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ZOOLOGY PAPER – II
(SOLVED MODEL PAPER)
Annual Examination 2021

SECTION---A (MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS)

NOTE: Attempt all multiple-choice questions. All carry equal marks. (22 Marks)

1. Which one of the following is the functional unit of excretory organ in vertebrates?
*Protonephridia * Metanephridia * Melphighian tubule * Nephron
2. Kidney stones or calculi are 70% composed of:
*Calcium * Calcium phosphate * Magnesium phosphate * Sodium oxalate
3. The locomotion in snail takes place with the help of:

*Muscular foot * Muscular Arm * Tentacle * Jet propulsion

4. Smooth muscles are found in:

*Heart * Skeleton *Hollow structure * Nerve
5. Which one of the following is the locomotory organs of Class Mastigophora:
*Flagella * Ciliata * Pseudopodia * Parapodia
6. Knee –jerk is an example of:
*Poly synaptic * Monosynaptic *Synaptic * Tetrasynaptic
7. The cavities which are present in the brain are called:
*Atrium * Sac * Ventricles * Auricles
8. Glucagon, ADH, Oxytocin belongs to which one of the following:
*Enzymes * Peptide Hormones * Steroid Hormones * Modified Hormones
9. The part of the brain involved in the long term memory is:
*Amygdala * Hippocampus * Hypothalamus * Thalamus
10. Somatotropin hormone is responsible for:
*Sperm production * Melanin production * Production of milk * Growth
11. The end of fertility in human female is called:
*Menopause * Lactation * Ovulation * Gestation
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12. The total number of polar bodies in oogenesis are:

*4 *6 *9 *3
13. Ventral roots of spinal cord contains axons of:
*Motor neurons * Inter neurons * Sensory neurons * Neuroglial cells
14. The cells of the pancreas which are responsible for the production of Insulin are:
*Beta cells * Gamma cells * Alpha cells * Dry cells
15. Which of the following is the correct order?
*Morula-cleavage-blastula * Blastula-gastrula-morula
* Cleavage-morula-blastula * Neurula-morula-blastula
16. The non-coding sequence of gene are:
*Codon * Exon * Intron * Anti-codon
17. Which of the following can serve as a vector in rDNA technology?
*Plasmid * Bacteriophage * Algae * Mosquito
(There is a mistake in given answers 02 options are correct, i.e. Plasmid and
Bacteriophage both are used as vector in rDNA technology)
18. Unifactorial defects refers to:
*One gene * Many genes * Environmental factors * Genome
19. The non-renewable resource is :
*Wildlife * Forests * Water * Coal
20. The gas responsible for global warming is:
*Oxygen * Nitrogen * Carbon dioxide * Chlorine
21. Which one of the following is used as refrigerants and foaming agents?
*Oxygen * Nitrogen *Chlorofloro-Carbon *Chlorine
22. Which one of the following is a not vestigial organ found in man?

*Coccyx * Vermiform appendix * Eye lids * Ear muscles

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SECTION---B (SHORT QUESTIONS)

Note: Attempt any FOUR questions from Reasoning Questions and
THREE from Non-reasoning Questions. All questions carry equal
marks. (14 MARKS)

a) Reasoning questions: (4x2=08)

Q 1.) Why hypothalamus is called the thermostat of the body?

Hypothalamus is the part of brain, which has thermoregulatory

center. Like thermostat it is set at a particular temperature called “set point”.
Any change in the body temperature below or above the set point is detected
by the hypothalamus. In case of hot temperature, the hypothalamus shuts
down the heat saving mechanism and facilitates evaporative cooling, panting
and vaso-dilations. While, in colder temperature, it inhibits heat loss
mechanisms and activates heat saving mechanisms.

As hypothalamus controls automatically the loss of heat or its

prevention because of this it is commonly called as thermostat of the body.
OR

Q 1) Why do freshwater fishes excrete dilute urine and Marine fishes excrete
concentrated urine?

Freshwater fishes have hypertonic body fluids than the surroundings. To

maintain their internal body environment hypertonic these fishes remove
excess water by passing large quantities of very dilute urine.

While, Marine bony fishes have hypotonic internal environment. In order

to conserve water, these fishes constantly drink water. Moreover, the
filtration rate in their kidneys is very low so small quantity of concentrated
urine is excreted.
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Q 2) Why moderate form of fever is good for health?

Moderate form of fever is good for health because fever in case of

infection is a consequence of the activity of macrophages, which release
pyrogens to raise the body temperature to inhibit the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms. OR

Q 2) Why the cardiac muscles are striated and involuntary in nature?

Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart. These muscles are striated.
The actin and myosin filaments are arranged in sarcomeres possess actin and
myosin filaments arranged in sarcomeres. During their rhythmic movement
actin filaments overlap on myosin filament and form light and dark bend or
strips on the other hand the movement of these muscles is not under conscious
control these are involuntary and do not get tired or fatigued because blood
needs to be pumped throughout the body and these muscles also have
striations which allow them to pass the contractions from one muscle fiber to
another. Thus because of striped appearance and independent movement
cardiac muscles are striated and involuntary in nature.

