodynamic chord may be determined also by the elemental
strip method. The location of the chord out from the side of the fuselage
-
or plane of symmetry may be expressed mathematically:
-
-
-
-
-
--

TC
-

S
CixCdx
SC Cdx
2(CC
-
)
-

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

FIGURE XVII-8. Reference diagram for mathematical calculation of the mean aero dynamic
chord.

The integration is best done mathematically by choosing an elemental strip of

width dx = unity. If the airfoil used is the same from root to tip, and the
angle of incidence of each strip is the same, Cż will cancel in the numerator
and the denominator. C is the chord at the distance x from the reference plane.

PLANFORMS AND TAPER RATIOS The taper ratio of wings varies

greatly, depending upon the speed range, span, aspect ratio and other similar
parameters. For structural con siderations, it should be obvious that if no other factors
need to be con sidered, a triangular planform assuming a uniform lift distribution per
square foot from root to tip would cause less bending moment at the root than a
rectangular wing of equal area. A triangular planform has an aspect ratio of
26/C, where b is the span and C is the chord at the longi tudinal plane of symmetry;
its geometric chord is equal to 2/3 C. To obtain good performance for subsonic
airplanes, an aspect ratio of at least 6 is to be expected. Thus the result here would be a
root chord of one third the span-an unusually large chord at the root which brings into
its wake several problems of structural arrangement control and stability.
Certainly, in the conventional airplane using the conventional horizontal and
vertical tail surface arrangements, the aircraft would be come unusually large.
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-
-
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--
-
-
-

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DESIGN OF THE WING

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311

Leading edge of wing perpendicular to plane of symmetry.

Trailing edge perpendicular to plane of symmetry.

Front spar perpendicular to plane of symmetry

Locus of aerodynamic centers perpendicular to plane of symmetry

Rear spar perpendicular to plane of symmetry

FIGURE XVII-9. Variation in wing planforms due to specified initial

conditions.
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-
-
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--
-
-

FIGURE XVII-10. A wing planform employing two different angles of sweepback to

reduce the effect of tip stall.
-

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

--
---
-
--
--
------

FIGURE XVII-11. A double delta-wing design for obtaining optimum

relative posi tions of the aerodynamic center and the center of gravity. Inner delta
incorporates air duct for jet engines. A low thickness ratio can be employed for the
outer delta. In spite of the low aspect ratio and small thickness ratio, the delta wing,
because of its large root chord, offers a relatively large volume and depth for ducts,
structure, and retraction of landing gear.

!
! Ideally, the wing planform should be planned so as to give an elliptical ?
lift
distribution at subsonic speeds. All other things being equal, an
elliptical planform would therefore be in order. However, because of
the structural problems presented by such a planform, it is seldom used, except for
some fabric-covered wings. The closest compromise to the elliptical
 planform for aerodynamic reasons, and to the triangular planform for
----
structural reasons is, then, the trapezoidal planform.
----

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-
-
-
-
-
--
-

FIGURE XVII-12. Three planforms of wings with pronounced sweepback.

-
-

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DESIGN OF THE WING
313

Typical taper ratios of root chord to tip chord are 2 to 1, 3 to 1, and, 3

to 2, with intermediate values. Rectangular planforms are also in the
running.
To help solve some of the different aerodynamic problems posed by very high-
speed aircraft, triangular planforms and inverse taper ratios have been
proposed and used. Some of these are discussed under "Sweepback."
Some unusual planforms are illustrated in this chapter. See also Figures XVII-9, 10,
11, 12.

SWEEPBACK FOR HIGH-SPEED AIRPLANES For aircraft operating at

high subsonic speeds, the use of the sweepback in the planform of the wing is
favored in order to increase the critical Mach number of the wing. Since the
thickness ratio t/C is measured for the section parallel to the plane of
symmetry, it can be made smaller. If, for example, a rectangular wing
planform of chord C and thickness were swept back an angle A, the
apparent thickness ratio, instead of t/C, would now be t/(C/cos A) or ( cos A/C.
For a tapered wing planform, the apparent thickness ratio would be even less.
Therefore, by sweeping the wing back, the critical Mach number--which is a function of
the thickness ratio--can be increased, while still maintaining a reasonable
thickness or depth for structural considerations.
However, unless steps are taken in the design of the wing, a highly swept-back
wing is liable to experience tip-stalling effects. As the angle
Greater tip-stall
tendency
Aspect ratio

Less tip-stall
tendency
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----

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0
-

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Sweepback angle B measured for quarter chord locus

80
-
-
-
-
-
--
-

FIGURE XVII-13. Suggested design limits for aspect-ratio determination based upon effect of
sweepback angle on tip-stall tendencies.
-
-

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

of attack of the swept-back wing is increased, the wing will stall at

the tips first, thereby reducing the lift at the tips. Since the lift on the swept
back tip has a large moment arm from the center of gravity, the pitching
moment is materially reduced so that a "pitch-up” occurs, increasing the
angle of attack still further. In addition to stalling the entire wing, the tip of the
wing losing the lift first will drop, and a spiral dive will ensue.
Sweeping the wing back produces two aerodynamic results. For the
ordinary non-swept wing, the pressure distribution spanwise drops off
towards the tip, whereas for the swept wing, the reverse is true. The increased
pressure distribution indicates that the lift coefficient is greater at the tip than
inboard, and therefore the tip of the wing will stall before the inboard
section.
Concomitant with the pressure distribution, there is an outflow from
the longitudinal plane of symmetry or a drift of the boundary
layer to wards the tip that tends to further complicate the problem of lift dis
tribution.
The tip-stalling tendency seems to be more pronounced with high aspect-ratio
wings than with low. Figure XVII-13 presents some design limits.
Various compromises are incorporated in the wing design to ameliorate the
tip-stall tendency. Such compromises may include (1) low aspect ratio
with large angle of sweepback, which leads to poor performance, (2)
the
wing fences on the top wing surface to reduce or prevent the outflow of
boundary layer, (3) wash-out of the wing tip, (4) choice of special
airfoils, (5) design of wing-fuselage combinations to promote stalling of
the wing near the root rather than at the tip, and (6) special planforms and aero-
elastic designs such as the inversely-tapered planforms, the "crescent"
wing and the "isoclinic" wing, and the "cranked" wing.
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FIGURE XVII-14. A variable-sweep wing would employ a normal, partially-swept

configuration for low subsonic-speed operations and a more swept-back version for
higher speeds. The aerodynamic center of the mean geometric chord would be used as the
approximate pivot point. A root cuff to accommodate the various positions of the wing would be
used to streamline the section. A complicated spar mechanism would have to be constructed to
permit variable sweep and to sustain the loads imposed upon the structure.
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
-

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DESIGN OF THE WING

315
-
-
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-

FIGURE XVII-15. A wing planform incorporating reversed taper as well as

sweep back.

To obtain better control, stability, and performance throughout the flight range, designs
have incorporated a variable sweep, making it possible to attain anything
from a wing planform with no sweepback to a planform with the
maximum sweepback. This compensates for shifts in center of gravity
and presents the optimum configuration for performance through out the
flight regime. A forward position is desirable for take-offs and landings, while a
 rearward position is best for high-speed flight. Figure XVII-14 is a
schematic illustration of the variable swept-back wing.
Figure XVII-15 demonstrates that an inversely-tapered wing counter acts
the reduction in lift distribution spanwise by committing more area

----- Locus of elastic centers - - Locus of aerodynamic centers

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FIGURE XVII-16. The "crescent” wing.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

---- Locus of aerodynamic

centers
-- Locus of elastic centers of
beam
idity Locus of elastic centers of beam of low torsional rigidity

FIGURE XVII-17. The "aero-

isoclinic" wing.

to the tip section and by increasing the chord length at the tip to increase the Reynold's
number for a better lift coefficient. The distribution of the lift farther outboard and
the decreased depth of structure at the root do involve some structural
penalties. With the inversely-tapered wing, there is less fuselage-wing
interference at the root.
Figure XVII-16 illustrates the "crescent” design developed in England. It employs three
sections having different sweepback angles: 50° at the leading edge for the
root section; 40° for the middle section; 30° for the tip section. The wash-
out due to bending in the middle section is offset by the wash-in due
to torsion caused by the loads on the tip section. Be cause of the smaller
 sweep of the tip section, the possibility of aileron reversal is minimized,
since the torsion of that section alone is less.
Figure XVII-17, shows the so-called "aero-isoclinic" wing. It is similar to the
"crescent" wing except that the different sections of the wing incorporate
varying degrees of torsional rigidity in order to counteract or reduce the wash-
out effects produced by the torsional moments imposed upon the wing
due to sweepback and particularly tip-stalls.
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FIGURE XVII-18. A "cranked” wing design proposed to counteract effects of “tip stall” and
consequent "pitch-ups."

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DESIGN OF THE WING
317
Effect of Wing Sweepback
Some discussion of sweepback has already taken place in considering
effective dihedral. In general, it may be said that sweeping of the wing back
decreases the maneuverability of the airplane since aileron control is impaired
and the damping moments in roll are impaired.
The effects of wing and fuselage mass distributions, wing loading, and wing
incidence and sweepback are increasingly important for high-speed
airplanes approaching or exceeding sonic speeds. They are also impor
tant, although to a lesser degree, for lower-speed airplanes.

DIHEDRAL The amount of dihedral that must be given to a wing must ultimately be
determined by wind-tunnel tests.
A wing equipped with flaps will probably require more dihedral than one without
since the span is relatively shorter for the former than for the latter. However, it is
not a question of lateral stability alone but of the relation of lateral to directional
stability as well.
It is customary to give at least 3 degrees up to as much as 6 degrees dihedral to
the wing. This may be given to the entire wing from the fuselage outward or
from the stub wing outward. Again, in the latter case more dihedral would be
required than for the former case.
 It is difficult to determine what the effective dihedral is for a wing ta pered in
planform and thickness. The angle measured between the plane, passed through
the mean aerodynamic chord and parallel to the locus of the aerodynamic centers
of the airfoils, and the horizontal plane, will give the accepted value.
In Figure XVII-19, (A) illustrates a negative dihedral angle often used to
counteract the effect of a high degree of sweepback. Some airplanes

(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)

FIGURE XVII-19. Various configurations showing dihedral. The angles have been exaggerated
in magnitude to show contrast. The dihedral angle is measured between the horizontal plane and a
plane through the locus of the aerodynamic centers of the airfoils.

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IS

show this droop appearance because of the aerodynamic twist of the wing rather than
the dihedral. The usual negative dihedral varies from 3 to 6 degrees.
(B) combines a negative dihedral for the root section and a positive dihedral for the tip
section. Such an arrangement may be employed to obtain shorter landing-
gear members or sufficient clearance for a nose propeller. The positive angle
of the dihedral in such a design is greater than in a wing that is entirely
at a dihedral angle. This serves both to counteract the negative dihedral
and to provide sufficient effectiveness for the smaller portion of the wing
affected. The positive dihedral would vary from 5 to 10 degrees, depending
upon the conditions involved.
(C) shows no provision for dihedral for the root section, but greater dihedral for the
tip section. Such a design might be employed to obtain suitable space in the
root section for landing-gear retraction or cargo, fuel, or several of these.
(D) represents the dihedral angle applied to the full wing span. The angle varies from 3 to
8 degrees.
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COMBINATION DIHEDRAL AND SWEEPBACK For high-speed
designs whose maximum speeds are approaching the velocity of
sound, extreme sweepback is used to obtain lower effective
Mach numbers, as noted in Chapter III. The extreme sweepback of the
wings has necessitated a decrease in built-in dihedral so that in
some cases negative dihedral is required. The incorporation of a
negative dihedral gives the front view of an airplane a "droop wing”
effect.
The dihedral for a conventional airplane improves the lateral stability since in an
asymmetrical gust, the airplane is rolled over into a sideslip with the
descending wing operating at a higher angle of attack, and there fore, greater lift
than the ascending wing. The effectiveness of the dihe dral for a given
airplane is measured by the rate of change of the rolling moment
coefficient with the angle of sideslip.
When the wing is swept back, the effective dihedral increases rapidly with change in the lift
coefficient of the wing so that the effectiveness is excessive. To decrease
this, negative dihedral has to be employed in combination with large
sweepback angles. The combination results in practically no effective dihedral
at low angles of attack or high-speed flight and reasonably effective dihedral at
high angles of attack or low speed, or take-off.
The effect on directional stability of the airplane (measured by the rate of
change with angle of sideslip) of increased negative dihedral is improved
with increasing angle of attack, while practically no effect is obtained on
directional stability by increasing positive dihedral when the
wing incor porates sweepback.

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Moreover, as far as pitching moments are concerned,
increasing positive dihedral with swept-back wings tends towards
longitudinal instability, while increasing the negative dihedral with a
swept-back wing tends to increase the longitudinal stability.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE Theoretically, an

airplane designed for high speed should have its wing
set at such an angle to the fuselage that the combination will give the
least possible drag. This setting is difficult to determine without wind-tunnel
tests, due to unknown interference effects. ZA good
compromise is to set the wing at an angle to the longitudinal
axis of the fuselage corresponding to the angle at which
minimum drag occurs.
Other considerations may be the deciding factors such as flap clearance in
the deflected position, or the inconvenient ground angle for the
fuselage when in the three-point landing position. The former case
usually requires a smaller fixed angle of wing setting while the latter
requires a larger angle of incidence.
To obtain a desired lift distribution of the wing especially near the tip where
premature stalling is undesirable, as well as to change the stalling
characteristics of different sections, the various airfoil sections are
given different angles of incidence which result in the so-called
aerodynamic twist. Formerly, wash-in and wash-out was resorted to for
the wing-tip section only, but it is now customary to study every section
along the wing and to develop the change of angles of incidence carefully
so that cer tain specific results may be obtained.
A wing is said to have zero aerodynamic twist when the zero lift lines of
all airfoils from the root of the wing outboard are parallel.
High-speed aircraft require low drag of the wing-fuselage
combination, especially at cruising speed at high altitude, with the
result that the angle of incidence of the wing with relation to the
fuselage axis is relatively large The resulting angle happens to be
useful in simplifying the landing-gear design since the fuselage
ground angle is reduced as well.
However, the large angle of incidence of the wing causes the airplane
fuselage to fly "nose-down” at high speeds. This negative inclination of
the fuselage tends to reduce the damping of oscillations
resulting from a sideslip, while the reverse is true when the
inclination of the fuselage is positive. The difference in the fuselage axis
and the wing chord axis causes coupling of inertia forces in such a
manner that a rolling accelera tion produces a yawing moment and a
yawing moment produces a rolling moment.
 For high-speed flight at high altitude, the thin wings have a relatively larger
angle of attack than might be expected for the subsonic designs. In
order to reduce the over-all drag of the wing and the fuselage, the wing
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speeds the
is set at a relatively larger angle of incidence to the fuselage so that at high
combination will present the optimum configuration. The angle of
incidence is dependent upon the airfoil chosen and the aspect ratio of the
wing. Whereas for subsonic designs, the angle of incidence of the root
chord to the wing is of the order of 1, 2, or 3 degrees, for tran sonic and
supersonic designs, the angle of incidence is about twice those values.

WING LOADING For high rates of climb and high

service ceiling, relatively low wing loadings (W/S) are required,
especially for the subsonic range.
If no lift-increase device is employed, the limitations on the wing load ing are (1)
the maximum lift coefficient obtainable, and (2) the permissible landing
speed, which is likely to be about the same as the stalling speed.
The personal or small executive airplane is likely to dispense with
lift increase devices because of the additional cost and the reduction
in the margin left for cargo and pay load. These aircraft are likely
to have
wing loadings between 10 and 18 pounds per
square foot.
For commercial airplanes, high speed-if any one performance charac teristic can
be singled out-is probably the determining factor in design. Assuming the
power or thrust is available, then in order to achieve the high speed,
relatively high wing loadings are necessary. Thus, for this class of airplanes,
 one may expect to find wing loadings of from 18 to 80 pounds per square foot.
To obtain reasonable landing speeds, lift increase devices—most of which
are more commonly known as wing brakes have to be incorporated into
the wing design. .
Military airplanes in the predominantly high-speed category are not necessarily
limited in landing speeds-certainly not to speeds of the order of
magnitude of 65 to miles per hour. To obtain high top speeds, it is also
necessary to raise the landing speeds. Here, the wing loadings are
likely to be exceptionally high-although lift-increase devices will prob ably
not be used-so that values between 45 and 70 pounds per square foot are
to be expected. Wing loadings up to 150 pounds per square foot are not
uncommon.
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ASPECT RATIOS Aspect ratios for wings operating at
subsonic speeds vary from 6 to 12, with the higher aspect ratio
usually indicated for turboprop-powered aircraft operating at high
altitudes. In order to make large aircraft economical, relatively high wing
loadings are required, resulting in rela tively small wetted surface
for the lifting surface as compared with the fuselage and engine
nacelles. To offset the larger proportion of the parasitic drag, the
induced drag can be materially reduced by incorpora

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tion of the high aspect ratio. Increasing the aspect ratio from 6 to 12 cuts the induced
drag in half. A better lift over drag ratio (L/D) for the complete airplane may
be expected throughout the entire flying range, and therefore better
performance is a result.
For the personal or private business airplane, aspect ratios between 5 and 8
are common.
Aspect ratios for high-speed airplanes operating at transonic or greater
speeds vary with the designs. Some idea of the selection of the
aspect ratio may be obtained from Figure XVII-13 which indicates the
relation ship between aspect ratio and sweepback angle. Based on
data for American transport airplanes, with gross weights between
5,000 and 150,000 pounds and operating at wing loadings between 18
and 80 pounds per square foot, the aspect ratios vary between 6.5 and
12, with the higher aspect ratios for the higher wing loadings. The
following linear relation ship gives a reasonable approximation:

AR = 5
+1
For speeds between 500 and 650 miles per hour, foreign fighter airplanes
have aspect ratios ranging between 4 and 7 for wing loadings between
44 and 72 pounds per square foot. The relationship between them may be
expressed as:
= 10.4 AR.

For aircraft operating at speeds between 400 and 800 mph, the follow ing empirical
formula based on thrust loading seems reasonable:

AR = 3 +
1.175

AIRFOIL THICKNESS AND THICKNESS RATIOS In

considering the relative suitability of an airfoil for locating the front and
rear spars of a two-spar system, the thickness ratios at various sta
tions along the chord with reference to the maximum thickness ratio may
be examined.
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Sin
ce
so =
May
and

NIR
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and
I = bds,
where d/2 is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the
section under consideration, where in this case d is the depth of
the airfoil at station under consideration,
then

forma
A "measure" may be devised by obtaining the ratio of d2 at any
station to the value of d2 for the maximum thickness of the airfoil.
TABLE XVII-1. Data calculated for a few representative
airfoils.