Q 3) What causes abnormal muscles contraction in sportsman?

In sportsman abnormal muscles contraction cramps is happen. The

cause of this abnormal muscles contraction is heavy exercise performed by
sportsman. OR

Q 3) How hydrostatic skeleton facilitates locomotion in soft bodied animals?

Hydrostatic skeleton is fluid filled simple type skeleton found in soft

bodied animals. The hydrostatic skeleton helps the soft bodied animals in
extension and withdrawal of their bodies and tentacles. The fluid filled body
cavity in these animals is surrounded by layers of circular and longitudinal
muscles. Alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal
muscles exert enough pressure on the body fluid to lengthen and to shorten
respectively, and helps in the movement of animal. E.g. jet propulsion in jelly
fish, movement of earthworm in the soil.
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Q 4) What are the causes of Eutrophication?

Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salt that

causes structural changes to the ecosystem. It is a serious environmental
problem since it results in deterioration of water quantity. The main causes
which increase the eutrophication are:

• Use of fertilizers in the soil contributes to accumulation of nutrients.

• Discharge of waste water and detergents in water bodies.
• Reduction of self purification capacity.
• Human activities like adding of minerals and organic waste.
OR
Q 4) Why nervous coordination is quick as compared to the chemical coordination?
Chemical coordination occurs by endocrine organs and it is
purely chemical based communication where chemical messenger hormones
are released in the blood. They transported through blood slowly and take
some time. Whereas Nervous coordination occurs by neurons and it is electro-
chemical communication. Whenever nerves receive a stimulus, it causes a
change in membrane potential resulting in generation of a nerve impulse
which is transmitted with a speed of about 130m/s. That is why nervous
coordination is quick as compare to chemical coordination.
Q 5) Why parthenogenesis is considered as semi-sexual in nature?

Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction which is neither strictly asexual

nor sexual. Although like sexual reproduction gametes are produced but like
asexual reproduction it requires only one parent, a female, who produces eggs
that develop into adult without fertilization. Thus parthenogenesis is
considered as semi-sexual in nature. OR

Q 5) Why identical twins are similar but fraternal twins are not?

Identical twins are exactly alike and of the same sex because both of
them develop from just one zygote (monozygotic). Both of these share the
same genes, and thus are exactly identical and similar in features. Fraternal
twins on the other hand are developed from two independent eggs, and each
egg is fertilized by a separate sperm to form two different zygote (dizygotic).
Fraternal twins develop from these different zygote possess different genes,
thus their genotype is different and they are not similar.
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Q 6) How Hermaphroditic condition is advantageous for the parasitic mode of

life?

Hermaphrodites are those organisms which possess both male and female
reproductive organs. Hermaphroditic condition is advantageous for the
parasitic mode of life in the following ways;

• Hermaphroditic parasites are capable of reproduction even if they

cannot find another member of their species in a host.
• They require less energy as don’t need to find a mate.
• Barely run the risk of becoming extinct.
• They have ability to self fertilize.
• Immobile parasitic species are hermaphrodite can reproduce by self
fertilization. OR
Q 6) How DNA fingerprinting helps in solving criminal cases?
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique used to establish a link
between biological evidence and a suspect in a criminal investigation. It is
used to identify criminals from blood, semen, saliva, hairs follicles etc. left at
the scene of crime. A DNA sample taken from a crime scene is compared with a
DNA sample from a suspect. The results of this comparison may help establish
whether the suspect committed the crime.

(b) Non-Reasoning Questions:

Q 1) Explain the role of brain in regulating temperature.
ROLE OF NRAIN IN TEMPERATURE REGULATION:
The part of brain called hypothalamus is the controlling center of
temperature and is called as thermostat of body. It controls automatically the
loss of heat or its prevention. Hypothalamus receives nerve messages from
thermo receptors present in skin and body tissues and it also senses the
temperature of blood flowing through the brain. It is set at a particular
temperature called “set point”. Any change in the body temperature below or
above the set point is detected by the hypothalamus.
• In case of hot temperature, the hypothalamus shuts down the heat saving
mechanisms and facilitates evaporative cooling, panting and vaso-dilations.
• In colder temperature, it inhibits heat loss mechanisms and activates heat
saving mechanisms.
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OR
Q 1) Write any four functions of liver
ANS: FUNCTIONS OF LIVER:
I) Metabolism of Carbohydrates and Lipids.
Liver converts excess glucose into glycogen and stored it. At the time of shortage
liver broken down glycogen into glucose and supplied to the body. Liver also
removes lipids either by oxidation or by modification and stores as fat.
II) Deamination and urea formation:
The excess proteins and amino acids are not stored in the body they are broken
down in the liver. At first deamination, i.e. removal of amino group takes place.
This converted into ammonia. Ammonia combines with CO2 and converts into
urea by “urea cycle “or “ornithine cycle”.
III) Production of bile:
Yellowish-green alkaline substance bile is produced by liver. It contains bile
pigments (bilirubin, biliverdin), salts, cholesterol, Phospholipids and mucus. Bile
neutralizes the acidic food in small intestine. Bile salts emulsify the fats.
IV) Detoxification
Liver can modify the structure of many drugs and poison to make them harmless.
H2O2 is a by-product of many chemical pathways is highly toxic. It is broken down
to hydrogen and oxygen by an enzyme, catalase, which is present in high
concentration in the cells of liver.
Q 2) Define joints. Name different types of joints
DEFINITION OF JOINT:
The site of union of bones is called joint. There may be two or more bones at one
joint.
TYPES OF JOINTS:
Joints are classified on the basis of their movement.
1) IMMOVEABLE JOINTS: The joints where movement is not possible at all are
called immoveable joints.
Example: joints in skull bones.
2) SLIGHTLY MOVEABLE JOINTS: The joints where only a slight movement is
possible are called slightly or partially moveable joints.
Example: vertebral joints and ribs joints.
3) FREELY MOVEABLE JOINTS: The joints with free movement are called freely
moveable joints. They are;
a) HINGE JOINT: Example: Elbow and knee joints.
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b) BALL AND SOCKET JOINT: Example: Hip and shoulder joints.