-
d

lo
%
%
%
%

7.5
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Chord NACA 23018 NACA 0018 | NACA 63018 NACA 643018 station
12/dmata d d2/dmeta d da/dmet2 d da /dmaz?
% 5.0 10.72 35.8 10.68 35.0 8.724 23.4 8.372 22.8
12.61 49.5 12.60 48.8 10.616 34.3 10.152 33.7 10.0 14.05 61.3 14.04 60.7 12.136 45.5 11.606
43.7 15.0 16.04 80.1 16.04 79.2 14.450
64.2
13.884 62.5 20.0 17.22 92.1 17.20 91.1 16.096
75.8
15.564 78.5 30.0 17.92 100.0 18.00 100.0 17.826 98.0 17.578 100.0 35.0
18.000 100.0 50.0 15.86 78.2 15.88 77.7 15.884 77.5
16.228
85.6 60.0 13.69
58.2
13.68 57.5 12.910 51.5 13.316
57.7 70.0 11.00 37.6 11.00 37.3 9.244 26.2 9.684 30.4 80.0 7.88
19.3
| 7.88
8.9 5.776 10.8

Chord stations and d are given in percentage of the wing chord.

It will be noted that relative depths and effectiveness of the NACA 23018
and NACA 0018 are the same. It will also be noted that locating the front
spar at 15% of the chord appreciably increases the moment of inertia.
Similar investigations may be made for other thickness ratios and are
equally applicable whether one, two, or more spars are employed, or
whether some other type of construction is used.
For subsonic airplanes, thickness ratios for the wing at the root may vary
from 12 to 21 per cent, with the smaller ratio possible for low-aspect ratio
wings. At the wing tip, either 9 to 12 per cent thickness ratios are
common.
As the speed of the aircraft approaches or exceeds the velocity of
sound, thinner airfoils are required. This makes thickness ratios of 7 to
10 per cent reasonably common. Indeed, thickness ratios of 5 per cent
or even less are being considered, especially for wings of low aspect ratios such
as the delta wings.

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WING-FUSELAGE CONFIGURATIONS A
discussion of various wing-fuselage configurations has been given
in Chapter II, Types of Airplanes. There is also some discussion
of this subject in Chapter XXI, The Fuselage. Every configuration
has certain advantages and disadvantages which the designer
must evaluate.
In the delta-wing designs, the fuselage becomes an integral portion of
the wing structure over the entire root-chord length since a multi-spar
design is usually employed. Moreover, due to the length of the root chord,
the depth of the wing becomes appreciable and easily accommodates the
fuselage requirements.

METAL WING CONSTRUCTION Y Since the wing

(considered as a structural unit) is essentially a beam, different
solutions are theoretically possible for a suitable internal struc ture.
Figure XVII-20 presents a number of these likely solutions, ar ranged
in order of increasing complexity of configuration.
Figure A may be used for high-speed aircraft employing relatively thin
wings. Its advantages are:
1. Distribution of material as far away from the neutral axis as
possible.
2. May be tapered in cross section spanwise, either through milling to the
proper thicknesses or through building up of excessive layers properly bonded
to each other.
3. Especially suitable for lifting surfaces having no attachments or
movable control surfaces.
The disadvantages may be listed as: 1. Difficulty in disposing control rods, cables, and
the like in the interior.
2. High weight, which may be attributed to the small depth available, since this
type of construction would probably not be utilized for deeper wing
sections.
Figure B is a modification of Figure A. The spanwise stiffeners are integrally
incorporated with the skin. This type of construction may be utilized for
deeper wing sections where the skin may be somewhat less, but may need
spanwise support.
Figure C is a design long considered. Variations of it have been used,
particularly for gliders.
Its advantages
are:
 1. The vertical shear-web spar may be located at the chord station of greatest
depth rather than at a station of less depth and may therefore sustain the
bending moment most efficiently.
2. The torsional moment may be taken care of by the wing
envelope. 3. The number of individual units is small.
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A A A A A

FIGURE XVII-20. Different methods of wing

construction.
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The disadvantages of the type of construction shown in Figure C may be
enumerated as:
1. The addition of aileron and flaps necessitate a supporting spar which, for optimum
design, might as well work in conjunction with the main spar. Thus, the
ultimate design of this type of structure would lead to a two-spar
structure.
2. The wing envelope has to be attached to the fuselage side in order to avoid
transferring torsional moments to the spar, which, unless it is itself of box
construction, would be an inefficient torsional member. The skin

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is of no benefit in carrying the wing bending moment. There may be handling

difficulties with thin skins.
3. The skin may form wrinkles when the spar bends and thus present a
poor aerodynamic form.
4. The skin is of no benefit for sustaining any bending moments, and may
therefore be a contributor of inefficient material leading to excess weight.
Figure D is a two-spar or multi-rib design with the chordwise ribs spaced
relatively close together. There are no spanwise stringers or stiffeners,
and the skin is subject to torsional stresses only.
The favorable aspects of this structural configuration
are:
1. No stringer cut-outs in ribs, thereby reducing fabrication difficulties and the
number of individual parts.
2. Minimum thicknesses, and therefore minimum weight of the sheet
covering.
3. Minimum weight penalty for cut-outs because the skin is less highly
stressed than in other forms of construction where it has to withstand both
shear and compression or shear and tension stresses.
4. Simplicity of construction of a two-spar system with load concentra tion in
the spar chords leads to simpler fittings, whether for attachment to the
fuselage or a wing folding joint, or for landing-gear attachments.
There are some disadvantages, such
as:
1. Relatively smaller effective depth for the spars, which are
usually located at about 15% and 70% of the chord.
Closer rib spacing is needed to carry the air loads into the spars which
are the main bending moment resistant members.
3. Undesirable wrinkling between ribs, leading to poor
aerodynamic form.
4. Possible handling difficulties with thin skin unless the skin thickness is
increased to enable it to carry some compressive stress.
Figure E illustrates one of the more popular types of construction used in
reinforced monocoque designs. Its advantages are:
 1. Utilization of the skin in bending as well as in
torsion.
2. Readily available means for resisting wrinkling or buckling of the
skin by supporting it in smaller panel sizes.
3. Relatively fewer ribs or formers and correspondingly fewer fabrica
tion difficulties.
4. Greater opportunity for distributing stresses caused by cut-
outs, attachments, and local loads.
5. Rugged construction leading to easy maintenance and handling.
No structure is without some attendant disadvantages. For Figure E, these are:
rs
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1. Tie-in with fuselage structure offers difficulties. 2. More riveting and bolting required than for other
types. Figure F depicts a multi-spar type which has these advantages: 1.
Unusually rugged construction suitable for rather large aircraft. 2. Relative ease in
taking care of cut-outs, attachments, and the like.
3. Possible "fail-safe" design since a local failure can be completely localized.
4. Wing deflections are less than for any other type shown. 5. Wrinkling of skin is minimized. 6.
Number of former ribs may be reduced. Among the disadvantages are: 1. More
fabrication. 2. Less accessibility to the interior due to greater compartmentization.
3. Possible greater structural weight due to inefficient use of material.
The final structure of the wing is dependent upon its final arrangement on the location of
the aileron, the flap, the fuel tanks, the retractable land ing gear, and any other
items peculiar to the particular design.
 FIGURE XVII-21. A cutaway sketch showing one type of metal wing
construction.
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In order to save weight, tapering of the wing cover as a function of the loading must be
considered for the thin wings operating at transonic or supersonic speeds.
Some of the recent designs have had thicknesses of 134 inches and more at the
root section. For missile designs, such wing covers may be cast from a
magnesium alloy. However cast wing covers are not used for manned
aircraft receiving repeated use, primarily because of the relatively low
strength characteristics and relatively poor resistance to vibration.

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FIGURE XVII-22. The underside of an inner wing panel showing numerous
cutouts for inspection purposes, retraction of landing gear, etc. Note
the spar fittings for attachment to engaging fittings at the fuselage.

SPARS AND THEIR LOCATION In general, a spar is thought of as a

member having a relatively large area of material in the
flanges, chords, or caps located at the top and bottom of the
member, with a relatively thin shear web connecting the two. It
may be classed as a tension-field beam or as a shear-resistant beam.
The tension-field beam allows the shear web to wrinkle, and
thus the transverse shear is resisted by tension in more or less
the same way as a wire-braced truss. Such beams have been
used extensively for aircraft because they are relatively light. For
examples, see Figure XVII-23. In some cases the deflection-
especially that due to shear has been con sidered excessive. The
wrinkling of the web would not occur until the limit load was imposed,
so that at loads less than the limit load, the spar could be considered
a shear-resistant beam.
The shear-resistant beam (See Figure XVII-24) is designed so that
the shear web will not wrinkle under limit loads. Shear-resistant
beams are often used in railroad-bridge construction when the
bridges are relatively short in span. In order to increase the shear
load that the web can with stand, stiffeners are attached at
specified intervals.
Beams such as I-beams and box spars may be classed in
either the ten sion-field or shear-resistant spar categories.
The fact that the line of demarcation between the tension-field and
the shear-resistant beams is not too precise makes detailed
stress analysis required. Should the web be designed so that it does
not buckle under
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----

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-
-
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O
Tololol

FIGURE XVII-23. Spars of the tension-field variety which show the various
designs possible.
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FIGURE XVII-24. The "tension-field" spar on the left, or modifications thereof, are in
common use. The one on the right shows a "shear-type" spar with lightening holes.

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the action of the limit load, the spar or beam would be considered
a normal shear-resistant beam; if allowed to buckle, it would be
considered a ten sion-field beam. A pure tension-field beam is
difficult to obtain, and most airplane spars fall in the semi-
tension-field category.
Since the dimensions of a spar obviously depend upon the loads
im posed and the depth of the wing available, it is difficult to give
many guiding dimensions. However in general, a tension-field beam
would have a shear web made of sheet material at least 0.025 inches
thick and chord members with thicknesses two or more times that of
the sheet. For a shear-resistant beam, extruded sections are common
where the thickness of the web is about the same order of magnitude
as the chord members.
Truss-type spars (See Figure XVII-25) have been used only rarely in
recent designs. For small aircraft, the truss-type spar has some merit
as far as weight is concerned.
For a mono-spar wing, the spar would be located at the maximum
depth of the airfoil.

SSSSSS

P
 -

FIGURE XVII-25. Suggested truss-type spar construction. Trusses are

used rela tively infrequently.
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For a two-spar system, the front spar is located at from 12 to 17 per> cent of the
chord, with the rear spar located at from 65 to 75 per cent of the wing chord.
While analyses could be made to determine the optimum spacing of a
two-spar system on the basis of center of pressure travel in the normal
flight regime and the load factors encountered at low and high angles
of attack (since not only the magnitude but also the distribution of

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I1III41

FIGURE XVII-26. A bolted fitting holding two sections of a spar together.

the loads has to be considered), the above percentages of chord

locations are common.
For a multi-spar design, it would be desirable to have the shear center of the structural
system coincide with the center of pressure. Since the center of pressure of the wing
varies with the angle of attack and there fore may vary as much as 25 per cent of
the chord (more with trailing edge flaps), it is difficult to pinpoint the desirable
location of the shear center.
Combination of spars and stringers, as well as the wing envelope, make up the
more common type of wing structures where the spars lose their identity to
some extent and are more commonly referred to as shear webs.
The spars vary not only in depth for the tapered wing, but also in the cross-
sectional area of the spar chords. If the spar chords are milled or forged, the
variation in cross-sectional area can be made without serious discontinuities.
In the built-up spar chords, plates may be added at the root, and then discontinued
at suitable intervals along the span. Since the spar members will most likely have to
be spliced, a reduction in thick ness can be made for the adjacent outboard
member. If two angles back to back form a Tee section for the inboard
section of the spar, one of the angles may be discontinued for the outboard
section. In case of any changes, special precautions must be taken to make sure
that the dis continuities in cross-sectional area are not too abrupt; otherwise fatigue
failures may result.
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SPANWISE STRINGERS AND THEIR LOCATION In an earlier
chapter, cross sections of typical spanwise stringers are shown. In the discussion on
“Metal Wing Construction," it is brought

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out that spanwise stringers serve to add to the bending

strength of the wing.
The spacing chordwise of these stringers is arrived at-as it is for the
ribs —by the optimum proportions of the wing-skin panels, which may be
determined from oil-canning considerations before the stress analysis
of the wing has been completed.
The stringers may be located at a constant percentage loci or spaced
equidistantly apart. Not all the stringers are carried out to the extreme tip
since the wing-tip portion is relatively more rigid-even for the mini
 mum structure-than the inboard sections. Carrying out all the stringers to the
extreme tip would result in an unnecessarily strong wing portion in that
area. Accordingly, the spanwise stringers are discontinued, a few at a
station, from about the mid-span outboard so as to avoid extreme
discontinuities in cross-sectional area. When stringers are
discontinued, they should have their ends attached to a transverse rib.
Usually the positive load factor will cause greater compressive loads on the top
surface of the wing than the negative load factor will cause on the bottom.
Therefore the stringers on the bottom surface can be lighter in gauge or
fewer in number.

RIBS AND THEIR LOCATION The primary functions of the ribs in the wing
are (1) to maintain the chordwise shape of the airfoil, (2) to act as
supports for the panels of the wing skin or envelope, and (3) to
transmit the pressures on the wing to the

RAAMAAN
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FIGURE XVII-27. Cross sections of a metal wing. In the top illustration,
corru gated sheet with a smooth skin on the outside, serves the same
function as spanwise stringers. In the bottom illustration, truss-type ribs,
spanwise C-sections, and tension field spars show one type of metal wing
construction. Plain transverse former ribs of C-sections may be employed
without resorting to any of the truss-type bracing.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
FIGURE XVII-28. A section of a wing showing spars, transverse ribs, and longi tudinal
stringers, all of metal construction. The metal skin is attached to spars, ribs, and
stringers.
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spanwise bending members. In some cases, they also serve to act as the
supporting members to which landing-gear members or engine-mount members
are attached, or as supports for fuel tanks, control systems, and localized loads. In turn,
such ribs transmit the loads to the spanwise spars.
The spacing of ribs may be determined by the need to prevent oil
ng of the skin or by the optimum panel proportions, as discussed in an earlier chapter.
For preliminary considerations, rib spacings from 6 to 18 inches may be
assumed.
Ribs are located at or near centerlines of aileron and flap hinges of fitting attachments
and other supports.
Figures XVII-27, 28, 29 show some rib constructions. It is customary to assemble the
ribs in three sections—the nose section, the center, and the trailing edge sections—
in order to avoid any cut-outs of the spars. The ribs are notched for the spanwise stringers,
which should also be con tinuous members.
Unless the transverse ribs have to transmit concentrated loads, the thickness of
the sheet used in their construction may be one gauge lighter than the skin covering
of the wing.
Where concentrated loads are applied to transverse ribs, the rib struc ture has to
be carefully designed to take the shears and bending moments imposed.

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[OόO
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FIGURE XVII-29. Various metal rib configurations. Flat sheet, beaded and light ening holes add to
the rigidity of the wing. Truss-type ribs utilize U-sections for added column strengths for the
diagonals. Former ribs, top and bottom, are simplest in form and are generally satisfactory for
wings utilizing occasional ribs of the more rigid type. The ribs shown are center-section ribs; the
nose and tail portions are of similar construction or utilize methods of other ribs shown for their
construction. Ribs are riveted, by means of integral flanges or separate brackets, to the faces of
the spars or shear webs. The top three ribs show cut-outs for transverse stringers. The skin
covering offers continuity of structure since it is riveted to the ribs and the spanwise stringers.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN
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(d
)

(e
)
From this point
outboard, the
bending moments for
all these cases are the
same
 FIGURE XVII-30. The effect of wing support on
bending moments.
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WING-FUSELAGE ATTACHMENTS The problem of providing
attachments for the wing structure to the fuselage merits considerable
attention and detailed study, except for the flying wing or some delta-
wing designs where the fuselage becomes practically an integral
part of the wing structure.
If no other considerations but the structural were involved, it would be desirable
to support a wing not only at the fuselage, but at some point outboard. The two-
spar wing lends itself most conveniently to the ex ternal support.
The effects of different methods of wing support are illustrated in Figure XVII-30.
Figure A shows two external configurations for the same wing spar one full cantilever
when the lift strut, shown dotted, is supplied.
Figure B illustrates a spanwise lift loading, making no allowance for tip losses which
would be the same regardless of the wing support.
Figures C, D, and E present the spanwise distribution of the
bending

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DESIGN OF THE
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3
3
5
moment when (in C) the wing is full cantilever; when (in D) the wing is
externally supported and pinned at the fuselage; when (in E)
the wing is externally supported and fixed at the fuselage. The pinned
condition is obtained by the use of a single pin placed parallel to the wing
chord. For a pinned connection, no bending moment can be
transmitted to the ad jacent structure. For a fixed condition, two or
more horizontal pins placed parallel to the chord are common. A
vertical pin accomplishes the same result-a many-riveted or bolted
connection tying the wing spar to the fuselage structure. In all cases where
the lift struts are employed, pin connections are used at the ends, with
 the pin parallel to the wing chord or line of flight so that only axial loads
are imposed upon the struts.
Schematic diagrams of various externally-supported wing configurations are
shown in Figure XVII-31.
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FIGURE XVII-31. Various external support arrangements for a
semi-cantilever wing.
The primary advantage of supporting a wing externally is that the re duction
in bending moments imposed produces a lighter structure. If a smaller
bending moment is imposed, a thinner wing, (i.e., a wing of a lower
thickness ratio) could be used. If the wing can be pin-connected to the
fuselage, that structure will be subjected to axial or direct loads only,
and there will therefore be fewer complications in the design of the
fuselage structure at that point. Any gains in the wing construction
may be offset by the additional supporting structure.
Schematic diagrams of full cantilever wing attachments to the fuselage are
given in Figure XVII-32 and are described as follows:
Figure A. The fuselage transverse frame and wing spar assembled
as

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
www
w
FIGURE XVII-32. Some schematic illustrations of
wing-fuselage attachments. an integral structure.
The continuous structure is provided by riveting or
bolting of frame to spar web.
Figure B. A full-cantilever wing can be detached at
the fuselage by the removal of one or more
vertical pins at the spar fitting.
Figure C. An alternative to the vertical pin is the
provision for two or more horizontal pins located
parallel to the plane of symmetry of the fuselage.
Figure D. Bending moments of the wing are not
transmitted to the fuselage frame, making for a
lighter fuselage frame structure.
Figure XVII-33 shows a detail of a spar
juncture at the fuselage. The

EINETEITERE

2.000.
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700000

FIGURE XVII-33. A detail of a spar juncture at

the fuselage.
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DESIGN OF THE
WING
33
7

FIGURE XVII-34. In order to make the stringers effective at the fuselage juncture,
they have to be tied in the transverse frames of the fuselage. The above
schematic sketch shows the individual fittings attaching the stringers to the
fuselage frame. Another method is shown in the connection of one wing section to another
by means of an external ring (of which only a short section is shown in the sketch). The
load from the stringer is transmitted gradually to the ring by means of the
gusset or doubler plate.

fuselage fitting has to tie in with a rigid transverse fuselage frame. The wing-
spar fitting for a tension-field spar would be similar as that shown
in the
illustration.
Figure XVII-34 indicates the proper treatment of a wing having a number
of spanwise stringers. In order to make these stringers fully
effective at the root, they would have to tie into a rigid circumferential
chordwise ring, or each stringer would have to be tied, by simple bolt.
fittings or a multi-riveted plate, to the transverse frames of the
fuselage.
 FABRIC-COVERED WING
CONSTRUCTION
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The primary structure of the wing consists of the spars, compression ribs,
and drag wires. The compression ribs are so spaced that the result ing truss
approximates a square, although they may be spaced farther apart
towards the tip of the wing. The spacing may be determined by hinge
locations for flaps or ailerons, and also by the lateral buckling
strength of the spars whose effective column length in the case
of lateral buckling is determined by the compression-rib
spacing.
Compression ribs or members do not need to conform to the regular
rib dimensions. Any column, whether plywood, built up to form an I-
section,

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- Anti-drag wire
Front spar
Leading
edge
Compression
rib
www
J.
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Rear spor )
Trailing edge
Drag wire - FIGURE XVII-35. Name designations of the principal or
primary structure of a fabric-covered wing. plain board, one or two
steel tubes, or a built-up aluminum alloy box, would be
satisfactory.
Drag bracing usually consists of a double set of wires for internally
braced wings. These wires are spaced as far apart as the depth
of the wing will permit in order to increase the torsional strength
of the wing. Externally braced wings may have a single set of drag
truss wires if the overhang of the wing tip is not greater than the
mean chord of the wing. Instead of wires, compression members
along one diagonal may be used. However, these are not so
readily adjustable nor so light as wire bracing.
The trailing-edge portion is reserved for lift-increase devices and
ailer ons. The hinges for these devices may be located on the back
face of the rear spar, or if this is too far away from the leading edge of
the aileron or the flap, a false spar may be inserted, usually parallel to
the leading edge or the spar of the flap or aileron. The rib structure
of the main wing is continued in the movable surface. A single spar
to which the operating mechanism is attached is the main structural
member of these movable surfaces.
The fabric covers the rigid structure, is sewn into place, and doped
as well as painted to give the finished wing.
The fabric-covered, two-spar wing, used most extensively on rela tively small
and slow-speed designs, has the front spar located between 12 to 17 per cent
of the chord in rear of the leading edge of the wing, and the rear spar
between 65 to 70 per cent of the chord in rear of the leading edge
of the wing.

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 DESIGN OF THE
WING
33
9

These spars are spaced at a constant percentage spanwise, although they

may be equally spaced provided the taper ratio of the wing planform is not
too great. In the latter case, equidistant spacing may cause relatively
too close spacing near the root and too large spacing near the tip for
economical design.
some wings of tapered planform, the spars are not placed either
equidistant or at a constant percentage from the leading edge in
order to obtain some particular structural feature, such as suitable
spar attach ments at the fuselage or to obtain enough space for a
retractable landing gear well.
When spars are equidistant, it is possible to slip the ribs over the spars from
the tip end, but modern construction of ribs usually calls for three
sections-nose, center, and trailing edge section so that another
assembly method may be used.
Wood or metal may be used for either the spars or ribs or both.
Spars and ribs may be made of the same material.
The ribs are spaced from about 6 to 14 inches apart depending upon the
speed of the airplane. Recommendations for rib spacing for fabric-
covered wings may be obtained from Figure XVII-37.
This spacing is based upon the gliding (or diving) speed and may be
assumed to be about 1/2 times the maximum speed attained (or
expected)
SS

Sigoo Joo %600000

ОПОооооооор
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FIGURE XVII-36. Samples of wooden rib construction for two-spar wings. These
could be made of metal with a little modification, as shown, for example, in the third
illustration from the top.
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AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
in horizontal flight. The chord line of the ribs is placed parallel to the axis
of symmetry (longitudinal axis) of the airplane. The ribs are
usually parallel to the longitudinal vertical plane of symmetry
of the airplane.
A piece of sheet metal or plywood covers the nose section so that the doped fabric
maintains its shape properly. Where rib spacing is quite large compared to
the thickness of the nose covering, extra nose ribs be tween the
standard ribs may be inserted.
Wherever compression ribs or members are located in the drag truss, or where there
are hinge connections, concentrated loads are applied to the spar, so that
local reinforcements are required. In the case of wood spars, extra plies are
glued to the sides, or a solid block is inserted in the box-type spar. Metal
spars have extra plates riveted or bolted to the sides to trans mit the load
properly.
For fabric-covered wings, the maximum spacing of rib lacing may be
determined from the accompanying graph. These values are based on wing
designs incorporating leading-edge supports such as plywood, metal, or
subribs.
OS

roble
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 Acceptable for
light
airplanes
səyəw) bunso, al zo bugods wnurkow
saygu, save and be a
Maximum spacing of
Spacing of ribs
Spacing of rib lacing
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டடடடடடடட 100 150 200 250 300
Va, miles per
hour

FIGURE XVII-37. Graph for determining spacing of fabric attachment. VG is the design
dive speed or design glide speed. (Adapted from C.A.M.04.)

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DESIGN OF THE
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1

In the slipstream, use 75 per cent factor for lacing and rib spacings, ex cept
that lacing spacing need not be less than 1 inch; aft of 30 per cent chord
point, when aft portion only is fabric covered, lacing and rib spac ings may
be increased by 25 per cent. The lacing should be carried to leading
edge when velocity exceeds 275 miles per hour.
An externally braced wing could be either pin-ended or fixed-ended at
the juncture of the wing spar with the fuselage. For pin-type ends,
a male and female fitting with a single horizontal bolt is the usual solution.
No vertical bending moments can be transmitted through such a joint,
a necessary condition for a pin joint. For fixed ends, a male and female
fit ting with a single vertical bolt or tapered pin for alignment
purposes is a common solution where the bearing loads are not
excessive. Another solution is the use of two horizontal bolts. For
 transmitting large bend ing moments (that is, fixed ends),
continuity may be obtained by a series of bolts, or rivets, or other pin
connections.
The lift struts supporting externally braced wings are pin-connected at their
ends with one horizontal bolt parallel to the plane of symmetry at each
end of the strut. No bending moment from the wing should be
transmitted from the wing to the strut.
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AILERONS Figure XVII-38 shows a few possible
planforms (A to F) for ailerons, and
some aileron
sections (G to T). Figure A of this group
shows an aileron which diminishes in effectiveness at high
angles of attack, although very effective at low angles. Figure B
shows the aileron slightly too far inboard which is particularly
undesirable when the maximum span for a flap as a lift-increase
device is required.
Figure C is a bad combination of a relatively good aileron and a bad
wing tip in that the same effect is obtained as for Figure A.
Figures D, E, and F show generally desirable planforms. An
aileron preferably should be not more than 25 per cent of the
chord although 30 per cent is common when flaps are used for
increased lift.
Figure G is a plain aerodynamic balanced aileron. Figure H shows
a balanced aileron of the Frise type, and Figure I a modified Frise type.
Figure J is the Handley-Page balanced type Figure K is a balanced aileron
with a deflector plate. Figures L and M, both shown in neutral position,
are
distinguished respectively by variable and constant slot
widths. Figure N is the piano-hinged type. Figure O shows the slot-tip
type. Figure P illustrates the retractable-spoiler type, Figure Q the
floating wing-tip type, Figure R another retractable-spoiler type.
Figure S is a conventional narrow-chord aileron with the flap ahead of
it. Figure T is an upper-surface aileron.

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342
BƏ Tes dos

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UUUUU
AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL
 UNIVERSITY
OF
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UNIVERSITY OF
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from
FIGURE XVII-38. Aileron planforms and sections.
DESIGN OF THE
WING
34
3

The next question that arises is whether the aileron should

be aerody- 7 namically balanced. For relatively slow-speed
airplanes and possibly for high-speed airplanes utilizing
auxiliary mechanical, electrical, or hy... draulic aid,
unbalanced ailerons may be used.
The leading edge preferably should not project beyond the normal con
tour of the wing when deflected, since ice may form on the
leading edge of the control surface.
In order to reduce the manual effort to operate ailerons, a type of servo
control has been devised whereby a small surface is deflected in
order to move a larger surface.
For control purposes, these trailing-edge flaps or tabs should
have as high an aspect ratio as possible and about 10 to 12 per
cent of the total movable area. A smaller percentage is sufficient
when the tab is intended for trim purposes. Reference to
Chapter XIX, Tail Surfaces, should be made for further
explanations.
The aileron's primary function is to rotate the airplane about its longi
tudinal axis. In general, any method that would increase or
decrease the lift on one side relative to the other would meet the objective.
Various devices have been invented and applied to flying designs. A
few may be briefly mentioned here.
1. The spoiler. A small slat usually raised near the top surface of the wing near
the leading edge. This is still used in conjunction with the flap type aileron.
2. Opening ports on one side to destroy the lift. Such a scheme is highly
effective for high angles of attack or low speeds, but ineffective at high
speeds. Moreover, the control system is not a continuous one in that
 the control stick would have to disengage the control system for one side be
fore engaging that of the other side.
3. Floating ailerons which are extensions spanwise at the wing tips These
small wings of symmetrical cross section are permitted to float at
zero lift, regardless of the wing's angle of attack, and are therefore
effective for any angle of attack. Such ailerons require relatively more
area than the flap type, and while they may increase the apparent
aspect ratio of the wing, this gain is offset by the parasite resistance of
these surfaces.
4. The differentially-operated flap, which is the most commonly used device.
5. Other devices can easily be envisaged that would meet the require ments for
rotating the airplane.
The aerodynamic characteristics of the flap-type aileron are defined by the
following equations for:

1. Rolling
moments
L = Ciswbq;
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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

2. Yawing
moments
N=
Chswbq;
3. Hinge
moments
H = CAS
Cad;
where L, N, and H are moments expressed in
foot-pounds,
C1, Cn, and Chare, respectively, the non-dimensional
rolling, yawing,
and hinge-moment coefficients for the aileron, Sw is the wing area in square feet, Sa is the
aileron area in square feet, b is the wing span in feet, q is the dynamic
pressure, in pounds per square foot, at the velocity,
V, of the airplane, and Ca is the aileron chord.
Ideally, the rolling-moment characteristics of the ailerons or equivalent devices should
be high, the yawing moment should be relatively small or zero, and the
hinge moments should be within the normal capacities of the control system.
To explain further, it is obvious than efficient or most effective aileron system is one that
requires a relatively small proportion of the wing area. The measure of
effectiveness is gained in flight tests, and for the subsonic region,
combined lateral stability and control are usually specified as follows:

With the rudder locked, and the stick or control wheel thrown hard over, the airplane
should:
1. Reach its maximum rolling velocity in not more than 0.2 seconds later;
2. Should attain a rolling
velocity such that
20 >
0.07,
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where p is the maximum rolling velocity in radians per
second,
b is the span of the wing, in feet,
and
V is the true forward airspeed of the airplane in feet per second; 3. At
any speed below 80 per cent of maximum level flight speed, should attain
the desired value of pb/2V without exceeding control forces of 80
pounds for the wheel, or 30 pounds for the stick-type of control.
With the rudder held fixed, and the airplane flying at 110 per cent of its minimum speed,
the craft should not sideslip more than 20 degrees due to the yaw created by
fully deflected ailerons.

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DESIGN OF THE WING
345

In a sideslip:

1. The rolling moment obtained should vary smoothly with the sideslip
angle;
2. Aileron control should always be necessary to depress the leading
wing as sideslip is increased;
3. The tendency of the aileron to return to its trim position should in crease
with increase of sideslip.
To obtain the desired lateral stability, low-wing monoplanes usually require 4 to 8
degrees more dihedral than high-wing monoplanes.

The greater the lateral stability induced by the dihedral and/or sweep back effect of the
wing, the larger the aileron area has to be to counteract
such effects.
Ailerons of the flap type produce an adverse yawing moment-adverse
e the moment tends to turn the airplane out of its designated turn. Variable aileron
types produce different magnitudes of such yawing mo ments. Differentially-
operated ailerons are those whereby the down-going aileron travels through a
greater angle than the up-going aileron.
Figure XVII-39 shows a typical case of the effectiveness of the aileron changes
with the angle of attack.
Rolling moment in
inch pounds

100
200
300
400
500
60°
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Adverse yawing moment in in.-Ibs.

FIGURE XVII-39. Typical rolling and moment variation with anuglar deflection of the ailerons and
the angle of attack of the wing.
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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

The hinge moments have to be overcome by the pilot at the control stick or wheel. If they
are too large, auxiliary boosting systems actuat ing hydraulic or electrical
mechanisms have to be employed. Since the greater the ratio of flap chord
to wing chord, the greater the hinge moments produced, the general
compromise is not to exceed an aileron-chord to wing chord ratio of 25
per cent. The hinge moments may be reduced in magni tude either by
forward aerodynamic balancing of the surface or by aero dynamic
balancing through the use of trailing-edge tabs. The systems employed for
elevators and rudders are applicable here, and reference should be made
to Chapter XIX, Tail Surfaces, for further information on this subject.
Aileron areas vary from 8 to 12 per cent of the total wing area (including the aileron area,
which is considered as part of the wing area).
Figure XVII-40 gives some guiding dimensions for determining the cross section
of an aileron located in the trailing edge of a wing. The dimensions may have
to be modified since the depth of airfoils vary.

0.0
05
-0.25
C
0
.25
x

0.1
07
0.25
C

0.005
C
0.250 ochro
 10.250

CR

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0.1C
T
0.005 C+ 0.005 C
0.25
0
C

Radius R variable FIGURE XVII-40. Typical aileron (or

flap) dimensions. The aerodynamic balance may vary between 15
and 35 per cent of the aileron chord.

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.
.
.

DESIGN OF THE
WING
34
7
For delta-wing designs, particularly, the aileron function is combined with the function
of the elevators so that the control surfaces combining both functions
are known as “elevons.” The control system has to be so arranged that
the surfaces can be operated differentially as ailerons, and together in the
same direction as elevators.

LIFT-INCREASE DEVICES AND SPOILERS Figure XVII-41

A represents a so-called plain flap of the type commonly used for
ailerons. An aileron-flap combination could be employed whereby
the aileron function would take place from any flap position
In Figure B, a specially-designed slot has been incorporated just ahead
of the flap leading edge to provide a less turbulent airflow over the flap in
the deflected position.
In Figure C, a second slot has been incorporated in the design in order to
obtain a higher lift coefficient and less turbulent airflow aft of the flap.
In Figure D, the Handley-Page slot and flap are shown. This combina tion
offers a number of possibilities. The slot can be brought out into position
automatically by virtue of the suction pressure at the leading
edge at high angles of attack. If the slot is connected to the flap by a suitable
linkage mechanism, the flap can be depressed at the same time. The
design must ensure fool-proof mechanical operation, since the front
slot, because of its shallow dimensions, is difficult to make reasonably rigid.
Under icing conditions it would have to be heated, lest ice interfere with its
operation.
In Figure E, the Wragg flap or external airfoil flap not only increases the
lift due to flap action, but also increases the effective wing area.
Figure F is a split flap in which the recessed portion may be
deflected downward while the top half remains fixed in place. A
variation uses a movable top split flap as well. This flap, moving up
while the other moves down, acts primarily as a spoiler to create
more drag and is there
fore useful in the landing
approach.
Figure G is a split flap which moves rearwardly and down, thus increas ing
the wing area and providing additional lift action when deflected. The
famous Fowler flap employs a recessed airfoil section for such a flap. This
type gives the highest increase in the maximum lift coefficient ob
tainable.
There are other devices for increasing lift which are not shown. There has been some
study on a series of smaller recessed airfoils which when extended
give a "Venetian-blind" appearance.
Boundary layer control offers much promise both in increasing the
maximum lift coefficient and in decreasing the drag coefficients. The
advent of the turbo-jet engine promises to solve some of the problems
 involved in getting enough air of sufficient pressure from a reliable
source.
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FIGURE XVII-41. Lift-increase devices: (A) plain flap; (B) slotted flap; (C) double
slotted flap; (D) Handley-Page slot and flap; (E) external airfoil flap; (F) split flap; (G) split
Aap with a rear hinge point—the flap may have an airfoil shape as for the Fowler flap.
348

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DESIGN OF THE WING

349
TABLE XVII-2. Maximum lift coefficients for various lift-increase devices.
(See Figure XVII-41 for reference.)

Flap
Description or
diagram
a, de Maxi- grees L/D
| for at CL CLmar Clmaz
NACA reference
data
mum
.

-,085
1.29 1.95
TN459 TR427

1.98
TR427

1.84
TN459
2.18
3.7
TR427

3.36
3.7

TN459

2.16
Clark Y airfoil
Basic airfoil Plain Aap (Figure A) Chord .30 CW
deflected 45° Slotted flap (Figure Chord .30 CW
B)
deflected 45° Handley-Page auto
matic slot Handley - Page slot Chord .30 Cw
and flap (Figure D) deflected 45° Handley - Page slot Chord .40 Cw
and Fowler flap deflected 45° Split flap (Figure F) Chord .30 Cw
deflected 45° Fowler flap (Figure Chord .30 Cw
G)
deflected 40° Double slot and flap Chord .30 Cw
(Figure C)
deflected 45° NACA 23012
Basic airfoil Plain flap (Figure A) Chord .25 Cw Slotted flap (Figure Chord .25 Cw
B).
deflected 30° Split flap (Figure F) Chord .25 Cw
deflected 30° Fowler Aap (Figure Chord 25Cw
deflected 30° Wragg or external air- || Chord .200 W
foil flap (Figure E) deflected 30°
-.740 - 250 -.660
TN422

2.82
4.55
TR534
2.44

1.3
-.024
-.30
2.15 2.65
TR824 TR644 TR644
.36
11 1
2.26
TR644

2.9
TR664
1
G)
2.45
1
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In addition to flaps being located at the trailing edge, there may be
others positioned anywhere along the chord on either the top or lower
surface. In these locations, the flaps serve primarily as spoilers to kill the lift
and increase the drag. If used differentially at the wing tips, such
spoilers assist the normally operating ailerons. They are also quite
useful at high angles of attack when normal ailerons are often not ef
fective enough, especially when other flaps are employed for lift-increase
purposes. When not used for aileron action, spoilers are utilized to reduce
the landing speed and length of landing run.
Airplanes employing any lift-increase device are essentially two air planes in
one-one operating without such devices, another operating with them.
Accordingly, the effect upon stability and therefore the design considerations for
the tail surfaces are different for the two cases
The tail surfaces are likely to be "blanketed” by the wing and flaps; that
is, the airflow behind the wing may be both turbulent and low in

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speed, with the result that the horizontal tail surfaces do not operate
under favorable conditions.
• Since the center of pressure moves rearward along the chord, the ef fective
tail moment arm is decreased and the moment coefficient about the original
aerodynamic center is increased. The ratio of the horizontal tail surfaces to the basic
using the flaps than for an airplane not
wing area is therefore greater for an airplane
using them. Accordingly, the degree of static stability is different. An
airplane designed to have ade quate stability when flaps are employed will have
more than adequate static longitudinal stability when the flaps are not in use.
Pertinent NACA reports should be referred to for a list of likely values to be
obtained for the lift, drag, and hinge moment coefficients. These are given for full-
span flaps on test models under two-dimensional testing conditions. In the
actual application, the flaps seldom extend over the full span of the wing, nor is the
wing likely to be identical with that used in the test. Some qualifications in the data
used are therefore always necessary, but reasonable estimates are still possible until
particular tests are made.
In general, it may be said that the maximum lift coefficient obtainable for a
given flap configuration is possible for any airfoil, regardless of what
its maximum lift coefficient may be when no flap is used. Therefore, an
XXIIIII

Increment of maximum lift coefficient

Chmer =(Charloosic - Cumar device
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0
10
20 30 40 50 Flap deflection, in degrees
60

FIGURE XVII-42. Typical curve showing rate of increase of maximum lift coefficient with flap deflection.
Curve shown is for a split flap with a chord of 20 per cent of the wing chord, Cw'.