c) PIVOT JOINT: Example: Elbow joint which allows twisting
movement.
d) SLIDING JOINTS: Example: connect the bones that meet at ankle or
wrist.
e) GLIDING JOINTS: Example: Vertebrae are linked by these.
OR
Q 2) Differentiate b/w cortical and juxtamedullary nephron.
Difference b/w cortical and juxtamedullary nephron.
CORTICAL NEPHRON JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRON
1) Cortical nephron has short loop of 1) Juxtamedullary nephron has
Henle with a slight extension into the longer loop of Henle extending
medulla. deep into the medulla.
2) These nephrons are concern with the 2) These nephrons are concern with
production of dilute urine. the production of concentrated
3) Cortical nephrons are present in urine.
greater number in animals who do not 3) Juxtamedullary nephrons are
need to conserve large amount of present greater number in those
water. animals who need to conserve
4) For example these nephrons are large amount of water.
present in aquatic animals in greater 4) For example these nephrons are
number. present in deserted animals in
greater number.
Q 3) Explain three types of neuron on the basis of function.

TYPES OF NEURON ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION:

There are three types of neuron on the basis of function. These are;
i) Sensory neuron: It receives information from receptor cell and
transmit it to central nervous system (CNS) i.e. brain and spinal
cord.
ii) Inter neuron: It is interposed between sensory and motor neurons.
iii) Motor neuron: It transmit impulses i.e. messages from central
nervous system (CNS) to effectors organ.
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OR

Q 3) Differentiate b/w Parasympathetic and Sympathetic nervous system.

Difference b/w Parasympathetic and Sympathetic nervous system.

PARASYMPSTHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

i) It promotes all the internal responses i) It works during emergency
associated with our relax state or resting situations. It prepares the
condition. Thus some time called as “house body for highly energetic
keeper” system. activities thus called “fight or
ii) It consists of some cranial nerves, Vegas flight” system.
nerves and nerves arise from sacral ii) It consists of nerves present in
vertebrae. the region of thoracic and
iii) It controls internal stimuli such as normal lumbar vertebrae.
heart beat, food digestion and contraction iii) This system accelerate the
of pupil of eye etc. heart beat, increase the
breathing rate, inhibit the
digestion and dilates the pupil
of eye etc.
Q 4) Write four objections on Lamarck’s theory.

OBJECTIONS ON LAMARCKISM:

1) Mutilations as a result of accidents or diseases are not inherited.

2) Boring of holes in ears and nose in mothers is not inherited in new born child.
3) Many human families observe circumcision ceremony in infant males since
thousands of years, despite that every baby in each generation is born with a
fore-skin. This proves that acquired characters are not inherited.
4) The greatest set back to Lamarckism was Weismann’s theory of germinal
continuity in 1892. OR
Q 4) Write a short note on principal of competitive exclusion
COMPITITIVE EXCLUSION:
The competitive exclusion principle says that two species can’t coexist if they
two occupy exactly the same niche i.e. competing for identical resources. In
nature it is rarely the case that two species occupy exactly identical niches.
A famous example of the competitive exclusion principle is the
growth of two types of Paramecium. One is Paramecium Aurelia second is
Paramecium caudatum. When grown individually in the lab, both species
thrive. But when they are grown in the same test tube (habitat) with a fixed
amount of nutrients, both grow more poorly and P. Aurelia eventually out
competes P.caudatum for food, leading to P.caudatum’s extinct
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Q 5) Define Regeneration and Aging.

REGENERATION:
It is the ability of a living organism to reconstruct its lost parts
of the body. Almost all embryos of animals have this capability.
However, some animals retain this power after maturity and adult hood
while others lose it. It is much common in invertebrates (simpler
animals) than vertebrates (advance animals).The regeneration
potential is inversely related to the differentiation of the cell. Thus the
greater the differentiation among the cells of the body, the lesser will be
regeneration.

AGING:
The process in which the cells start deterioration in their
structure and function and the tissues and the organs of the body
become older is called aging. Aging is concern with the degenerative
physiological changes in the body appear after adult stage. Because of
this progressive deterioration the body systems completely cease
functioning as a result of which death occurs the science of aging is
known as Gerontology.
OR
Q 5) Discuss briefly artificial selection and its role.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION AND ITS ROLE:

In the process of evolution Charles Darwin was influenced

by artificial selection. Man is involved in the selection of certain crops
and breeding of plants and animals. He selects desired species, such as
dogs are crossed with other species and by artificial selection different
verities of dog and other animals are produced. According to Darwin
when man takes part to produce many verities of organisms by
artificial selection, then natural selection also plays a significant role in
evolution and it results in the production of numerous varieties of living
organisms. Recombinant technology has opened a way for artificial
selection and evolution. By this technology different new verities may be
developed by artificial selection.
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Q 6) Differentiate b/w renewable and non- renewable resources.

Difference between renewable and non-renewable resources.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

1) Renewable resources are 1) Non-renewable resources
continuously and can be available cannot be available again after
again and again their consumption. By their
2) Examples are Air, Water, Soil, Wild continuous use they may be
life, Forests, Agricultural products, completely perished.
Fish and Live stocks. 2) Examples are Petroleum, Coal,
3) Renewable resources are Natural Gas, Various Metals,
constantly renewed by Non-metallic mineral obtained
biogeochemical cycle of nature for from earth.
e.g. Animals take oxygen and return 3) Non-renewable resources are
carbon dioxide to environment. being exhausted day by day
because their demand rises.
Due to worldwide demand of
fossil fuels its supplies are
declining.
OR

Q 6) Describe Gene sequencing.

GENE SEQUENCING:
Gene sequencing is a process of determining nucleotide
sequence of a gene (DNA molecules) developed in late 1070s by Fredrick
Singer in 1970. It helps in the determination of amino acids
arrangement in polypeptides. It provides the location of restriction site
within a gene which can be manipulated further later on.
The method of gene sequencing is as follows:
i) All genes are cut into certain fragments.
ii) These fragments are arranged in a proper manner.
iii) By the computer parts of long segments are scanned and can be
compared with the segments of small fragments. By this comparison
the sequence of genes can be determined.

For the separation of DNA fragments a technique Electrophoresis is

used. In this technique the molecules are separated according to their
size, shape and speed of their movement.
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SECTION C
(DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS)
NOTE: Attempt any ONE question. All questions carry equal marks. Attempt all
parts of a question. Draw labeled diagram where necessary. (09 Marks)

Q 3) (a) Define Thermoregulation and explain thermoregulation in mammals

in detail. (05)

THERMOREGULATION:

DEFINITION: Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to maintain its

body temperature within a certain range.

THERMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS:

a) THERMOREGULATION IN MAMMALS (MAN) DURING COLD TEMPERATURE:

In cold temperature mammals (man) regulate their body temperature
by two means.
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS:

This is internal process. It takes place by two ways.

(i) Non-shivering thermogenesis: In this process heat is produced by

erection of hairs. In furry animals air is trapped between the space of
hairs and loss of body heat is stopped. The blood vessels of skin are
reduced, it is called vaso-constriction due to this blood flow towards the
skin becomes slow and loss of heat is reduced. In mammals below skin
fat is produced, it prevents the loss of heat. It is common in aquatic
mammals e.g. in whale.
(ii) Shivering thermogenesis:
In very cold the shivering occurs in the muscles of the body, it
produces heat. Rate of metabolism become faster in short term by the
secretion of hormone adrenaline and longer term by the secretion of
another hormone, thyroxin.
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2) BEHAVIORAL PROCESS:
Behavioral mechanism include moving to warm location, huddling close
together with other individual; in human putting on additional cloth
and use of hot drinks.

b) THERMOREGULATION IN MAN (MAMMALS) DURING HOT TEMPERATURE:

This mechanism takes place by two methods.
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISM:
In this process the blood vessels near the skin become
dilated to release body heat it is called vaso-dilation. Sweat gland
becomes active and water is excreted out through skin which decreases
the internal temperature. In dog seat glands are less in number so from
the tongue heat is released which is called panting.
2) BEHAVIORAL MECHANISM:
In this mechanism animal move from hot to comparatively
cold places. They remain in shade or moist places or some time remain
in water to reduce their body heat. Man use thin cloths and cold drinks
during summer.

Q 1 (b) Discuss the homeostatic functions of liver. (04)

HOMEOSTATIC FUNCTIONS OF LIVER:

Liver is an important metabolic center therefore it is richly supplied
with blood. It is large radish brown glandular organ located in the
abdomen just below the diaphragm. It performs the following major
homeostatic functions.
I) METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS:
Liver maintain the glucose level in the blood by converting
excess glucose in the glycogen and stored it in the liver and muscles
while during shortage of glucose , glycogen is broken down into
glucose and supplied to blood. When stored glycogen is reduced, then
amino acids are converted into glucose.
Liver also helps in the oxidation of lipids or these are
removed from the blood and change them into fats, which are stored
in the body.
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II) DEAMINATION AND UREA FORMATION: (UREA CYCLE).The excess

proteins and amino acids are not stored in the body they are broken
down in the liver. At first deamination, i.e. removal of amino group
takes place. This converted into ammonia. Ammonia combines with
CO2 and converts into urea by “urea cycle “or “ornithine cycle”.
III) PRODUCTION OF BILE: A yellowish green, alkaline fluid bile is
produced in liver, which contains bile pigments (biliverdin and
bilirubin) bile salts (sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate),
cholesterol, phospholipids and mucous. Bile pigments are by products
of broken hemoglobin. Bile salts are involved in the emulsification of
fats in small intestine.
IV) DETOXIFICATION: Liver converts toxic substances into non-toxic
substances. It changes the structure of medicines and poisonous
substances. For example hydrogen per oxide (H 2O2) by the action of
enzyme catalase converts into hydrogen and oxygen and become non-
toxic substance.
V) FORMATION OF CHOLESTEROL: Production of cholesterol takes place
in liver. Excess cholesterol removed in bill this excess cholesterol in
gall bladder causes gall bladder stone, which may lead to jaundice.
VI) THERMOREGULATION: Liver plays an important role in maintaining
the temperature of the body, as it possesses large size, high metabolic
rate and efficient blood supply.
VII) STORAGE OF VITAMINS: Liver stores a large number of vitamins such
as A, B, D, etc.

Q4. (a) Define muscles and describe in detail structure of skeletal muscles. (05)

DEFINITION OF MUSCLE:

Muscle is a band or bundle of fibrous tissue in a human or animal

body that has the ability to contract, producing movement in or maintaining
the position of parts of the body. A muscle is a group of muscle tissues which
contract together to produce a force. A muscle consist of fibers of muscle cells
surrounded by protective tissue, bundle together many more fibers, all
surrounded in a thick protective tissue.
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STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:

• Each skeletal muscle consists of numerous elongated fibers like structure,
called muscle fiber.
• Each muscle fiber is a complete cell. It contains cytoplasm, called sarcoplasm,
which is surrounded by an outer membrane, called sarcolemma. In sarcoplasm
many nuclei are present.
• Each muscle fiber further consists of numerous small fibers, called myofibrils.
• These myofibrils also consist of special parts, called sarcomeres, which are
found in straight line on myofibril. These are the actual parts of skeletal
muscles which perform contraction.
• The sarcomeres are separated from each other by a line, called Z-line i.e. the
region between Z-lines is sarcomere.
• Between two Z-lines the sarcomere contains two zones, light zone and dark
zone.
• Due to these zones the skeletal muscles are called striated muscles.
• The myofibril consists of numerous small parts, known as microfilaments.
• These microfilaments are of two types:
i) THICK FILAMENTS: These are made up of myosin proteins.
ii) THIN FILAMENTS: These are made up of Actin, Tropmycin and troponin
proteins.
• Around each thick myosin filament six thin filaments are present.
• On muscle fiber the dark band is called A-band and light band is called I-
band.
• In the center of dark band A, a clear line is present, called H-line.
• Similarly in the centre of light band I, there is a black line, called Z-line.
• The region b/w two Z-lines is the sarcomere.
• Thick filaments have cross bridges; these are thick, swollen bodies along the
ends of thick filaments, called bulbous heads.
• When there is contraction in the muscles, these cross bridges are connected
with the actin filaments.
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Q 4. (b) Describe the mechanism of contraction of skeletal muscles. (04)

MECHANISM OF CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLES:

The working of skeletal muscles based on their

contraction. Whenever a muscle works it contracts. During contraction it
becomes shorter and thicker. Many hypotheses were offered by the
scientist to explain the process of muscles contraction. The most widely
accepted hypothesis has been proposed by “Huxley”.

HUXLEY’S HYPOTHESIS OF MUSCLES CONTRACTION ANDSLIDING

FILAMENT THEORY:

Huxley’s hypothesis is based on his electron microscopic

observations that whenever a muscle contracts the sarcomeres shorten
and the width of dark and light bands changes.

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY:

Huxley proposed the theory of muscles contraction, which based on

his observations and hypothesis. His theory is called “sliding filament
theory”
• According to the sliding filament theory when a muscle shows
contraction, it becomes thick and short in size. In this process thick
and thin filaments of muscle fiber move together by sliding over
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mechanism. This sliding over is like the movement or sliding over

of fingers of one hand between the fingers of other hand. Due to
this type of sliding over the muscles becomes short and thick in
size.
• By the action of sliding movement of the bulbous heads, the
thickened swollen bodies at the ends of myosin filaments, act as
cross bridges. These are attached to special parts of actin
filaments like hooks. When nerve impulse is reached to the myosin,
at this time cross bridges are attached to the actin filament and
stretch them to the middle part of the sarcomere, due to this
process contraction of the muscle takes place. These bridges are
broken and immediately formed at other parts of actin filament.
Process remains continue and indicates that filaments do not
contract but slide over with each other and by this process the
muscle fibers are reduced in size.
• When complete contraction occurs in sarcomere, its size is reduced
by 35%.
• In one second each cross bridge shows its movement 50 to 100
times and some time it moves more than hundred times in one
second.
• There is very rapid contraction in skeletal muscles but they also
become tired very early.
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Q 5. (a) Define ovarian cycle. Describe the phases of menstrual cycle in detail
with the help of labeled diagram. (05)
OVARIAN CYCLE:

DEFINITION:

In human female reproductive cycle is called Ovarian cycle. At the

onset of puberty (sexual maturity), a human female has around 200,000
oocytes in each of her ovary. Of which only about 450 oocytes develop into
mature eggs. After that menstrual cycle occurs. These both cycles are
controlled by hormones. During Ovarian cycle one egg is matured and
released from an ovary once about every 28 days.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

The monthly egg preparation (ovarian cycle) and uterine preparation

(uterine cycle) is collectively called Menstrual cycle. The menstrual cycle is
controlled by hormones and completes every 28 days. It occurs in four distinct
phases.

1) MENSTRUATION PHASE: (Day 1 to 5)

• Menstruation is the onset of bleeding.
• When fertilization does not occur, the inner lining of uterus which
becomes thickened and well developed to receive fertilized ovum, is
broken down.
• The progesterone secretion is stopped by corpus luteum and as a
result, the soft spongy vascular internal lining of uterus called
endometrium breaks off and starts flowing along with blood, out of
vagina in the form of menstrual flow. It is called menstrual stage.
• It lasts about 5 days and extends from day 1 to 5. First day of this
phase is called as the beginning of menstrual cycle.
(2) FOLLICLE PHASE: (Day 6 to 12)
• The follicle phase is start just after the menstrual phase and end with
the release of ovum.
• It lasts about 07 days (day 6 to 12).
• In this stage many follicles are develop in the ovary. The development
of follicles is initiated by the FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
secreted from pituitary gland.
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• Only one follicle, however, matures to produce an egg. This egg

producing follicle is called Graafian follicle.
• The rest of the follicles do not develop and ultimately degenerate. The
ovary produce a hormone, of its own, called Oestrogen from the
degenerating ovarian follicles.
• Oestrogen inhibits the secretion of FSH from pituitary gland and
initiates the thickening of uterine wall.
• Low FSH level and high Oestrogen level in the blood initiate the
secretion of another hormone LH (lutenizing hormone) from the
pituitary gland.
(3) OVULATION PHASE: (Day 13 to 15)
• This short phase last not more than three days (day 13 to 15).
• During this period the graafian follicle of the ovary ruptures and
the mature ovum is released.
• This mature egg enters the oviduct. This stage is initiated by the
increase of LH level.

(4) CORPUS LUTEUM PHASE: (Day 16 to 28)

• This is the longest phase of menstrual cycle and lasts about 12-14
days (day 16 to 28).
• It is so called because LH causes the ruptured follicle to change into a
yellowish body, the corpus luteum, which starts producing another
hormone the progesterone.
• Progesterone maintains and enhances the growth of the mucus lining
(endometrium) of the uterus.
• If the mature ovum in oviduct, is not fertilized the corpus luteum
gradually degenerates.
• Progesterone secretion stops and the internal lining of uterus
disintegrate and slough off with blood, menstruation begins and the
cycle starts again.
 20

PHASES OF OVARIAN CYCLE:

EFFECT OF HORMONES ON OVARIAN CYCLE:

 21

OR

Q 5. (a) Describe in detail central nervous system in man (diagram is not

required). (05)

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM OF MAN:

• It consists of Brain and spinal cord (hollow nerve cord). Both consists of
up to 100 billion inter neurons and are protected in bony armor, the
skull and the canal of the vertebral column, respectively. Inside the skull
another protection is offered by three tough connective tissues called
meninges. Plasma –like fluid, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathing the
neurons of CNS is yet another protection to CNS.
(1) BRAIN:
• In vertebrates Brain is developed from the dorsal, hollow nerve cord.
Nerve cord is initially a simple tube filled with CSF.
• The anterior part of nerve cord enlarges to form the primary brain
vesicle, which sub divides into three irregular vesicles.
(i) FORE-BRAIN
(ii) MID-BRAIN
(iii) HIND-BRAIN
• Different parts of mature brain develop from these vesicles by selective
thickening and folding processes. Meanwhile the central canal becomes
four fluid filled cavities called ventricles.
(i) FOUR- BRAIN
Four-brain is divided into two regions.
(a) TELENCEPHSALON:

(b) DIENCEPHALON:

(a) TELENCEPHALON:
• It is the largest part of four-brain. It is differentiated into two cerebral
hemispheres (cerebrum).
• Each hemisphere consists of an outer grey matter (cerebral cortex) and
an inner white matter
• Cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of human brain.
• It is highly convoluted to occupy greater number of inter neurons.
 22

• Cortex is the seat of all conscious activities.