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DESIGN OF THE WING

351

Angle of Flap
incidence of wing
 deflection FIGURE XVII-43. Flap clearance as affected by wing
setting.

airfoil chosen because of its pre-eminently low drag

coefficients especially in the low angle of attack and high-speed
range will be able to have a sufficiently high maximum lift coefficient
with the use of flaps.
The maximum lift coefficient is usually obtained at a flap deflection
of 90 degrees, but since the value of the lift coefficient tends
to become asymptotic after a deflection of 40 to 45 degrees
(see Figure XVII-42), it is seldom desirable to consider a
deflection greater than 45 degrees.
The hinge moment coefficients increase both with the ratio
of flap chord to wing chord and with the angular
deflection of the flap. The magnitude of these hinge
moments often limits the flap chord to about 20 per cent of the
wing chord and to a maximum deflection of about 30
degrees. For low wing designs, the ground clearances
required (see Figure XVII-43) may also influence the positioning
and the deflection of the flap.

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FIGURE XVII-44. Areas of different lift qualities.

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devoted to the rest of

or an airplane equipped with conventional size ailerons, and with flaps
the span not covered by the ailerons, the maximum lift coefficient for the
entire wing area is often arbitrarily assumed to have been increased 40 per
cent.
A more analytical method is to calculate the "effective" maximum lift coefficient
(refer to Figure XVII-44), as follows: [(CL
maz)(areas A + D) + (1.7 CL
maz) (areas B+ C) + (0.1 CL maz) (area E)]
• (areas (A + B + C + D)] = effective
Clmaz, where 1.7 Clmaz represents a 70 per cent
increase in lift due to the flap.
The area covered by the fuselage is normally not included in the wing area,
but if a flap is made continuous across the bottom of the fuselage, additional
lift results, depending upon the type of fuselage. This addi tion has been
estimated at one-tenth of the maximum lift coefficient in the empirical
formula just given.
A recent development of a lift-increase device has been a so-called nose flap or "droop
snoot” whereby the forward portion of the wing nose is rotated downward as
much as 60 degrees. Several illustrations are shown in Figure XVII-45. Wind-
tunnel investigations of a laminar-flow air foil equipped with such a nose
indicated that the lift coefficient could be increased by about 30 per cent, and
almost 60 per cent in conjunction with a trailing-edge flap.
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FIGURE XVII-45. Nose slats and flaps. The chord is usually about 10 per cent of the
wing chord.

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353

Front spor
Rear spar
WENN
ANNON

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New
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Aileron

Flap
2 Line A
L Distance B
Longitudinal - plane of symmetry

FIGURE XVII-46. Suggestions for

locating spars, ailerons, and flaps on
a wing. Front spar is located from 12% to
17% of the chord. Rear spar is located from
65% to 70% of the chord. Line A should
be parallel to the line of flight. Distance
B is that between the centerline of the spar
and the leading edge of the aireron or flap;
allow from 2% to 5% of the chord.

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mm
 FIGURE XVII-47. A cutaway sketch of a wing
flap. The cambered surface of the flap need
not be covered for a split flap unless
unusual rigidity is required.

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The nose flap also increases the angle of attack at which the maximum lift
coefficient is obtained over that for the basic airfoil, evidently because the
nose flap aligns the airflow better at the stall. However, even so, the
position of the flap is critical.
Another good feature of the nose flap is that the additional pitching
moment created by the nose flap is not so great, at least at low angles
of attack, as by the trailing-edge flap; at high angles of attack, the
effective pitching moment tends to decrease, thereby maintaining
approximately the same longitudinal stability for the airplane without the
use of the nose flap.
FIGURE XVII-48. “Wing fences" used to prevent drift of boundary layer towards the tip. Note the
"wing fences" on the vertical tail surfaces.

WING FENCES Wing fences have been employed for the

transonic and supersonic air planes to prevent the outward flow
of the boundary layer. These fences consist of essentially
simple vertical surfaces, about 4 inches or less in height,
attached to the top surface of the wing and extending from the
leading edge of the wing to the leading edge of the flap or
aileron. Usually two such fences are used on each half of the wing,
sectioning the wing semi-span into about three equal lengths. (See
Figure XVII-48.)
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EFFECT OF WING MASS
DISTRIBUTION
The addition of engines, fuel, bombs, and other similar concentrated weights along the
wing of the airplane increases the rolling and yawing moments of inertia
so that the normal size ailerons provide reduced rolling

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5

accelerations and thereby require a longer time to attain a given angle of bank.
Likewise, the increased moments of inertia reduce the desired
oscillatory stability, and increase the time for the airplane to
damp out oscillations. It has been found that this effect was small for low
values of effective dihedral but became increasingly undesirable for high
values of effective dihedral, especially when the ratio of vertical tail surface
area to the wing area is small. The solution for high moment of inertia
would be either increased vertical tail surface area with relation to the
wing, or low effective or negative dihedral, or both. Gusts or turbulent air do
 not affect an airplane with a high value of moment of inertia as much as
one with a low value of the moment of inertia; but due to poor
damping, steady flight is hard to obtain and rough rides may result.

EFFECT OF WING LOADING While ordinarily the

wing loading is given as the ratio of the gross weight of the
airplane to the wing area, it has recently been pointed
out that the relative density of the airplane (that is, the density
of the airplane divided by
the density of the surrounding air)
would be more appropriate. The general effect of increasing the
airplane relative density either by increas ing
the wing loading at sea
level or flying it at high altitudes where the air density is less is
the same. In both cases the degree of the lateral stability is
decreased.
The solution would be to increase the ratio of the vertical tail area to the
wing area in order to obtain an equivalent value of effective dihedral.
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FLUTTER PREVENTION Precautions must be
taken in the design of the wing to prevent flutter. Some
recommendations are:
(a) Structural stiffness. (b) Elimination of all play in
hinges and control system joints. (c) Rigid
interconnection between ailerons. (d) A relatively
high degree of weight balance of control surfaces. (e) A
relatively low amount of aerodynamic balance. (f)
High frictional damping of control system. (8) Adequate
fillets. (h) Proper fairing.
Features tending to create aerodynamic disturbance, such as sharp
lead ing edges on movable surfaces, should be avoided. (These are
also prone to collect ice.)

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When ailerons are attached to internally braced wings, they should be statically
balanced about their hinge lines. If a balancing weight is used, it is
usually more effective when located near the outboard end of the aileron.
Partial static balance may be satisfactory when an irreversible and ex
ceptionally rigid control system is used.
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The
Fuselage

Even though comparatively little thought seems to have been given to the
size, shape, and structure of the fuselage up to now, it has been practi
cally designed in most of its major elements while the pilot's cockpit,
the passenger cabin, the placement of the wing, and the balance diagram were
under consideration.
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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS For conventional
designs, the fuselage and its contents usually represent the
largest concentration of mass items. Under acceleration, the
relative effect of loads due to inertia forces is therefore greatest
on this structure. Furthermore, the conventional fuselage is the
connecting link for the various appendages that transmit the
aerodynamic and landing loads to it. Because of these loads of
significant proportions, the structure must be strong and efficiently
designed.
The fuselage serves another important function: it represents the most basic part of the
airplane, for it houses the crew, cargo, instrumentation, etc. This serves to
present problems in such important areas as heating, ventilating, and air
supply.
The fuselage design therefore requires the consideration of a great many factors
and the adaptation of many compromises. In arriving at a final design, it is
advisable to prepare a large number of detail designs before the final
compromise is accepted. Once a likely arrangement of struc tural members,
openings, and attachments has been agreed upon, a more detailed study
of the component parts is possible.

WING-FUSELAGE CONSIDERATIONS In discussing various

aspects of wing design, the matter of wing-fuselage configurations
was included in some detail, primarily from the standpoint
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of the wing structure. However, the suggestions brought forth there

should be referred to again when considering the design of the
fuselage.
For airplane speeds of less than 350 miles per hour, the problem of reducing
the drag of wing-fuselage configurations has been met primarily by careful
streamlining. In general, a fuselage that by itself represents a minimum
drag form, when combined with the wing produces an optimum
combination. Filleting at the juncture of the wing and the fuselage helps to
reduce the drag.
NACA TR 540 entitled “Interference of Wing and Fuselage" covers
extensive wind-tunnel tests made on various wing and fuselage
combina tions. Parasol arrangements with round fuselages seemed to
be best if drag of supporting struts were neglected; otherwise, a slightly
higher than midwing arrangement was next best; forward positions of the wing
with respect to the fuselage seemed favorable; low-wing positions
are unfavor able, except by means of adequate filleting. Efficient airfoils
of moderate thickness and low camber are most susceptible to adverse
interference effects.
 In general, acute angles included between the fuselage and
attaching wing or tail surfaces should be avoided.
When multi-engine designs are considered, care has to be taken that the
nacelle shape--particularly if it is long and of a cross section comparable in
magnitude to the fuselage cross section does not cause interference
effects when the nacelle is placed too close to the fuselage or to another
nacelle. Wind-tunnel tests are necessary to determine the optimum
configuration. The interference effects are manifested not only in a drag that is
higher than would be expected from consideration of the drag
characteristics of the individual components alone, but also in longitudinal and
directional stability problems.
With transonic speeds, the problem of wing-fuselage integration becomes
more acute. For the large delta wing, the fuselage practically
disappears within the contour of the root airfoil and therefore presents
no serious problem. For other designs, a more careful study must be
made of the spanwise cross-sectional area distribution along the
longitudinal axis of the airplane according to what is known as
the Whitcomb's Area Rule. The method is illustrated in Figure XXI-1.
The side and top views of a proposed design are shown in the top two
figures. The cross-sectional areas normal to the line of flight are plotted
against the longitudinal axis of the airplane, as shown in the bottom figure.
Curve ABCEF represents the cross-sectional area of the fuselage and the
tail surfaces. Curve BDE is the cross-sectional area of the fuselage
normal to the longitudinal axis of the airplane, plotted on top of the
fuselage curve. An "ideal” com posite curve, approximating that of a
volume of revolution with good transonic (and speeds beyond) drag
characteristics, is shown in curve
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Original fuselage and tail
Wing --- Revised fuselago, wing, and tail

FIGURE XXI-1. Application of Whitcomb's Area Rule.

ACDG. The station where the pilot's cockpit would be located was taken as the
determining diameter. As a result of this "ideal” curve, for the cross-sectional area
distribution, it would be necessary to reduce the cross sectional area of the fuselage by
the amount indicated by the cross-hatched portion of the curve ABDCA, and to
increase the cross-sectional area of the rear portion of the fuselage as indicated by
the cross-hatched portion of curve DGFE.
· Since the fuselage has to be reduced in cross-sectional area in the region of the
wing and power-plant nacelles, it is likely that for airplanes flying at transonic or
supersonic speeds and required to carry many passengers, the fuselage may
become very long in order to have the cargo and pas sengers ahead of the wing.
To compensate for the large mass ahead of the center of gravity, the power plant
will be carried somewhat aft of the center of gravity.
The student should study the latest NACA reports on this subject in order to obtain a
further insight into the basic aerodynamic problems involved in the design. Design of
high-speed aircraft today requires careful integration of the aerodynamic, structural,
and power plant aspects.
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SHAPE OF FUSELAGE The length of the fuselage is determined by the
cockpit and cabin con siderations in the front and the location of the tail
surfaces and the tail wheel at the rear; the over-all depth and width by cabin
requirements.

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4
3
3
000
 et

FIGURE XXI-2. Basic fuselage shapes. For efficient

structural design, a circular cross section is desired, but this
shape is inefficient for accommodating a rectangular cross
section required by the cabin so that the natural compromise is an
oval, perhaps with greater width at the top than at the bottom. Figure
XXI-2 shows three basic fuselage shapes.
The various cross sections of the fuselage may vary from a circular sec
tion at the engine mount to an oval section and finally to a circle or a rec
tangle at the tail post. It is, therefore, very important to fair one section
into another very carefully, and to avoid double curvatures (two
curvatures at an angle to each other) wherever possible. Circular cross
section for the fuselage offers theoretically greater strength for shell
structures, but the inscribed rectangle indicates the available useful space.
Rectangular cross section permits the most economical use of the space but
is not suit able for shell structures. Oval or elliptical outline for the
reinforced monocoque or shell-type fuselage is the best compromise between
the cir cular and rectangular cross section.
The fuselage structure is determined gradually, and often, when it is not possible
to compromise, radical changes in the wing planform or in the interior
arrangement may result. For example, it may be desirable to have the
front-spar double frame intersect the fuselage at the front cabin wall; but in
order to do so, the wing has to be given an appreciable sweepback in
order to satisfy not only the particular condition just men tioned but also to
obtain the proper location of the mean geometric chord with respect to the
center of gravity.
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80
FIGURE XXI-3. Cross sections of two fuselage shapes designed for large volume capacity.
The two intersecting circular shapes lend themselves to two compartments without too
great an increase in structural wieght.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN
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Since all these items affect the size and shape of the fuselage, it is obvious that the
arrangement and general dimensions of the pilot's cockpit and the
passenger cabin are the primary considerations. Only after all this is
done should the contours of the fuselage be settled. The cross sections of the
fuselage will vary from circular at the nose to slightly elliptical at the pilot's
cockpit, and then to an elliptical section somewhat modified by the
intersection of the root of the wing, and then to an elliptical or oval section,
sometimes even rectangular (with the long side vertical) at the tail post.
The object of approaching the elliptical section is that it represents the best
compromise between the square or rectangular section which is most
efficient for space utilization (as cabins, cockpits, etc.) and the circular
section which is most efficient from a structural point of view for reinforced
monocoque structure, and for aerodynamic reasons.
If the fuselage is to be designed for a single-engine airplane, the type of
engine and its cowling determine the nose treatment of the fuselage.
The pilot's cockpit governs the development of the windshield and that
section of the fuselage directly behind the engine. If there is no nose engine,
as in multi-engine designs, the pilot's cockpit has even a greater influence on the
development of the front section of the fuselage.
The main section of the fuselage is built around the passenger cabin, and then the
rear portion of the fuselage is gradually tapered back to the tail post.
Other considerations affecting fuselage shapes have been referred to under "Wing-
Fuselage Considerations."
For a preliminary approach, the student will find the following pro cedures useful in
arriving at a reasonable solution.
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1. Lay out the cockpit to scale, showing the important items to assure that proper
clearances have been provided. Since the relationship of the cockpit to the
cabin may vary, it is helpful to draw the layout of the cockpit separately, so that
it may readily be moved up or down or forward or rearward, as the case may
be, before being traced on the fuselage drawing.
2. Lay out the cabin and cargo areas to scale so that the limiting interior
dimensions can be ascertained. This layout, too, should be a separate
drawing.
3. Draw the root airfoil at the fuselage intersection as a separate draw ing, indicating the
principal structural members which will subsequently point out the location of
the frames.
4. Draw the empennage, if there is one, as a separate
drawing.
5. These separate drawings can now be assembled, by tracing, in a final
drawing of the fuselage interior, and an inboard profile can be ob
tained. If the immediate goal is to obtain the fuselage shape, many of
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(a)
(b)

FIGURE XXI-4. Rear fuselage cross sections just ahead of the tail surfaces often look like
this. If the cross section in (A) is used, the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces are
more likely to be blanketed than if the cross section in (B) is used.

the interior arrangements may now be omitted, since the immediate purpose was
to determine the limiting interior dimensions.

FUSELAGE LENGTH For subsonic airplanes having wings of aspect ratios between 6
and 14, the ratio of fuselage length to wing span is from .60 to .70; for supersonic
airplanes having a wing aspect ratio varying from 2.5 to 4.5, the ratio of fuselage
length to wing span becomes materially greater, not only because of the shorter
wing span but also because the fuselage must be longer. In general, there is as
much or more of the fuselage length ahead of the wing as there is behind it,
and ratio of fuselage length to wing span varies from 1.2 to 2.5.
The optimum fineness ratio (length to maximum diameter) is 16, with the volume of
revolution such that both ends are pointed. However, "boat-tail” bodies are the practical
compromises.
----

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DETERMINING FUSELAGE LINES The contour of a fuselage has to satisfy not
only certain aerodynamic minimums, but also production requirements. These
vary with each design. In any case, the development of the fuselage lines entails
the establishment of second-degree curves. Various methods available for determining
fuselage lines are:
1. The mockup, from which the lines may be transferred to suitable templates.
These pose problems in storing and handling but are never theless necessary,
even in conjunction with other methods. . 2. Lofting of curves requiring full-size
layouts on large metal sheets
painted a dull white. This method has been adopted from the marine field, where it
is common practice to lay out the lines on a large lofting
-
-
-
-
--
-
-

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floor. In this method, curves are laid in by long flexible splines and are faired by eye. To
determine the agreement of curve sections, different angles through the body
have to be taken to determine how well the curves faired; the method is long and
tedious. Again, permanent records require large steel plates which have to be
filed.
3. Mathematical techniques have been developed to achieve a more uniform and
accurate result--one that is easily reproducible and where storage presents no
problem. The second-degree curve technique based on curves defined analytically by an
equation of the form
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + DX + Ey + F = 0

is the one most often used. By properly assigning values to the con stants A, B, C, D, E, and
F, any useful curve can be defined.

USE OF THE MOCKUP Since it is difficult to visualize a structure as complex as the

fuselage and the arrangement of its interior, it is customary to build a full-scale
mockup, usually made of materials at hand that require little fabrication. In
such a mockup the transverse rings may be represented by plywood forms
that may be easily sawn to shape and to which attachments may be easily nailed, bolted,
or screwed.
The covering may be represented by thin plywood sheets or even heavy
cardboard. Where double curvatures exist, thin sheet metal, properly formed,
may be inserted. Seats, equipment, instrumentation, and such may be represented by
the actual prototypes or reasonable facsimiles.
The mockup can be used to determine external line, even if a more analytical
approach may have been used in determining the lines of the fuselage, since
some solutions are arrived at only by trial and error methods.
By building a mockup, a fuselage form may be evolyed which may use flat sheet
material without resorting to double curvatures, and so help in materially reducing the
production costs. If the covering has a curvature in one direction only, a flat
sheet may be used. If, however, there is a curvature at an angle to the main
radius of curvature, the covering has what is known as a double curvature which
must be produced by forming the sheet either by gradual "bumping” or by
hydraulic presses over special dies.
The mockup also helps to indicate whether any other modifications in
arrangements are desirable. This method is a simple and inexpensive way to solve
many problems usually too intricate for the drafting board, and it also helps
to visualize a design far better than a series of drawings could possibly do.
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FIGURE XXI-5. The fuselage structure, consisting of the skin and longitudinal
stringers, has to withstand the bending moment caused by the inertia and tail loads. The above
diagram illustrates the bending moment distribution for a fuselage to which a two-spar wing is
attached. To best sustain the bending moment, the fuselage, con sidered as a beam, has to be
deep with bending elements as far away from the neutral axis as practicable.

ANALYTICAL STUDIES OF FUSELAGE STRUCTURE Assuming, then,

that the outside contour has been definitely established, the next
step is to locate the structure. Wherever concentrated loads have to be
transmitted to the fuselage (as from the wing spars, or landing gear members,
or tail surface spars), a double or reinforced frame has to be located.
For example, there would be double frames at the front and rear spar locations
of the wing. Between these double frames, single frames would be
located. The spacing of these frames may be governed by the window locations.
How often do the front spar frames intersect a window which has been
painstakingly placed so as to give the passenger the proper vision! It is generally
not desirable to break or distort these main frames just to accommodate a
window. In such a case the difficulty may be adjusted by relocating the
window, or relocating the spar so that
the frames may be changed.
Naturally there will be frames at each side of the door, for such frames will provide
convenient hinge supports as well as door frame supports. The front and rear
cabin wall will determine another station where frames should be located to
provide anchorage for the cabin. Such considerations gradually "build up" the
structure until a few intermediate frames are added just to cut down the
unsupported length between frames. Similar considerations determine
the location of the longitudinal members.
Some insight may be gained into the desirable sheet, stringer, and
frame-spacing combinations by investigating, for bending stresses, a
fuselage section close to the rear wing spar or shear web. The approxi mate
bending moment at this station could be found from previously determined tail load
and from the inertia loads of the structure and items of equipment that the tail
portion of the fuselage contains.
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The investigation may be carried out in the following steps:
1. Select one or more longitudinal stringer sections that are considered to have good
crushing-strength characteristics. A closed section may be desirable at
times, but production considerations may make an open section more fitting.
2. Determine the bending stresses for a number of combinations of skin thicknesses,
frame spacings (which determine stringer column lengths), and
stringer spacings. Reject any combinations for which the applied stress
exceeds the allowable stress.
3. Compare the weights of the various combinations
investigated.
4. Check the more promising combinations for stresses imposed by the transverse
shear and torsion.
Such studies can result in optimum designs for the
combinations chosen. They would have to be modified by other
considerations in the most highly used section of the fuselage,
where cut-outs, floors, equipment, cargo, and the like impose
other problems.
The main portion of the fuselage structure, aside from the frames just discussed, is
the skin and supporting longitudinal structure. Much de pends upon
the proper proportioning of the frames and stringers.
For example, if the fuselage is without any reinforcement longitudinally, the wall
thickness of the shell would have to be considerably greater to avoid local
buckling. Such a fuselage structure could be employed with profit for small,
light airplanes where the thickness, originally determined by maintenance
considerations, would be strong enough.
If the skin is partially reinforced longitudinally by a few members, the
skin contributes little to the strength of the fuselage.
When enough longitudinal members are used, the skin will add mate rially to
the bending strength. Proper balance between stringers and skin will
provide the best combination from a strength-weight ratio.
Instead of stringers, corrugated sheet covered with flat sheet will give a very rigid
structure but, unfortunately, somewhat unsuitable where double curvatures
are required.
A unique form of construction is the so-called geodetic structure which, essentially,
employs stringers that wind around the fuselage contour.
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FIGURE XXI-6. The fuselage structure may "sit" on top of the wing structure with
connections at the wing spars (see chapter on Design of the Wing). The leading and trailing
edge portions of the wing are discontinued at the side of the fuselage.
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FIGURE XXI-7. Longitudinal stringers may be omitted at the bow or nose section of
a fuselage since the curvature of the skin enhances the pressure-supporting ability
of the structure. Simple frames, such as shown above, are sufficient to maintain the
cylindrical shape. Similarly, in the tail section of the fuselage, the longitudinal stringers
may be omitted so that rigidity is obtained through the curved skin and the transverse
frames.
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FIGURE XXI-8. Where transverse frames allow the longitudinal stringers by suitable cut-
outs, additional rigidity may be obtained by small brackets riveted to both the stringer and
the frame. A frame like the one above may support brackets or attachment fittings for
control systems, electrical conducts, and other light equipment.

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FIGURE XXI-9. Transversc frumes may be made more rigid through the use of flanged or lipped lightening
holes. These holes may be few in number if passage for control lines, electrical wiring, or
special conduits is desired.
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FRAMES AND THEIR LOCATION Just as for the ribs in the
wing structure, the primary functions of the transverse fuselage
frames are (1) to maintain the shape of the fuselage, (2) to sustain
concentrated loads imposed, (3) to serve as attachments for
equipment, flooring, and the like, and (4) to transmit the loads
to ad jacent structural members. The frames may therefore be
roughly classi fied into three categories:
1. The frames which serve merely to maintain the shape of the fuselage. These will not
be subjected to stress unless distortion of the entire ad jacent structure has
taken place. They are often just one gauge thinner than the metal sheet
covering, and the developed width of the frame,
d out of sheet material, varies from 2 to 4 inches for aircraft weighing from 2000 pounds
to 50,000 pounds. It should be realized that in addi tion to the developed width,
the other variable available is the thickness of the sheet from which the frame
is fashioned. For purposes of later identification, these forms will be
referred to as simple frames.
2. The frames which serve to act as anchorage for medium-weight equipment,
control systems, and the like. These are similar to the simple, single-member,
transverse frame, but must be reinforced locally to carry the load and reduce
deflections to a minimum. Such frames are subjected to severe loads only
 locally and therefore may differ little from the simple frames. Additional
brackets may have to be introduced and tied in with

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FIGURE XXI-10. Transverse frames located

where additional rigidity is desired or where the
depth of the fuselage is comparatively large may
add to the rigidity of the fuselage either by the larger
depth of the frame ring around its entire circumference
or by the added depth of the bottom half of the frame as
shown in the sketch above.

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FIGURE XXI-11. Certain frames may be modified
to incorporate a beam for the support of flooring or
as a continuation of the wing spar. In the latter case,
two frames may be placed back to back, as the cross
section indicates. If the flooring alone is to be
supported, one frame may suffice. Longitudinal
stringers may pass through the frame and be tied into
the frame structure more securely by special brackets.

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FIGURE XXI-12. In order to make the spanwise stringers of the wing

effective, such stringers would have to tie into the frame structure of the fuselage either
through separate fittings or through the aid of local reinforcements or gusset plates. The
span wise stringers, furthermore, could be riveted or bolted to the longitudinal stringers of
the fuselage through intermediate gusset plates or fittings. Only the spars, not the
stringers of the wing structure, would pass through from one side of the fuselage to the
other.
the longitudinal stringers as well as the frames. For purposes of later
identification, these will be referred to as intermediate frames.
3. The primary frames, to which large external loads are su through the landing
gear, power plant, or wing structure. These are usually two in number, spaced
a small distance apart, and designed so as to take fittings to serve as carry-
through members and, in short, act as the main transverse load carrying
members. For purposes of later identification, these will be referred to as
main frames.
Figures XXI-7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 show some sketches of typical frames serving
different functions.
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FIGURE XXI-13. For a two-spar wing, the spars could pass through the fuselage and be
supported by two transverse frames, back to back. The spars may be at an angle to the
perpendicular to the wing chord if the inclination will permit the frames to clear the
windshield of the cockpit or cabin. The wing profile and the structure other than the two
spars stop at the side of the fuselage.

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FIGURE XXI-14. The transverse frames of the fuselage are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the airplane even though the spars are at an angle to that axis.
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The frames, whether circular rings or reinforced frames, are located from 10 to
24 inches apart with the closer spacing near the cabin and pit and gradually increasing
towards the tail post.
The frames may rest on the longitudinal members or on the outside covering with
cutouts for the longitudinal members.
Reinforced frames are located wherever concentrated loads are applied as at
attachment of wing spars or landing-gear members. In order to reduce structural
weight, it is decidedly advisable to locate several external attachment points on
the same frame wherever possible.
In general, the locating of frames will be determined first by the location of spars, landing
gear, doors, and windows. Reinforced frames are re quired at every one of these
locations of external attachments in order to distribute the loads into the metal covering
evenly. After these reinforced frames have been placed, the intermediate frames
can be placed at proper intervals.
Reinforced frames may be similar to intermediate frames in construction except for the
thicker material or local reinforcements; or they may be two frames, back to back, but
spaced a few inches apart, with tying members between them to obtain rigidity and
continuity of structure.
The spacing of the simple and intermediate frames is dependent to some extent
on (1) tin-canning of the sheet covering, (2) the allowable shear stresses of the
covering, and (3) the allowable column compressive stress of the longitudinal
stringers and adjacent effective widths of the covering. The discussion on selecting
panel dimensions in an earlier chapter should be referred to.

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FIGURE XXI-15. Main frames, to which external loads and bending moments are applied,
have transverse shear, axial load, and bending moment varying in intensity all along the centerline
of the frame. The representation above illustrates the mathe matical approach to the solution of the
stresses in the indeterminate frame. Because these frames have to withstand severe stresses, their
construction is somewhat different from the non-load-carrying frames.

The main frames are subjected to a variety of concentrated loads and require a
stress analysis for the determination of dimensions. Figure XXI-15 illustrates
the stress-analysis problem that is involved. It will be noted that the frame is
subjected to shear, axial load, and bending moments, making it necessary
to provide an adequate structure for these
conditions.
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LONGITUDINAL STRINGERS AND THEIR LOCATION Since the fuselage
is essentially a beam, the longitudinal stringers serve an important function
in that they, along with the effective width of sheet covering, are the main
bending elements of the structure.
For small aircraft of gross weights of about 2500 pounds or less and fuselage depths
of less than 48 inches, relatively few stringers are neces sary, since the
minimum thickness of sheet-0.025 inches--selected for handling and maintenance
reasons, usually contributes markedly to the bending strength. The curvature of
the sheet adds to the allowable compressive strength of the sheet as well.
The cross sections of the longitudinal stringers are the same as for the
wing.
The stringer spacing is determined by the number required for the loads
imposed. An analytical approach is possible to determine the light est combination
of stringer-sheet combination.

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 FIGURE XXI-16. Figure (A) shows a partially reinforced monocoque
construction where the skin contributes little to the strength. Figure (B) shows a pure
monocoque structure where the skin is made sufficiently thick to avoid local
buckling.

Since the fuselage shape is not likely to be very regular, the

spacing from frame to frame is apt to vary. A pattern of stringer
spacing when projected upon the plane for symmetry may show
parallel lines. Further examination, however, may show that the
longitudinal stringers have to be twisted about their longitudinal
axis to achieve such a pattern. It might therefore be better to obtain a
location at which the stringers would
mura
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FIGURE XXI-17. Figure (A) shows an increase in longitudinal stiffening
members so that the skin is amply supported and contributes materially to the
fuselage strength. The longitudinal members have been replaced by
corrugated sheet, as shown in Figure (B), to form a very rigid structure
but causing difficulties in production.

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have little twist but would follow a faired line. Another method would
be to use proportional distances for the spacing from frame to
frame-i.e., the larger spacing at the largest cross section-and to
reduce the spacing for the smaller cross sections in proportion
to the radius.
Since openings have to be reinforced along the edges, it is desirable to have the top and
bottom of all frames for such openings rest on longi tudinal stringers. It is
customary to spot in these stringers first, in order to avoid unnecessarily
close spacings, should the desired stringer spacing and the required
stringer spacings not coincide.
Longitudinal members are spaced from 6 to 12 inches apart around the periphery of
the largest cross section. Since the cross sections gradually diminish in size,
the spacing is closer towards the tail post so that alternate members may be
 stopped at a forward frame. It is desirable not to end all longitudinal members
at the same frame.
To assure a continuous structure, it is customary to make the longitu dinal
members continuous rather than breaking them at every frame.
Since the nose of the fuselage is not heavily subjected to bending mo ments, some
of the longitudinal stringers may be discontinued in that section by ending
a few stringers at each frame starting at a frame for ward of the front spar.
The same procedure would be in order in the rear portion of the fuselage, where the bending
moments are less severe and where the available circum ferential space
is likely to be very limited.
In general, since the stringers are the main bending elements, they should be continuous
and therefore pass through the transverse frames. Where local stresses are
likely to be high, brackets tying the frames and stringers together are added for
greater rigidity and load-carrying capa hilities.

FUSELAGE SKIN
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The gauge of metal sheet used for the fuselage will vary according to the region of
application. The normal pressures likely to be encountered are not apt to be too
critical. Where the structure is more or less normal to the line of flight, such as
the windshield and fuselage nose, the posi tive pressures, even at 800
miles an hour, may be of the order of 350 to 600 pounds per square
inch; whereas curved surfaces along the top bottom, or sides of the
fuselage may have normal negative pressures vary ing from 60 to 300
pounds per square inch. At lower speeds, the pres sures may be assumed
to vary as the square of the speed. Obviously, in the region of high
pressures, the skin thickness will have to be relatively greater in order to
avoid tin-canning of the surface.

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In the region of propeller-tip passage, as in multi-engine designs, the skin
thickness is often increased to reduce the noise caused by drumming
and to avoid fatigue failures resulting from the induced vibration.
In areas where rough handling is likely to occur (e.g., around doors
and cargo compartments), again, a heavier gauge is probably
necessary.
The smallest gauge of aluminum alloy sheet or aluminum-coated
aluminum alloy sheet is 0.025 inches, since a thinner sheet is easily
punc tured and is rather hard to handle. For airplanes of less than
10,000 pounds gross weight, the predominant gauge thicknesses are
0.025 and 0.032 inches. For heavier aircraft, the thicknesses are
proportionately greater.
In regions such as jet exhausts, where excessive heat is likely to be en
countered, nickel steel or titanium alloys replace the aluminum alloy
sheet.

WINDOWS Since windows are not

considered part of the primary structure, they are not designed to
serve as carry-through members for the transmission of
stresses in the primary structure. Therefore
they are carried by a rigid frame, which must bear the
stresses around the cut-outs caused by the windows.
The normal pressures are likely to be high for the material used, espe
cially for pressurized cabins. A differential pressure of 8.15 pounds per
square inch at an altitude of 20,000 feet is a common design value.
For generous vision, the proportions of the window should be reason ably
large. However, since windows have been known to fail in flight, there
is a tendency to make the openings smaller. In this way, in case of failure
resulting in explosive decompression, a passenger seated next
to the window would not be blown out.
For additional safety, window materials are shatterproof and windows
for pressurized cabins are three layers thick, with each layer constructed of
two or more plies.
The student should also refer to Chapter XII, The Passenger Cabin.
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PRESSURIZED CABINS To avoid the use of individual
oxygen supplies, the passenger cabins of today's transport airplanes
are pressurized. To simplify the control of pressurization, to avoid
structural interferences, and to reduce leaks, it is common to provide
a separate structure for the pressurized cabin.
For optimum weight, it is desirable to construct the pressurized cabin as a
cylinder with hemispherical ends. The stresses imposed by the
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differential pressure can then be calculated by means of

the standard formula

f, =
(Ap)(D).
21

The pressurized cabin floats inside the fuselage on flexible mounts so that the
stresses and distortions of the fuselage are not transmitted to the cabin.
Structurally, the pressurized cabin is similar to the fuselage in that frames and
stringers are used.
Since the cabin is not subjected to the airstream, stringers and other structural
members may be used either on the inside or the outside of the skin or metal
envelope.
To make cabins pressure-tight, special attention must be paid to all
seams, openings such as windows and doors, and control-system
operation through nominally airtight openings.
Skin seams of the main structure may be sealed effectively by inserting flannel
tape impregnated with a sealing compound (much the same as for water-
tightening a metal float or hull) between the seam laps prior to rivet ing. In
addition, the rivets are spaced from 4 to 6 diameters apart to form a
double row of staggered rivets.
Soft rubber gaskets, so arranged that they are pressed together when subject to
internal pressure, are used to seal all doors and hatches. Win dows are
sealed in rubber channels. Sliding windows are best mounted in steel
frames seated against rubber seals.
Control cables, passing through the pressurized section, should pass through
a special gland which reduces air leakage to a minimum.
A spherical shape is ideal for a structure designed to withstand internal
pressure most efficiently. In the case of the fuselage, a spherical shape
has to be modified. A cylinder with partly spherical ends is the best com promise.
Unless the airplane is very large, so that the weight involved becomes negligible,
the pressure cabin forms an integral part of the fuselage. Where weight
considerations are not so vital, the pressure cabin is a sepa rate
compartment "floating” inside the fuselage. Airtight openings for control
systems and the like are not a serious problem in such cases.
Cabin windows should be double with a dead air space between, or pro
vision may be made to heat and circulate the heated air at high
altitudes, because the moisture in the air within the cabin has a
tendency to frost the windows.
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FLOORING A general analytical approach to the design of flooring is

given in the chapter on Detail Design Considerations.
Flooring may float: it may not be structurally tied to frames and string ers. In this
way, loads on the fuselage structure are not transmitted to the flooring.
However, the loads on the flooring may be transmitted to the rest of the
structure through flexible spring or rubber supports. In other words the
floating floor may be shock-mounted. The primary advantages of such a type of
support is that vibration is not transmitted to the flooring. Since the flooring is not
an integral part of the main structure, it may be altered without worrying about the
structural in tegrity of the primary structure.
Flooring may be tied in with the primary structure and so become part of it. The
advantage is likely to be a saving of weight since the flooring would serve a dual
purpose. Whether or not the flooring is tied into the main structure will to some
extent determine its detailed construction.
The flooring would extend only over that section of the fuselage where the
presence of passengers, crew, and cargo make it necessary. The floors in
the various compartments need not all be placed at the same level, nor
necessarily at the same angle.
Since the flooring will transmit loads to the fuselage structure, it should rest on
longitudinal stringers, which may have to be larger than those that are
not so loaded. Usually the transverse frames brought up to the floor level will help
to support the flooring as well.
Reference should be made to Chapter XII, The Passenger Cabin, which contains
some additional discussion on this subject.

DOORS AND EXITS The number of doors and exits included in an airplane
will depend upon the number of persons it must carry. It is desirable to have
separate exits for the crew and for the passengers, although the main
entrance to the cockpit may be through the passenger cabin. (See Chapter XII.)
The closures for doors and exits are usually rigid in construction so as to avoid
possible distortions that would lead to interference in opening the doors; yet they
are seldom designed to act as part of the primary structure of the fuselage
unless the locking device can be depended upon to provide a continuous type
structure. Access Doors
doors,
Where access from the outside is required, readily removable access
which usually employ some form of cowl fastener for quick opening,
should be provided in the fuselage design.
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Batteries should be removable from the outside and not from the inside of the
cabin or cockpit; likewise, the water tank should be fillable from the outside. Since
these two items are not removable and access is not required at every
landing, the access doors do not have to be as easily opened as the doors to the
baggage compartments.

Baggage Compartments
Baggage compartments and the like are lined with a secondary structure of metal
sheet, either flat or corrugated (may be covered with canvas or felt for
soundproofing purposes). This secondary structure is attached to the frames
or longitudinal members at appropriate points.