• Cortex coordinates different senses together.
• It involves in intelligence, reasoning, memory etc.
• Functionally, it can be differentiated into an anterior frontal lobe, a
lower central lobe, a parietal lobe and a dorsal occipital lobe.
• The activity of the two cerebral hemispheres is coordinated by corpus
callosum.
(b) DIENCEPHALON:
• Diencephalon consists of thalamus and limbic system.
• The thalamus is clearing house for sensory impulses received from
different parts of brain and relays them to the appropriate part of the
motor cortex.
• It is also involved in the perception of pleasure and pain.
• The limbic system consists of hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus
and some parts of thalamus.
• The hypothalamus is important in regulation of homeostasis. It
regulates pituitary gland.

• Hypothalamus also involved in regulation of body temperature, blood

pressure, hunger, thirst, aggression, pleasure and pain.
• Amygdale produces sensation of pleasure, punishment or sexual arousal
upon stimulation.
• The hippocampus is involved long term memory.

(ii) MID-BRAIN:
• In mammals, particularly in man, mid-brain is relatively very small.
• It receives and integrates sensory information like vision, odor as well as
them to sensory information from the spinal cord and relays them to fore
brain.
iii) HIND-BRAIN:
• It consists of medulla oblongata, cerebellum, pons and reticular
formation.
• Medulla oblongata has reflex centers for vital tasks like breathing,
heartbeat, blood pressure, coughing, swallowing, hiccupping, sneezing,
vomiting, digestion etc.
 23

• Cerebellum like cerebrum is highly convoluted.

• It is involved in precision in muscular coordination, balance and
position of the body of the body in space.
• In comparison to other mammals, it is greatest in size in human.
• Pons regulates activities like muscular coordination, facial expression,
breathing and sleeping.
• Reticular formation lies in medulla, pons and mid-brain. It monitors the
messages to which the nervous system should react and to which it
should ignore.

BRAIN-STEM:
• The brain-system consists of mid-brain, medulla oblongata and pons.
• It is involved in the control of sleep and wakening. From the
evolutionary point of view, it is oldest tissue.

SPINAL CORD:
• It is thick whitish nerve cord that lies below the medulla oblongata and
extends down through the neural canal of vertebrae up to the hips.
• Between the vertebrae, nerves called dorsal root, carrying axons of
sensory neurons and ventral roots carrying axons of motor neurons
arise from the spinal cord. Both of these merge to form peripheral spinal
nerves.
• Spinal cord serves as an express way signals between autonomic
nervous system and brain. It is also the control centre for many reflexes.

Q 5 (b) Explain the process of spermatogenesis or oogenesis. (04)

SPERMATOGENESIS:
Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm formation. It takes place in
Testes.Following steps are involved in spermatogenesis.
1) Spermatogonia formation by germ cells: In the testes germ cells take part
in spermatogenesis. In first step germ cells divide by mitosis and produce
spermatogonia.
2) Primary spermatocyte formation: spermatogonia develop and transformed
in primary spermatocytes.
 24

3) Secondary spermatocyte formation: Each primary spermatocyte divides

meiotically into two secondary spermatocytes, during meiosis-I
4) Formation of haploid spermatids: meiosis-II is followed by meiosis-I
and during meiosis-II the secondary spermatocytes divide to form four
genetically different haploid spermatids each of which ultimately
develops into sperm.
Entire process of spermatogenesis takes about ten weeks to be
completed.

OR

Q 5 (b) Explain the process of oogenesis: (04)

OOGENESIS:
• It is the process of cell division by which ova (egg) are
formed from germ cells present in the female gonads,
the ovaries. Steps involve in oogenesis are as follow.
1) Formation of oogonia: In first step the germ cells in the ovary divide
mitotically to form oogonia.
2) Formation of primary oocytes: The oogonia formed by mitosis soon
develop and transformed into primary oocytes.
3) Formation of secondary oocytes: the primary oocytes divide by
meiosis as a result two unequal cells, a large secondary oocyte and a
smaller polar body are formed.
 25

4) Ovum or egg formation: Each secondary oocyte and polar body

undergoes second meiotic division and as a result meiosis-II a large
haploid ovum or egg and three small polar bodies are formed.
Polar bodies are non-functional and disintegrate. Oogenesis is
completed in about a month.

Q 6. (a) What is biotechnology? Explain the four steps of Recombinant DNA

technology.

DEFINITION:
• Biotechnology is the modern branch of science; it is concern with
the use of living organisms for the welfare of mankind.
Biotechnology is the manipulation of living organisms or their
components to perform practical tasks or provide useful products.
Biotechnology based on recombinant DNA technology or genetic
engineering.
 26

STEPS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

The mechanism in which DNA is obtained from a cell or it is replaced

by selected DNA is called recombinant DNA technology or genetic
engineering. The recombinant DNA technology consists of following 4
steps.

1) Preparation of recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule.

2) Insertion of the recombinant DNA into host cell.
3) Multiplication and production of numerous copies of host with rDNA
in it
4) Selection of bacterial with required gene.

1) Preparation of recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule.

Recombinant DNA (r DNA) is the molecule which contains DNA
of two living organisms. In its preparation, following substances are
required:
(a) VECTORS:
• The body which takes part to carry the recombinant DNA
into the host cell is called vector. The vectors may be of
different kinds.
• The most common vectors are plasmids and
bacteriophage virus.
• Plasmids are self replicating circular DNA molecules of bacterial cell, which
exist in the cell as extra chromosomal units.
• These plasmids replicate independently, but their replication is correlated
with bacterial main chromosome.
• Plasmid may also be present in some eukaryotic cell such as yeast etc. when
selected gene is attached to the plasmid, they are isolated.
• These plasmids are used to prepare r-DNA molecules. The host cells accept
this r-DNA as vector.
• After that reproduction takes place in bacteria and plasmid.
 27

(b) RESTRICTION ENZYME:

• Specific restriction enzymes are used for cutting the DNA in genetic
engineering. These enzymes are called as biological scissors.
• These enzymes are usually used to prevent the infection of bacteriophage
virus in bacteria.
• These enzymes were discovered in 1960. When restriction enzyme cuts the
two ends of plasmid, a small gap is produced between two ends.
• The cut ends are called sticky ends, where new DNA is attached.

(c) LIGASE ENZYME:

• When the DNA is cut by restriction enzyme, its broken ends are used for
joining with the two ends of another DNA molecule.
• For this purpose another enzyme ligase is used.
• Ligase enzymes are commonly called as biological glue.

2) INSERTION OF DNA INTO HOST CELL:

• In recombinant DNA technology bacteria are used as host body, because

isolation of r-DNA from bacterial cells is easy.
• When bacteria are kept with calcium chloride (CaCl 2), they get r-DNA.
Some bacteria gain selected DNA from solutions or other bacteria.

3) MULTIPLICATION OF HOST WITH r-DNA:

• When recombinant DNA (r-DNA) along with plasmid is introduced into
host bacterial cells, this host cell multiplies and produces numerous
Recombinant DNA (r-DNA), this process is called cloning.
• By this process a group of identical cells is produced. Each cell contains
one r-DNA or more molecules of r-DNA.
4) SELECTION OF BACTERIA WITH REQUIRED GENE:
• Bacterium containing required gene in plasmid(r-DNA) can be identified
from other bacteria having no r-DNA by growing them in a medium
containing ampicillin.
• Thus only those bacteria containing ampR gene will be able to survive
and establish colony, while the rest will die.
 28

• The culture medium also containing x-gal (a modified sugar), which is

cleaved by lac-z gene of vector.
• In a colony, if plasmid does not desired gene, the x-gal will be
hydrolyzed by β-galactosidase yielding a blue colour.
• However, colonies carrying plasmid with foreign gene would be unable
to produce β-galactosidase, so they appear white in colour.
• Thus only those colonies of bacteria will be selected that from white
colour on medium containing ampicillin and x-gal.

Q 6. (b) Write a note on DNA finger printing. (04)

DNA FINGERPRINTING:
DEFINITION:

DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an

individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns
in their DNA. All human beings contain separate DNA fingerprint.
 29

PRINCIPLE:
It is observed that about 30% human DNA does not take part in
code for protein and repeated frequently in genome. The length of these DNA
units is different in each person. Each unit consists of about 20 to 40 bases.
These units of different size are also transferred into new generation
according to Mendel’s method of genetics.

METHOD OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:

There are various methods of DNA fingerprinting but the

most common way is to use PCR (polymerase chain reaction) for detection
of fragments. The process of separate arrangements of DNA units in all
living organisms is called Restriction Fragments Length Polymorphism
(RFLP), it is pronounced as RIFF-LIPS.

STEPS OF DNA FINGERPRINTING:

(1) DNA EXTRACTION

• DNA is obtained by breaking down the cells.

• Samples are usually collected by means of blood, hair, saliva,
semen, body tissue cells, etc.

(2) DNA CUTTING:

• The DNA is cut into small fragments at a particular base sequence

by restriction enzymes.

(3) GEL ELECTROPHORESIS:

• By the technique of Electrophoresis the DNA fragments are
separated, as in this technique a gel like substance is used
thus is called gel-electrophoresis.
• DNA fragment are separated on the basis of their size.

(4) SOUTHERN HYBRIDIZATION:

• Nylon membrane or filter paper is used to transfer DNA

fragments.
• An alkaline solution splits DNA into single strands.
• Finally, DNA is bounded by radioactive probe in solution.
 30

(5) AUTORADIOGRAPHY:

• Filter paper or nylon membrane is placed on the x-ray film.

• Dark spots are made on the film by the radioactive probes.

ADVANTAGES

• Affordable and reliable technique

• Easy and less time consuming
• No any age boundary for testing

DISADVANTAGES
• Samples should be handles with much care.
• Complex process and difficulty may occur during interpreting
results.
• Sometime difficult to maintain result confidential.
 31

APPLICATIONS

Some of the major applications of DNA fingerprinting are:

• By this technique relationship with parents can be determined.

• Diagnosis of medical conditions such as inherited disorders

and even AIDs.
• DNA fingerprinting as a forensic tool for crime scene
investigation and criminal verification.
• This technique can also be used to control an abnormal
disease by the selection of accurate medicine.

SOLVED BY: ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY

HUMAIRA SIDDIQUI .
GOVT. COLLEGE FOR WOMEN 11-F NEW KARACHI