TWIN FUSELAGES To avoid the added complexity and higher costs

involved in the design of a larger fuselage, the use of twin fuselage designs has
been proposed. This suggestion may be worth while provided that different
functions are assigned to each fuselage. It could also prove effective in cases
where the heavy concentrated load of the larger fuselage would hinder the ful
fillment of center of gravity requirements. It must be recognized, how ever,
that the maneuverability of such a craft might be curtailed by the increased
moment of inertia resulting from the dispersion of large units.

TAIL BOOMS The design considerations for the tail booms are very similar to
those for the aft section of a fuselage. The boom is subjected primarily to
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FIGURE XXI-18. A twin fuselage airplane.

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bending and torsional moments, with very little transverse shear. For this
reason, a cross section that is fundamentally circular in form is the most efficient
one.
For the nose-wheel type of landing gear, the tail boom or booms would seem to
have considerable merit for the small airplane design.
For a pusher-propeller installation, twin tail boomsone on each side of the engine
serve as protection from the propeller.
There is some weight penalty involved with twin tail booms. On the basis of skin
alone, it can be seen that 2 adı > rd, where di is the di ameter of each of the
twin booms, and d is the diameter required for a single boom. The single-boom
diameter would be a little larger than the twin-boom diameter.
FIGURE XXI-19. A centerline sketch of a truss-type fuselage for an in-line engine in the
nose. Only the top and front side trusses are shown. The Pratt truss is shown for the
top and rear portion of the fuselage, and the Warren truss for the front side. The side
trusses may be either Pratt or Warren, or a combination of the two, while the top and bottom
trusses are always Pratt type since they tie in the side trusses, which are usually
symmetrical with each other.
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ALTERNATE TYPE STRUCTURES The use of truss-type structures, especially
for small airplanes, should not be ruled out entirely. In some cases, a desirable
solution is found in composite structure utilizing a reinforced monocoque
structure for the cockpit and cabin section and a steel truss structure for the
tail section, or vice versa.
Some of the truss arrangements are shown in Figures XXI-19 and XXI-20. The two
truss types employed are (1) the Warren truss, in which three adjacent members
in the side truss are placed to resemble a letter W, and (2) the Howe truss, in which
every two members in the side truss are parallel to each other.
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FIGURE XXI-20. Possible arrangements for structural members around a door for a truss-type
fuselage.

In general, the truss structures are easily produced. The stress analysis of such a
structure is also relatively uncomplicated. No prototype struc ture has to be tested
statically, as in a reinforced monocoque structure, since the structural
analysis is well authenticated.
In order to provide a streamlined fuselage, a fairing structure is built around
the trusses. Although this satisfies the aerodynamic requirements, the structural
weight may be high since separate structures are used one for primary
purposes to carry the load, the other for secondary purposes only; whereas in the
reinforced monocoque structure, the two purposes or functions are
combined in one.
Another design approach is to use one or more keel beams to serve the needs of
the primary structure. The remainder of the structure, consist ing of transverse
frames, stringers, and covering, would serve a secondary role.
Such a structure would be particularly useful in situations in which local
concentrated loads were extremely high, such as carrying heavy machinery or
driving tractors or tanks into the cargo compartment.
The structure has been proposed for small airplanes in which the seats and
control systems would be attached to the longitudinal fuselage beam.
The structural advantages of using one or more beams of this kind are (1)
that they are easily stress-analyzed, (2) they are easy to manufacture, and
(3) their deflections and distortions are reasonably easy to predict.
----

ublic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

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Digitized by Google
Original from UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
THE FUSELAGE
453

EFFECT OF FUSELAGE MASS DISTRIBUTION When the mass is

distributed primarily in the fuselage of the airplane, the moment of
inertia about the normal axis of the airplane is increased. It was found
that in extreme cases, as long as the principal or longitudinal axis was
kept inclined at a positive angle of attack to the flight path, the
oscillatory stability was improved, but at zero angle of attack, there was a
decrease in this stability.
----

ublic Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google

Functions of
Fuselage

Functions of
Fuselage
▪ Functions of

fuselage:
▪ provision of volume for
payload (passengers & cargo).
▪ provide overall structural
integrity.
▪ possible mounting of

landing
gear, powerplant and antennas.
3
4
 5
6
7

Primary Considerations
 8

Primary
Considerations

Primary considerations when designing the airplane's

fuselage are as follows:

• Low aerodynamic drag

• Minimum aerodynamic instability
• Comfort and attractiveness in terms of seat design,
placement, and storage space • Safety during emergencies
such as fires, cabin depressurization, ditching, and proper
placement of emergency exits, oxygen systems, etc.
• Ease of cargo handling in loading and unloading, safe and robust
cargo hatches and doors • Structural support for wing and tail forces
acting in flight, as well as for landing and ground operation forces •
Structural optimization to save weight while incorporating protection
against corrosion and fatigue • Flight deck optimization to reduce
pilot workload and protect against crew fatigue and intrusion
by passengers
• Convenience, size, and placement of galleys, lavatories, and coat
racks
• Minimization of noise and control of all sounds so as to provide a
comfortable, secure environment • Climate control within the
fuselage including air conditioning, heating, and ventilation •
Provision for housing a number of different sub-systems required
by the aircraft, including auxiliary power units, hydraulic system,
air conditioning system, etc.
 Layout
Procedure

Primary Decisions
▪ Pressurization requirements or not?
▪ Affects fuselage section
▪ Powerplant system internally mounted or not?
▪ If yes then dominant effect
▪ Does payload occupy most of the
fuselage volume? ▪ If yes then use
payload as starting point for
fuselage layout. ▪ Are there any
special considerations?
▪ twin boom, flying boat, V/STOL, etc.

10

Layout
Procedure
▪ Local Layout Decisions
▪ Vertical location of wing
▪ Low, mid or high?
▪ Horizontal tail surface location
▪ Fuselage or fin?
▪ Landing gear
mounting/stowage
required on fuselage? ▪
Fuel tanks in fuselage?
▪ Avionics location?
▪ APU accommodation?
11

Layout
Procedure

Layout Modules
▪Follow on from primary &
local layout decisions. ▪ May be
 considered separately & then
matched together to form
unified fuselage layout.
▪ Aim of integration is to derive
fuselage configuration which
makes most use of total internal
volume with appropriate
aerodynamic form & minimum
of structural difficulties.
12

Layout
Procedure

Layout Modules (Cont.)

▪ Modules include:
▪ payload
▪ powerplant installation
▪ crew compartment
 ▪ wing carry-through box structure
▪ avionics volume, APU &
air conditioning equipment ▪
landing gear stowage &
mounting
▪ tail section
13

Primary
Considerations

Common practice is to
modularize layout: ▪ crew
compartment, powerplant
system, payload configuration,
fuel volume, landing gear
stowage, wing carry-through
structure, empennage, etc.
▪ or simply into front, center and
rear fuselage section designs.
 14

Primary
Considerations
E-170 Fuselage
Sections

Primary
Considerations

Most of the fuselage volume is occupied

by the payload, except for:
▪ Single & two-seat light a/c.
▪ Trainer & light strike a/c.
▪ Combat a/c with weapons carried on
 outer fuselage & wing.
▪ High performance combat a/c.

16

Primary
Considerations

Payload includes:
▪ Passengers & associated baggage.
▪ Freight.
▪ Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay
housed guided weapons.
▪ Crew (significant for anti-sub and early
warning a/c).
▪ Avionics equipment.
▪ Flight test instrumentation (experimental a/c).
 ▪ Fuel (often interchangeable with other
payload
items on a mass basis).
17

Primary
Considerations
Access Panels

Primary
Considerations

Pressurization
▪ If required, has a major impact
upon overall shape. ▪ Overall effect
depends on level of pressurization
required. ▪ Low Differential
Pressurization
▪ Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).
 ▪Mainly applicable to fighters where
crew are also equipped with pressure
suits.
▪ Cockpit pressurization primarily provides

survivable environment in case of suit

failure at high altitude.
▪ Also used on some general aviation

a/c to improve passenger comfort

at moderate altitude.
▪ Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat

surfaces.
19

Primary
Considerations

Normal (High) Differential

Pressurization ▪ Usual
requirement is for effective
altitude to be no more than 2.44
km (8000 ft) ISA for passenger
 transports. ▪ Implied pressure
differentials are:
▪ 0.37 bar (5.5 psi) for
a/c at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
▪ 0.58 bar (8.5 psi) for
a/c at 13.1 km (43,000
ft). ▪ 0.65 bar (9.4 psi)
for a/c at 19.8 km
(65,000 ft).
▪ High pressure differential
required across most
of fuselage for passenger
transports so often over-
riding fuselage structural
design requirement.
20

Primary
Considerations
Normal (High) Differential
Pressurization (Cont.) ▪ Particular
need to base outer shell cross-section on
circular arcs to avoid significant mass
penalties.
▪ Pure circular sections best
structurally but “double-
bubbles” sometimes give best
compromise with internal layout.

Circular
section
examples
21

Fuselage
Layout
Considerations -
Transports
 “Double-Bubble” Fuselage
X-Section Examples
22

Cross Section

ERJ 145 CRJ 200 DHC 8 Dornier 328

ATR 42 / 72 Saab 340 / 2000 EMBRAER 170/190

23

Cabin Width

& Cross-

Section Double-Deck
Airbus A380

24
Powerplant Location
25

Powerplant
Location

▪ If powerplant is located
within fuselage, this is
a primary consideration for
fuselage layout. ▪ Three main
powerplant arrangements
affecting fuselage layout.
▪ Nose-mounted.
▪ Central or central/rear
location.
 ▪ Rear fuselage location.
26

Powerplant
Location

Nose-Mounted Engine
▪ Either piston or turbine-driven propeller.
▪Significantly influences geometry and
cross-section of
front fuselage.

Powerplant
Location
Rear Fuselage Location
▪ Common for supersonic combat aircraft
with low aspect ratio wings.
▪ Major advantage is reduced length of
exhaust tail pipe.
Wing carry-
▪
through structure
passes ahead of
powerplant,
easing access and
removal.
▪ Complicates design of empennage

attachment structure, though OK if a

canard configuration.
28

Powerplant
Location
 Wing-Mounted or Fuselage-
Mounted Engines?
29
Wing-Mounted or Fuselage-Mounted
Engines?
Rear Mounted

• May suffer from boundary layer ingestion

• Bleed air supply more complicated
• Difficult to inspect by the crew and maintenance team
• Thrust line above the cg
• Critical for stretched versions
• Larger tailplane
• Lower cabin noise level
• Rear mounted engines often require soft (rubber/fluid) engine
mounts to absorb vibration and blade off loads. For wing
mounted engines the flexible wings act as effective dampers
thus allowing engines to use cheaper hard mount
arrangements
• Heavier aft fuselage structure
• Ice shed from the wing and aircraft nose can be ingested by the
engine
• There is the possibility of high drag from the
convergent/divergent channel formed between the nacelle
and the fuselage wall on rear mounted engine installations
• Aft fuselage mounted engines reduce the rolling moment of
inertia. This can be a disadvantage if there is significant
rolling moment created by asymmetric stalling. The result can
be an excessive roll rate at the stall
 30

Powerplant
Location

the aft fuselage to

improve propeller efficiency
31

Powerplant
Location
Three-engine
Arrangements

A center engine is always a

difficult problem. Early DC-10
studies examined 2 engines on
one wing and one on the other,
and 2 engines on one side of
the aft fuselage and one on the
other, in an effort to avoid a
 center engine. Neither of these
proved desirable. The center
engine possibilities are shown
at left.

32

Powerplant
Location
Three-engine
Arrangements

Solutions to the DC-10 tail engine maintenance

problems include built-in work platforms and
provisions for a bootstrap winch system utilizing
beams that are attached to fittings built into the
pylon structure. Although currently companies are
developing virtual reality systems to evaluate
accessibility and maintenance approaches,
designers considered these issues before the
advent of VRML. The figure at left is an artist's
concept of a DC-10 engine replacement from a
 1969 paper entitled "Douglas Design for
Powerplant Reliability and Maintainability".

33

Powerplant
Location

Central or Central/Rear Location

▪ Advantageous layout for jet-powered
military strike/trainer a/c of moderate
aspect ratio wings.

▪ Associated side or ventral intakes may also

pass through wing center structure.
▪ Major consideration is engine removal –
usually downwards via access
panels/doors.
▪ Exhaust gases ejected via rear of fuselage to
alleviate acoustic fatigue problems.
 34

General
Configuration
35

Typical Aircraft Fuselage

Dimensions

Narrow Body Jet

Transports
Aircraft Overall Fuselage Length /
Length (m) Width (m) Width

A319 33.84 3.95 8.57

A320- 37.57 3.95 9.51
200
B737- 30.53 3.76 8.12
200
B737- 36.11 3.76 9.60
400
B757- 47.32 3.76 12.59
200
MD- 39.75 3.4 11.69
81
MD- 45.0 3.4 13.24
83

36

Typical Aircraft Fuselage

Dimensions

Wide Body Jet Transports

Aircraft Overall Fuselage Length /
Length (m) Width (m) Width

A310- 45.13 5.64 8.00

200
A300- 53.3 5.64 9.45
600
A330- 63.65 5.64 11.29
600
A340- 59.4 5.64 10.53
200
B747- 68.63 6.6 10.40
400
B767- 48.51 5.03 9.64
200
B777- 62.78 6.2 10.13
200
L1011- 54.17 5.97 9.07
250
DC10- 51.97 6.02 8.63
30
MD-11 58.65 6.02 9.74

37

Typical
Aircraft
Fuselage Dimensions
 Regional Turboprops
Aircraft Overall Fuselage Length /
Length (m) Width (m) Width

An-32 23.8 2.9 8.21

BAe 18.25 1.98 9.22
Jetstream
41
Embraer 18.73 2.28 8.21
EMB 120
SAAB 19.73 2.31 8.54
340B
Shorts 330- 17.69 2.24 7.89
200

38

Local Layout
Aspects
 Wing - Vertical Location
▪ Compromise between
aerodynamic, structural
& operational
considerations – also
covered
in “Configuration”
presentation.
▪ Can occasionally be an over-
riding
configurational issue,
particularly regarding:
▪ propeller ground clearance.
▪ powerplant removal on V/STOL
a/c.
39

Local Layout
Aspects
 ▪Wing Vertical Location –
Aerodynamics Considerations ▪
Mid-wing position gives lowest interference
drag, especially good for supersonic a/c.
▪ Top-mounted wing minimises trailing vortex
drag, especially good for low speed a/c.
▪ Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage &
more usable flap area.

40

Local Layout
Aspects
Wing Vertical Location –
Structural Considerations
Primary wing structure should be
continuous across fuselage – rules
out use of mid-wing position when
requirement for single payload
volume to occupy most of fuselage.
 41

Local Layout
Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location – Operational

Issues
▪ Clearance & ground access
▪ high wing best if using wing-mounted
props.
▪ also improved loading/unloading for
freight a/c.
▪ stores handling difficult if lower
surface > 1.5 m above ground.
▪ Crashworthiness
▪ low wing best for water evacuation.
▪ high wing best for wheels-up landing.
42
 Local Layout
Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location –

Operational Issues (Cont.) ▪
Landing gear
▪ high wing gives long/heavy
landing gear or
fuselage mount & retract
into fairings.
▪ Internal Cabin Layout
▪ High wing gives headroom problems.
▪ Low wing provides better freight
capacity.
43
 Local Layout
Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location –

Summary of Applications ▪
High wing
▪ Freight a/c, small prop-powered
transport a/c, most single engine
light a/c, some combat a/c
(especially if V/STOL), unmanned
a/c, flying boats, tilt wing/rotor a/c.

44

Local Layout
Aspects
Wing - Vertical Location –
Summary of Applications
(Cont.) ▪ Mid wing
▪ High performance combat a/c, multi-
deck large transport a/c,
weapons systems dedicated a/c with
long internal bay.
▪ Low wing
▪ Most passenger transport a/c, some
light single/twin engine
trainers, canard configured combat
a/c.

45

Fuselage – Local
Layout Aspects

Empennage Layout – Vertical

Surface(s)
 ▪ Single, central fin most common
arrangement, positioned as far aft
as possible.
▪ Sometimes ahead of horizontal tail on fighters
& trainers to improve spin recovery.
▪ Twin fin arrangements used for:

▪ twin boom fuselage layout a/c;

▪ a/c with high stealth requirement;

▪ freight a/c with large rear ramp loading door.

46

Local Layout Aspects

Empennage Layout – Horizontal Surface
▪ Efficiency affected by wing downwash,
thus vertical location relative to wing
important.
▪ Usually mounted higher than wing except
on high wing design or with small
moment arm – low tail can give ground
clearance problems.
47
 Local Layout
Aspects
Canard Layout ▪ Canard should
be located higher than wing –
spacing is critical design feature.
• Sometimes just behind
cockpit, high on fuselage.
• Or often in front though it
then obstructs pilot’s view.
48

Local Layout
Aspects

Avionics & APU

▪ Including navigation, comms. & flight
control/management equipment.
▪ Provision necessary for adequate
volume in correct location with ease
of access.
▪ Location of radar, aerials, etc also
important
▪ sensors often have to face
forward/down in a/c nose. ▪
long range search & early
warning scanners
sometimes located on
fuselage.
▪ Auxiliary power unit (APU)
commonly located at extreme rear
of fuselage on transport a/c.
49

Local Layout
Aspects
E3 Sentry
E2 Hawkeye50

Local Layout
Aspects
 Fuel
▪ Not normally located within
fuselage of
passenger transport a/c
▪ exceptions are freight bay
extended range tanks and CG
balancing tanks.
▪ Many other a/c classes store fuel
in fuselage. ▪ Results in awkward-
shaped tanks on high-
performance combat a/c.
51

Local Layout
Aspects

Weapons Bay(s)
 ▪ Disposable load should be
carried so that overall CG is
close to that of a/c as a whole.
▪ Greater layout flexibility
conferred if more than
one bay used:
▪ may facilitate landing gear stowage;

▪ reduced structural cut-out problems.

52

Local Layout
Aspects

Gun Installation
▪ Common on combat a/c.
▪ Mounted in forward region of
a/c, adjacent to crew
 compartment.
▪ Major factor in nose layout,
especially when allowing for
ammunition stowage & spent
cartridge collection.
53

A350XWB Nose
Layout

The cockpit fuselage section will be

constructed from aluminum lithium, with
Airbus deciding against adopting a one
piece carbonfibre structure that it had
been evaluating previously.
A350 XWB chief engineer Gordon
McConnell said that the nose redesign
was made partly for improved
aerodynamics and also to enable the
overhead crew rest to be installed further
forward and eliminate any encroachment
in the passenger cabin. He adds that
strength requirements for birdstrike
protection were partly behind the
decision to adopt a metallic nose
structure. "If we went for a composite
structure we'd have to reinforce the area
above the cockpit with titanium which is
 expensive," he says.

54

A350XWB Nose Further

Redesign

Emirates has become the first A350

customer to release images of the XWB
with the revamped nose and cockpit
window arrangement adopted by Airbus as
it refines the aircraft's design from the
original 2006 concept. The revised nose,
which dispenses with the dramatic four
window panel layout illustrated on all
artists' impressions released of the A350 in
May 2008, was adopted last year when
Airbus decided to incorporate the A380's
nose structural design.

55
 A350XWB All

Out of

Direction
In June 2008 Airbus released computer-
aided design model images of the A350 that
showed its latest thinking on the fuselage
and nose shape. The four windows panels
are back in business. At this point and
according to Airbus the XWB's wing design
was also further refined, among
other changes also incorporating a
streamwise flap motion design to reduce
drag and seven-spoiler configuration
instead of the six previously planned.
56

Typical Nose
Layouts –
Single Seat Combat
A/C

Fairchild Republic A-10A

Warthog

Typical Nose
Layouts –
Single Seat Combat
A/C

McDonnell Douglas F-15A/C

Eagle
Nose Layout
Crew
Accommodation

Twin-Seat
Combat &
Trainer A/C ▪
Tandem or side-by-
side twin
seating arrangemen
ts possible:
▪ Side-by-side has:
▪ simpler layout, eased
communications, wide
fuselage, increased drag,
complicated ejection.
 ▪ Tandem seating arrangement
generally preferred.
59

Typical Nose Layouts

Twin-Seater Combat
A/C

Panavia Tornado
Typical Nose
Layouts
Twin-Seater Combat
A/C

Blackburn
Buccaneer
Typical Nose Layouts – Military
Transport A/C

Lockheed C-130 Hercules

62

Design constraints

Nose landing-gear
 63
Landing
gear
compartme
nt shall
accommod
ate bothE-
170 andE-
190 wheel
and
associate
systems.

64

Radome
Crew Accommodation

Civilian
Passenger
Transport A/C
 Typical flight deck
layout

Typical Nose Layout:

Boeing 747 68

CD
Mach number
69

Passengers &
Baggage

General Comments
▪ Primary consideration regarding
fuselage layout for civil airliners.
 ▪ Adequate provision required for
passengers, baggage & freight –
according to specification.
▪ Cabin length & width mainly
determined by passenger &
associated services.
▪ Cross-section depth also
influenced by
accommodation of standard
containers.
70

Passengers &
Baggage

General Comments (Cont.)

▪ For typical subsonic single-deck
airliner, passenger
cabin approximately 70% of total
length.
▪ Larger nose and tail length on
supersonic airliner – usable cabin
length approximately 55% of total.
▪ Multi-deck arrangements (e.g.
Boeing 747, Airbus
A380) introduce flexibility.
▪ Once cross-section is fixed, different
passenger requirements met by
stretching or shortening the
fuselage.
71

Passengers’
Preferences

Main concerns are comfort & safety.

▪ Emotional aspects
▪ As expected?
▪ Aesthetically pleasing?
▪ Feels friendly & safe?
 ▪ Entertainment & boredom avoidance
▪ In-seat entertainment.
▪ Comfortable conversation possible.

▪ Undisturbed reading, working, etc.

▪ Eating & drinking.

▪ Sleep & relaxation.

72

Passengers’ Preferences
(Cont.)

Physical aspects
▪ Tidy?
▪ Efficient air-conditioning?
▪ Odour-free?
▪ Quiet & vibration-free?
▪ Non-smoking?
▪ Cramped space?
▪ Disturbance of & by others.
▪ Carry-on baggage facility convenience.
▪ Proper lighting
73

Cabin Length

▪ Determined by combination of:

▪ Seat pitch, typically:
▪ charter, 0.7 to 0.775 m
▪ economy, 0.775 to 0.85 m
▪ business, 0.9 to 0.95 m
▪ first, 0.95 to 1.5 m
▪ Galley floor
area, typically 1
to 2 m by 0.7 m ▪
Toilet floor area,
typically 1 m by
1m
▪ Number of cross aisles
 ▪ Number of passengers and distribution across cabin.
74

Passengers &
Baggage

Seating & passenger layout

considerations: ▪ Minimise
passenger fore & aft movements
to reduce CG variations during
flight.
▪ Dispose passengers, baggage
& freight equally about
nominal CG position.
▪ Avoid seating in line with
plane of
propellers (noise,
psychology).
 ▪More space required for seats facing
bulkheads.
75

Passengers & Baggage

(Cont.)

▪ Forward facing seats generally best.

▪ Large number of small windows gives versatile
viewing arrangement. ▪ Doors required for
passengers, galley access, toilet services,
freight/baggage stowage, emergency exits.
▪ Overhead lockers for passengers’ light baggage.
▪ Headroom minimum 1.8 m, 2.0 m in aisles.
▪ Typical economy class requirements:
▪ 1 toilet per 40 to 50 pax.
▪ 1 galley per 60 to 120 pax.

76
 Cabin Width &
Cross-Section

Shape mainly dictated by structural

requirements for pressurisation. ▪ circular
best structurally but may give too much
unusable space above & below cabin.
▪ problem overcome by using several
inter-connecting circular sections
(mass penalty).
77

Cabin Width &

Cross-Section

Commuter Airplanes
Cabins
78

Cabin Width &

 Cross-Section
(Cont.)

▪ Size should be small enough

to reduce mass & drag but
big enough to provide
passenger comfort.
▪ Main decision is choice of
number of seats across a/c
and consequential aisle
arrangement. ▪ Need to
provide headroom for
passengers next to wall
sometimes constrains
shape & moves seat
position inwards from edge
of floor.
79
Cabin Width &
Cross-Section
(Cont.)

Seat arrangements
▪ Seat widths (typically):
▪ charter, 0.4 to 0.42 m
▪ economy, 0.475 to 0.525 m
▪ business, 0.575 to 0.625 m
▪ first, 0.625 to 0.7 m
▪ Many seating possibilities
but passenger should be no
more than 2 seats away
from aisle.
80

Cockpit Design
The cockpit may be considered the most vital part of the airplane, for in its all function of the airplane
and its power plant are coordinated and directed by the pilot and his sides.

The cockpit for an airplane should be constructed to give the maximum possible comfort, adequate
vision, and accessibility to all controls. In a cabin plane, consideration must be given to headroom,
ventilation and vision.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE IN COCKPIT DESIGN:

The pilot must be comfortably seated – and it is desirable that his legs make an angle of not greater than
45 degrees with the floor to assure comfort in flight.

The windshield should not be curved in more than two directions because distortion of scene may result.

All switches and controls which pilot must operate should be located as close to him as possible.
Those instruments which do not have to be operated manually may be farther away, BUT MUST BE
GROUP ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONS. The more important functional group is located in front of him.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS:

a. Windshield Outline
b. Angles and field of vision
c. Instruments and their location
d. Power plant controls and their location
e. Pilot’s and co-pilot’s seats
f. Primary control systems
g. Brake System
h. Hydraulic controls for brakes, flaps, tabs, etc.
i. Automatic-pilot equipment
j. Radio instrument
k. Lighting
l. Heating and ventilating
m. De-icing equipment and controls
n. Oxygen equipment
o. Accessibility; emergency exits.

NOTES:

The cockpit and primary control units should be located with respect to the propellers that the pilot or controls are not in the
region between the plane of rotation of any propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the center of propeller
hub and making an angle of 5 degrees forward and aft of the plane of the rotation of the propeller

If the airplane carries less than five passengers, the pilot/s are located in a compartment separated from the cabin. Entrance
to the cockpit from the cabin is permitted, nut passage through the cockpit should not be considered as an emergency exit.

When the pilot is entirely separated from the passengers, suitable means for communication between the pilot and passenger
is necessary.

Oxygen suppky or a supercharged cabin is required for the crew and passenger above 18,000 ft. altitude or when operation
for more than 15 minutes above an altitude of 14,000 ft.
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (Windows and Windshield)

1. Satisfactory forward vision under all conditions.

2. Suitable protection under all conditions.
3. Windshields should be easily opened in flight.
4. Windshields should be so arranged that the air stream and snow or rains are deflected across
the opening when the windshields are opened.
5. The windshield arrangement should be such as to give minimum interior reflection and glare
which might interfere pilot’s vision.
6. Leakage into the compartment during rain or snow should be avoided.
7. Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept of ice by means of a rotary
windshield wiper that operates at relatively high speed.
8. The glass (windshield) should not lie too flat. An angle between 0 and 45 degrees between the
vertical and plane of the glass when the airplane is horizontal is recommended.
9. The thickness of the glass depends upon the type and size of the plane. In general,
nonshatterable glass, at least 3/16 inch thick should be used.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (Seating)

1. The pilot’s seat should be adjustable vertically, as well as fore and aft and angularly. The back of
the seat should not be too high.
2. The seat should be provided with arms, so designed that the inside arm can be swung out of the
way when getting in or out of the seat.
3. When a wheel control is used, the height of the wheel should be such that it will clear the pilot’s
legs with the seat in its highest position so that the range of seat adjustment will not be limited. 4.
The range of distance from the centerline of the seat and the rudder pedal bar is 35.5 to 41.5
inches or a total variation of 6 inches.
5. The seat to eye height, with pilot inclined 13.5 degrees back, has a range varying from 26.9 inches
to 34 inches.
6. Desirable clearances in the cockpit for the pilot who is clothed with full operational equipment: a.
Above head, atleast 2.5 inches
b. Across shoulders, 24 to 26 inches
c. Across elbow, 26 to 28 inches
d. Across each knee, 6 to 8 inches

EMERGENCY EXITS

a. If the cockpit is not accessible from the cabin, a separate door should be provided for the
cockpit. b. If the windshield is large enough when opened, it may serve as an emergency exit. c.
An opening for an emergency exit should be atleast 17 x 24 inches when rectangular in shape or
24 inches in diameter if circular.

PROTECTION FOR PILOT

In order to lessen or prevent injury, surfaces against which the pilot might hit his head in a crash should
have the following characteristics:

a. Should be flat or have large radii for curvature

 b. Should be rigid enough to help support the head but should deflect under
contact c. Should be smooth, with no sharp edges to cause local high pressure
intensity
d. Should be made for absorbing a relatively large amount of impact or kinetic

energy. CONTROLS

a. The distance from a control wheel in its rearmost position to the back of the pilot should at least
12 inches.
b. The height of the wheel should clear the pilot’s leg with the seat in its highest position. c. The
maximum movement of the controls should correspond to the maximum movement of the control
surfaces.
d. In a small airplane, seating 2 to 5 passengers, for example, it is customary to place a
passenger alongside the pilot. In such case, the control column or stick should be not located
between the pilot and passenger unless the “throw-over” type of wheel control is incorporated.

CHAPTER

The Cockpit
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

The cockpit may be considered the most vital part of the airplane, for in it all functions
of the airplane and its power plant are coordinated and directed by the pilot
and his aides.
All control systems terminate in the cockpit; all operational and navi gational instruments
are located here; all decisions regarding the flight of the airplane, with the
take off and land, are
very few exceptions when the airplane is about to
determined here. As the airplane grows larger, the cockpit assumes
even greater importance. At present it is even more im portant than the captain's
bridge of an ocean liner.
Since the pilot and his aides, such as the co-pilot or the navigational officer or
some other member of the crew, spend their entire time on a flight in the cockpit,
it is absolutely necessary that every means for com fort, for ease of operation
of controls, for co-ordination of instruments, for vision, and a host of other odds
and ends which contribute to the efficiency and well-being of the crew, be
carefully planned and arranged. Too often an airplane, otherwise satisfactory,
cannot overcome the enormous sales resistance caused by a poorly designed or
arranged cockpit. The pilot may find that he has not been given enough leg
 room or enough headroom so that even on moderately short flights, he is
easily tired due to a cramped position. Or, he may find that his vision forward,
sideward, upward, and downward is very poor so that when he takes off from
an airport or wants to land, he must guess instead of being able to see how or
where he is tak ing off or landing.
Another difficulty may be that the instruments are not arranged prop erly: that he cannot
quickly see the instruments which he needs to guide him in the proper operation of the
engines and in the proper execution of his flight maneuvers.
In some cases minor faults may be corrected to suit the flying personnel but, for
example, if there is insufficient headroom in the cockpit it may
172

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not be possible to make changes unless the airplane is completely rede signed.
Naturally, the thought arises: Why not standardize the cockpit in its
dimensions, appointments, and general arrangements? In other
words, design a satisfactory cockpit once and for all. Unfortunately it
is not possible to standardize cockpit design wholly until all the parts and
equip ment located in the cockpit have been standardized.
New instruments are designed daily that record or indicate additional data not
measured before. Or, new equipment is designed that will take care of some
additional functions, but which may not wholly replace other equipment of
almost but not quite similar functions. The additions to the available list of
instruments and equipment are necessary in order to lighten the
burdens of the operating personnel, but their placement may well upset the
planned installation of the standardized cockpit. Each new cockpit,
therefore, offers its own problems.
However, there is standardization to some degree and this helps enor
mously in reducing the many problems attendant in cockpit arrangement.
military services are attempting to standardize cockpit designs for certain
types of airplanes.
The description below* is presented to give some idea and understand ing of the
cockpit arrangements and procedures that a pilot or student must follow, for
example, in a jet trainer.
The side-by-side seating arrangement is favored for a trainer for two
reasons:
(1) Student confidence builder. With instructor alongside, student can be more casily
indoctrinated with jet techniques and procedures.
(2) Ease of instruction. Instructor can observe student at all times, be "ahead" of
him in all phases of flight training without having to resort to guesswork.
The general arrangement of instruments and controls are such that, with the
student sitting on left side, the instructor on the right, the navigation and fight
instruments are positioned on student's side, the engine instruments above throttle
pedestal. The radio controls are in front of the instructor, but are within reach of the
student.
Positioned on the left, on student's side, are navigational and flight instruments
including directional and altitude indicators, altimeter, turn and slip, rate of climb and
uirspeed indicators, course indicator (omni), and clock. Engine instruments, set over the
center quadrant, include tachometers, exhaust temperature indicators, fuel flow
indicators, oil pressure gages, loadmeters, accelerometer and fuel quantity indicator. In
front of the instructor, on the right but within reach of student, are radio controls, circuit
breaker and instrument panel, a.c. fuses, plus airspeed and turn and slip indicators and
altimeter.
Controls are easily accessible from either side of cockpit. Stick grips and throttle quadrants
are fighter type. Four throttles are provided, two for each quadrant. Throttle movement
mechanically actuates each engine fuel control by means of push pull rods and torque
tubes.
Lift-type idle detents are included on instructor's quadrant to prevent inadvertent
positioning of either set of throttles from idle to cut-off. There is no de-icing equipment,
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

* Aviation Week, April 1, 1957, pp. 48-55.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

but an engine ice-warning light, on instrument panel, will illuminate when ice forms over the ice-
detect probe in left engine air inlet duct.
Two automatic press-breathing, diluter-demand oxygen regulators for both
student and instructor are located on lower left and right side of instrument
panel.
The trainer incorporates a simple cockpit check. Airplane can be started on its own battery
or external starter. Six to 10 starts can be made on former. Standard starting procedure is:
Battery and inverter on, fuel pump on, open fuel shut-off valve for left engine, push up on
starter switch and hold at 5% rpm, push up on ignition switch and hold, bring throttle forward
to idle, release starter and ignition switches at 22% rpm Engine will idle at 35%. Same
procedure is used to start right engine.
Power steering is activated by button on stick, and slight rudder pressure steers
air plane neatly and quickly. Nose wheel will steer on free swivel to 50 deg. Large transparent
canopy allows excellent visibility during taxi and flight.
Before take-off there are two safety pins for the student to pull and one for the instruc tor.
One of the pins is for canopy jettison and one for student's ejection seat. The instructor's pin is
for his ejection seat. Before aircraft is entered, ground crew removes a fourth jettison pin
for canopy behind and beyond reach of pilots.
A "hot" mike, geared to the helmet, enables instructor and student to talk-without button
pushing—from time electrical power is turned on until engines are shut down.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE IN DESIGN

Since the pilot is the most important item in the design of his headquar ters,
the cockpit is planned around him. To obtain a better conception
of his requirements, a celluloid figure with joints is made to
scale to which the cockpit installation is to be drawn. This jointed
figure can then be placed in various postures to see whether the pilot's seat
is far enough up from the floor, that the legs are not outstretched too far for
comfort, and that the control stick or wheel is not too far ahead so that it is awkward
to operate. Of course, slight adjustments are obtainable in raising or low
ering the seat, or in moving it forward or rearward.
If there is insufficient headroom for the pilot to stand up in the cockpit, then there
should be at least enough room above his head so that he can lean forward
or back, or raise himself up slightly from the seat without fear of bumping his
head.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

Once the pilot has been comfortably seated-and it is desirable that his legs make
an angle of not greater than 45 degrees with the floor to assure comfort in
flight-it is necessary to locate the seat so that he may have sufficient vision
in all possible directions, with special attention to for ward, upward, downward,
and sideward vision. When this has been done, the windshield may be located. It
should not be too far forward since the ceiling will come too far ahead of
the pilot and interfere with his line of vision. Likewise, the windshield should
not be curved in more than two directions because distortion of the scene may
result.
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THE
COCKPIT
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Next, the instruments and equipment must be considered. Instru

mentation is discussed in detail in a subsequent chapter,
but reference to a few required features may well be made here. All
switches and controls which the pilot must operate should be located as
close to him as possible so that it will be unnecessary for him to stretch.
Stretching reduces the pilot's ability to operate the airplane properly
at any time and especially in an emergency. On the other hand, those
instruments which do not have to be operated manually may be
farther away, but they must be grouped according to functions. The
more important functional group is located in front of him. Others are
slightly out of his prevailing line of direct vision.
When the arrangements for distances and clearances have been settled above
and below the pilot, as well as behind and ahead of him, some
atten tion should be given to "elbow" room. Here again, he should be
given as much room as possible. If there is a co-pilot, the width should be
doubled and an appreciable allowance made for the aisle between the two. 1
allowances often determine the width of the fuselage unless the airplane is
very large. The result is that designers tend to skimp on width
allowances because the greater the width, the greater the
eventual effect upon the speed performance of the airplane. However,
a difference of 2 or 3 inches will be enormous as far as the comfort of the
pilot is concerned and will hardly affect the speed characteristics of the
airplane.
In new designs it is usually the custom to lay out the pilot's cockpit on paper,
as discussed before, with the aid of additional information given hereafter,
and then to construct a "mockup" which is a full-scale represen tation of
the actual installation in wood, metal, and cardboard that is nailed, bolted,
or screwed together. In the mockup, a man may sit in the cockpit and test
the arrangements before the airplane is constructed. Changes are made
until everything is as satisfactory as accompanying conditions permit.
The final solution is then drawn up and incorporated into the final design.
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS The following
items must be considered in the design and study of ar rangements
for the cockpit:
1. Windshield outline and construction. 2. Angles and field of vision.
3. Instruments and their location. 4. Power-plant controls
and their location. 5. Pilot's and co-pilot's seats. 6. Primary
control systems. 7. Brake systems. 8. Hydraulic
controls for brakes, flaps, tabs, etc.
Innhunden Conn
en in
ITAA AA Aldani nzhinh an Innlani

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MANUAL
9. Automatic-pilot equipment. 10. Radio equipment. 11.
Lighting. 12. Heating and ventilating. 13. De-
icing equipment and controls. 14. Oxygen
equipment. 15. Accessibility; emergency
exits.
The cockpit for an airplane should be constructed to give the maximum possible
comfort, adequate vision, and accessibility to all controls. In a cabin plane,
consideration must be given to headroom, ventilation, and vision.
The cockpit and primary control units, excluding cables and control rods, should be
so located with respect to the propellers that the pilot or controls are not in the
region between the plane of rotation of any propeller and the surface
generated by a line passing through the center of the pro peller hub and
making an angle of 5 degrees forward or aft of the plane of rotation of the
propeller.
Unless the airplane carries less than five passengers, the pilot or pilots are located in a
compartment separated from the cabin. Entrance to the cockpit from the cabin is
permitted, but passage through the cockpit should not be considered as an
emergency exit for the passengers.
When the pilot is entirely separated from the passengers, suitable means for
communication between the pilot or pilots and the passengers should be provided.
 Oxygen supply or a supercharged cabin should be provided for the crew and the
passengers above 18,000 feet altitude, or when operations are for more
than 15 minutes above an altitude of 14,000 feet.
The arrangement of controls, provision for adequate vision, and seating
arrangements, as well as numerous other problems, are best solved by
con structing a mockup in which every item is represented.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS The general requirements

for windows and windshields of the pilot's compartment cover the
following items:
1. Satisfactory forward vision under all conditions. 2. Suitable protection
under all conditions. 3. Windshields should be easily opened in flight.
4. Windshields should be so arranged that the air stream and snow or rain are
deflected across the opening when the windshields are open.
5. The compartment should be so arranged that glare and reflection are avoided.
6. Leakage into the compartment during rain or snow should be
avoided.

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00000
IN
FIGURE X-1. Two windshield arrangements for military airplanes. The top windshield
simi lar to that of the Fairchild "Cornell” may be built in sections that slide rearward, one
section telescoping over the other. The bottom wind shield, similar to that of the North
American XF-JI, is an example of the bubble canopy, which has practically no visual
obstructions but may have some optical distortions.
FIGURE X-2. Windshield configurations for large trans port airplane. The top arrange
ment may offer less aerodynamic resistance while the lower may give the better
visibility.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

For best vision, the windshield should be placed vertically although this materially
increases aerodynamic resistance. Hence, the rearward-slop ing
windshield which tends to keep the streamline shape of the fuselage is the
best.
It has been proposed that in order to obtain a streamlined fuselage for an
airplane designed for greatest aerodynamic efficiency, the cockpit could
be made to retract into the fuselage just after take-off. This could be
done only with great complication.
For unusually large airplanes, it is possible to locate the pilot's cockpit
in the nose of the fuselage where, due to the enormous size, flat panes
in serted in the surface hardly affect the smooth contour of the streamlined
body.
Windshields should be so installed that they may be cleaned or opened easily
in flight. Unless the windshields are such that rain, snow, or ice will not stick
to the surface and impede vision, they should be arranged so that the air
stream and snow or rain are deflected across the opening.

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FIGURE X-3. Other possible solutions to the windshield prob lem. These offer
relatively little aerodynamic resistance, but do not offer the highest degree of
visibility to the pilots.
FIGURE X-4. Windshield treatments for high-speed trans port airplanes. A
special, so called retractable, windshield covers the main windshield in the lower
solution. For take off and landing, the outer wind shield is retracted.
snn6_ndunen conn16lonnen
A
call nzihinsann HAMISA

FIGURE X-5. This windshield arrangement provides better visibility for the pilot, but
offers greater aerodynamic resistance than any of the previous solutions
shown.

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I UVI

THE cocКРІТ
179

FIGURE X-6. A typical nose-treatment for high-speed aircraft. Note the careful
streamlining of the windshield into the fuselage lines. The use of a periscope for
the landing operation has been proposed, with radar serving for the other
situations of visual observation. The nose section can be constructed in the form
of a jettisonable capsule, as indicated by the solid outlines.

FIGURE X-7. A pilot's canopy that hinges at the rear and is held up by a hydraulic
ally-operated center jack. When in place, further engagement is obtained by means
 of the three lugs on each side, through which pins are passed. All connections can
be released in time for the ejection of the pilot with his seat.

Hot-air i intake
Cold-air! exhaust
L_L

=====
Air ducts Cab =========== radiator
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/ 5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

FIGURE X-8. One way of obtaining ice-free windshields.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
Windshields fronting on the sides of the cabin may be kept free of ice by
means of a rotary windshield wiper that operates at relatively high speed.
One of the airlines has devised a double windshield, consisting of 14-inch
safety-glass pane in front and a Ys-inch transparent plastic rear pane with
a 14-inch air space separating the two. Air, heated to 170° F, from the cabin
heating system, is forced through between the panes at a rate of about 60
cubic feet per minute.
 The windshield arrangement should be such as to give minimum interior
reflections and glare which might interfere with the pilot's vision,
particu larly at night.
In a mockup, the windows may be represented by mirrors that show the parts of
the cockpit which may be reflected. By suitable rearrangement of the
windshield, these areas may be avoided or provision made to reduce the
reflection. Glare may be investigated by means of an outside source of light
that can be moved with respect to the cockpit.
By means of Figure X-9, the thickness of the glass for the windshield may be
determined. The safe pressure or load that may be sustained by
the glass may be calculated approximately by means of the
formula

P = 21,000 t2/AS where P = unit pressure in pounds per

square inch (or square foot)
(assume P = 120V mas in lb/ft?), t = thickness of glass
in inches,
A = area in square inches (or
square feet),
f = safety factor, assumed equal to 10.
Characteristics of Glass
Coefficient of expansion of plate glass between -70° F to +100° F is approximately
0.00000823 per degree centigrade or 0.00000457 per degree
Fahrenheit.

Compression
Tension Modulus
of rup-
ture
36,000 lb per
in.
6,500 lb per in.2.
3,500 lb per in.
Modulus of elasticity 10 X 106
to
t 3.29 lb per ft (94 inch
thickness)
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

All the windows in the windshield should be made to open quickly, and be
removable, if desired. The glass should not lie too flat. An angle be tween 0
and 45 degrees between the vertical and plane of the glass when the airplane
 is horizontal is recommended. If the glass lies too flat, dis tortion of vision
or undesirable reflections from the sky above may result.
The thickness of the glass depends upon the type and size of
plane.
In general, nonshatterable glass, at least %6 inch thick should be used.
Anything thinner is subject to accidental breakage or warping.

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THE
COCKPIT
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are plate uniformly loaded. Factor of safety=10. For other mate

ant. For rectangular shapes, mul tiply by factor given below:
to long side ing factor
1.005
1.02
1.07
dooddoo
2.60
5.00
0.1
Safe load on plate glass in pounds per square inch
for per square foot)
Oolon
col

60
0 10 20 30 40 50
Area in square inches for in square feet)
FIGURE X-9. Variation of glass thickness with size
and load.
Innbundenen con 1610en RITARRA Alldall nozni innan inn

Plexiglas is a thermoplastic which may be formed by heat and pressure.

The softening point, about 175° F, is so high that the material does not lose
its rigidity under sun temperatures, yet it is low enough so that the material may
be worked readily without using excessively high tempera tures.

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AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL

VISION AND VISIBILITY The cockpit in jet-

propelled aircraft can usually be placed well forward in the
fuselage, thus affording pilots a type of visibility during
landing approach that is not possible with propeller-driven aircraft.
Downward visibility of 17° or more over the nose can be obtained,
whereas the other type of airplane permits as little as 3° and seldom
more than 50
Downward visibility is limited by the type of equipment installed ahead of the pilot.
The pilot at high altitudes, in addition to his other problems, is faced with an inversion
of the normal brightness direction. The sky and the clouds at or near the
earth's surface are normally brighter than the ter rain. Thus, at high altitude the
pilot is covered with a black sky, while the haze and clouds in the atmosphere
below him are extremely bright. Human beings are designed with eyes recessed
under the frontal region of the skull and with eyebrows superimposed. This
is to protect the eyes from brightness from above; but there is no protection
from brightness coming from below-a distinct handicap for the pilot.
Unobstructed forward vision for the pilot under all conditions is most
desirable. For easy landing, it should be possible to see the wheels at the
moment of contact. It is customary to allow an angle of not less than 5
 degrees subtended by the eye below the horizontal to permit adequate
vision forward.

FIGURE X-10. The closer the obstruction to the eye, the greater the angle subtended for
impeding vision.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

The twin-engine designs can usually provide for excellent vision forward and sideways
owing to the absence of such obstructions as the engine cylinders.
A wing with sweepback usually does not permit as good a view of the landing gear
as a wing that does not incorporate a sweepback.
Obstructions such as posts to support the windshield do not offer as much of a “blind
spot” when located relatively far from the pilot's eyes. Preliminary studies
should be made to determine the most desirable location of such supports as far
as vision is concerned.
A larger field of vision is available to the pilot if the windshield or windows are relatively
close to the pilot's face. The type of windshield that slopes rearward from top
to bottom (Figure X-5) does not afford

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THE COCKPIT
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FIGURE X-11. Windshield arrange ment for a small cabin, high-wing monoplane, similar
to that used by the Waco “Aristocraft."
FIGURE X-12. Windshield arrangement for a two-seater low-wing monoplane (top) simi lar
to that of the Aeronca “Chum," and for a small flying boat, (bottom) similar to that of
the Republic "Sea Bee.” much vision upward or sideways since the pilot is
required to seat himself
farther back than if the windshield sloped the other way. Canopies
The cleaner aerodynamic lines required at transonic and supersonic speeds, as
well as the difficulty of providing large transparent areas of high-heat-resistant
material may lead to the elimination of canopies. One airplane now being built
incorporates a periscope.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

SEATING The pilot should be comfortably seated. His seat should be

adjustable vertically, as well as fore and aft, and angularly. The back of the
seat should not be too high.
The seat should be provided with arms, so designed that the inside arm can be
swung out of the way when getting in or out of the seat.
When two seats in a side-by-side arrangement are provided in the pilot's
compartments, it is desirable to have equal access to the controls and in
struments; where this is not possible, the left-hand seat should be favored. This
is known as the first pilot's seat, and the right-hand one is termed the second pilot's
seat.
When a wheel control is used, the height of the wheel should be such
that

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

it will clear the pilot's legs with the seat in its highest position so
that the range of seat adjustment will not be limited.
The average dimensions for a cockpit seating a normal man are presented in
Figure X-13. Since man does not come in a standard size, it is not

-
-
-
C1
poto
e
40"
|_46" to 50"
ller

-355 1994

FIGURE X-13. Average cockpit dimensions needed to provide adequate room for
the pilot.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

possible to standardize the dimensions of the cockpit. The Aero Medical

Laboratory of the Army Air Forces examined 52 subjects as representative
of some 3000 air cadets and found that they ranged in size from 5 feet 3
inches tall, weighing a minimum of 125 pounds (nude), to 6 feet 3 inches
tall and weighing 205 pounds (nude). For these men, a range of distance from the
centerline of the seat to the rudder pedal bar was 35.5 to 41.5 inches, or a total
variation of 6 inches. This adjustment should be made at the rudder pedal
(preferably in increments of 1 inch) rather than in changing the fore and aft
position of the seat, although a slight adjustment of the seat and a greater
adjustment of the pedal is also a likely solution.
Further, it was found that the seat to eye height, with the pilot inclined 13.5
degrees back, had a range varying from 26.9 inches to 34.0 inches.
There is always a desire on the part of the designer to be conservative on
allowance for dimensions of the cockpit, especially for small airplanes,
since he wishes to obtain as small over-all dimensions as possible. Yet,
greater freedom would be desirable, from the point of view of the pilot, and it
would certainly increase his efficiency. The Aero Medical Labora

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THE COCKPIT
185
tory arrived at the following desirable clearances in the
cockpit for the pilot who was clothed with full operational equipment:
above the head, 2.5 inches; across the shoulders, 24 to 26 inches;
across the elbows, 26 to

5.2
-16"
24

FIGURE X-14. Average dimensions of a inan 6 feet tall.

taong
35

134" 374
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

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186
AIRPLANE DESIGN
MANUAL
28 inches; across each knee, 6 to 8 inches; and above knees and thighs, 26 inches. For
the occupant of the private airplane with an operational ceil ing below 10,000
feet and with provision of a reasonable heating system, necessary
clothing is not so heavy nor thick so that the dimensions speci fied in the
listing may be reduced in some cases.
Before cockpit design has progressed to the mockup stage, it is desir able
to construct a two-dimensional reduced scale model of the supposed pilot.
For this purpose, the dimensions of a man who is 6 feet tall are presented
in ligure X-14 as a practical compromise between the 5-foot 3-inch pilot and the
6-foot 3-inch pilot.

EXITS
If the cockpit is not accessible from the cabin, a separate door should be provided
for the cockpit. It is generally desirable to have an emergency exit as well. If
the windshield is large enough when opened, it may serve as an emergency
exit; otherwise, one should be provided
When the airplane is not equipped to carry passengers, the pilot's com partment
may be either open or equipped with a hatch of such size that it can be
used for an emergency exit for the crew with parachutes.
An opening for an emergency exit should be at least 17 X 24 inches when
rectangular in shape, or 24 inches in diameter if circular. Such openings are
generally not large enough, however, for a man equipped with a parachute,
and are usually intended for emergency exit on the ground.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

PROTECTION FOR THE PILOT Without a shoulder

harness to hold the pilot in his seat, severe or fatal injury is probable in
a landing accident as a result of his head striking the instrument
panel. The danger can be avoided by making the space in front of the
occupant free of obstacles for a distance approximately equal to the
length of the torso from the hips to the top of the head, plus seat-belt
elongation. This would necessitate a 31 to 45 inch space clear of any
solid or unyielding protuberances which might injure not only
the head but also other parts of the body.
The pilot's head would be critically injured in a crash against a flat, rigid surface
at an average impact energy of about 600 in./lb. If low density, energy-
absorbing materials are used to pad the crash surfaces, the head can take
impacts five times greater.
In order to lessen or prevent injury, surfaces against which the pilot might hit his
head in a crash should have the following characteristics:
1. They should be flat or have large radii for
curvature;
2. They should be rigid enough to help support the head but should deflect under
contact;
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3. They should be smooth, with no sharp edges to cause local high

pressure intensity;
1. The contact surface should be as large as possible for distributing
contact pressures;
5. Provision should be made for absorbing a relatively large amount of impact or
kinetic energy.

EJECTION EQUIPMENT At low speeds, the

customary method for a pilot to leave an airplane under
emergency conditions is to jump over the side. This method is
reasonably safe for aircraft speeds up to Mach 0.5. Beyond this limit,
various escape methods have been proposed and possible solutions
arc still being investigated.
It has been suggested that between speeds of Mach 0.5 and 1.5, an escape
chute located in the bottom of the fuselage may be suitable. Ejec tion of
the pilot, complete with seat and head and face protection gear, is
another alternative.
From about Mach 1.0 up, a capsule holding the pilot's cockpit would be
detached from the rest of the aircraft structure by pneumatic or rocket
means.
Such problems as aerodynamic heating, stability in descent, and dy namic
loads encountered make the design of suitable ejection equipment and
methods as challenging as the design of the entire aircraft.
Some appreciation of the difficulties encountered may be gained when
it is considered that from altitudes of 30,000 and above, tumbling
and spinning are serious hazards. Experiments with human subjects have
shown that a spin of 160 rpm for 12 seconds will produce
unconsciousness, and that visual, mental, and physical disorientation
will take place at 90 rpm, or even less. Rotation at 200 rpm for two
minutes has proved fatal for animal subjects. Therefore, means will have
 to be provided to make any self-contained system free from tumbling
and spinning char acteristics.
It is believed that a streamlined capsule containing all of the cockpit
equipment would have greater mass and better streamlining than
a body in an ejection seat. Thus, it could reduce deceleration to
within human tolerance and give protection from tumbling,
wind blast, extreme temper atures, and lack of oxygen. At altitudes
outside the normal atmosphere, the capsule would also protect the pilot
from such conditions as dynamic heating and sudden decelerations, which
make atmosphere quite dangerous.
re-entry into the normal
Furthermore, such a capsule would provide an artificial
environment capable of supporting the pilot for considerable periods.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

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AIRPLANE DESIGN MANUAL

PARACHUTES It is not customary to provide the crew with parachutes

when passen gers are carried. When the airplane does not carry passengers,
pilots should be equipped with parachutes. Figure X-15 shows seating pro
visions to be made for different type parachutes.
of carry passengers, pilots
to
15"
FIGURE X-15. Allowances to be made in seating with various type parachutes.
Composite sketch shows lap and seat type parachutes.
SI-

CONTROLS All controls should be readily accessible. The distance from a

control wheel in its rearmost position to the back of
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

FIGURE X-16. Suggested configurations for the pilot's control wheel.

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the pilot should be at least 12 inches. The height of the wheel should
clear the pilot's legs with the seat in its highest position.
nt of the controls should correspond to the maximum movement of the con trol surfaces.
, seating 2 to 5 passengers, for example, it is sometimes customary to place a
passenger alongside the pilot. In
such a case, the control column or
FIGURE X-17. Control levers are being
stick should not be located between
equipped with handles suggesting the mech- the pilot and passenger
unless the anism each handle operates. (left) Landing "throw-over" type of wheel
con gear retraction. (right) Flap lever.
trol is incorporated. The controls
should be so arranged or constructed that neither the pas
sengers, crew, nor cargo will interfere with the operation of such controls
during the course of flight of the airplane. Further, all controls must
be so located and designed that the pilot or co-pilot will not
bump them when moving in or out of his seat, or in and around the
cockpit. Latest designs of control handles simulate the mechanism
which the handle operates. This makes for faster action by the pilot
and minimizes error in selecting the proper control.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

INSTRUMENT BOARD There is no agreement as to the

best arrangement of the instrument board. It is customary to place the
automatic pilot in the top center of the instrument board, with the flight
instruments and power-plant instru ments in front of the pilot. The
controls and switches should be readily accessible, and in case of
pilot and co-pilot arrangements, the engine con trols should be located
between the two.
In a twin-engine airplane there are some 16 controls for the power plant
alone, about 11 flight-control instruments in addition to the flying controls,
landing-gear retraction, lights, heating and ventilating control, radio, and
brakes, as well as flaps and tab controls, for which provision must be made
on the instrument board or in the cockpit.
The instrument board should have sufficient room behind it to provide easy
access even to the largest instrument. It may be made of any mate
rial, although aluminum alloy is commonly used.
In order to take additional factors into account, further reference should
be made to Chapters XI, XVI, and XX, entitled Instruments and Equip ment, The
Power Plant, and Control Systems, respectively.

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SSSSS

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FIGURE I-18. Side and plan views of controls and instrument
board for prone position of pilot, which permits smaller
cross section of fuselage for high-speed airplanes.
‫ומחזור החודומוויח‬Ann‫ מפ‬:‫מרבכם‬/5 ‫ובמורולפמן ווררי & אודיו ומוו וורו מפריחו‬nr5-‫מהחום‬

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