AIR CONDITIONING-ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY – Mechanical Ventilation and

Equipment - C.A. Balaras

MECHANICAL VENTILATION AND EQUIPMENT

C.A. Balaras
National Observatory of Athens, Hellas, Greece

Keywords: Air diffusion, All-air systems, CAV, Coils, Controls, Diffusers, Ducts,
Economizer, Energy recovery, Filter, HVAC, Mechanical ventilation, Stratification,
VAV

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Systems
3. Equipment
3.1 Controls

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4. Air Distribution

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4.1 Ductwork
4.2 Air Diffusion—Circulation
Glossary
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Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

Summary
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Mechanical ventilation systems for controlling conditions in individual zones can move
a constant or variable supply of conditioned air to handle all or some of the heating and
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cooling loads. They are classified as all-air, air-water, and all-water systems. All-air
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systems include single-duct, dual-duct and multizone. The systems can be designed to
operate at Constant Air Volume (CAV) or Variable Air Volume (VAV). Air-water and
all-water systems are categorized as two-, three- and four-pipe. The Air Handling Unit
(AHU) is the main air conditioning and treatment equipment. A typical AHU consists of a
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single volume unit with a supply fan, heating coil, cooling coil, humidifier where
necessary, filters, mixed air economizer dampers, and sound attenuator. The air
distribution is a key element for the successful operation of central systems to deliver the
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air to the conditioned spaces in an efficient way, satisfying the indoor environmental
conditions as economically as possible. The air is then distributed by the ductwork and is
delivered by the air-diffusion outlets. Proper circulation and exhaust must satisfy the
indoor environmental quality. Mechanical ventilation systems provide great flexibility for
controlling the indoor conditions, if properly designed, installed, commissioned, operated,
and maintained. Proper controls can optimize their use, enhance flexibility, and improve
energy efficiency. On the other hand, poor design, installation, and performance can lead
to serious Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) problems, and cause thermal and acoustical
discomfort, with a high energy cost.

1. Introduction

Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) central systems are becoming an

ever more common amenity in most non-domestic buildings. The majority of older

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buildings were poorly heated and ventilated, while central HVAC systems were rather
rare. This picture is rapidly changing worldwide. Building occupant comfort
expectations are growing, indoor environmental quality standards are becoming more
stringent, and new problems in terms of indoor and outdoor adverse conditions
introduce complex new demands on HVAC systems.

Natural ventilation (see chapter Natural Ventilation), although in some countries still
the dominant ventilation technique, is fast being pushed aside by mechanical ventilation
systems as part of a greater shift towards HVAC in buildings. This shift is not without a
price though, since considerable investment is required for mechanical installations, and
there is a significant increase in operating and maintenance costs. For example, a
building with a central HVAC system has increased energy consumption by up to 40%,
depending on the system’s operating conditions.

Ventilation rates and outdoor air requirements vary significantly, depending on the

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architecture and function of the building, the occupancy, and whether smoking is

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permitted or not. Typical minimum ventilation rates per person range between 8 to 30 L/s.
Increased ventilation rates are necessary to handle indoor pollutants and maintain
acceptable air quality levels (see chapter Indoor Air Quality). For example, smoking is a
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common indoor air pollutant and in most cases it doubles the necessary ventilation rates
and thus results in significantly higher energy consumption. Air filtration can be used to
solve problems in relation to outdoor and indoor air pollution and enable mixing of return
and outdoor air in most kind of applications (see chapter Filters and Maintenance for
more information on filters).
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2. Systems
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Mechanical ventilation systems for controlling conditions in individual zones can move
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a constant or variable supply of conditioned air to handle all or some of the heating and
cooling loads. Other secondary systems can be combined with mechanical ventilation to
reduce the amount of conditioned air required. Accordingly, the systems are classified
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as:

ƒ All-air systems. These supply only air to the conditioned space to meet the
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sensible and latent loads. Since all the conditioned air is delivered by the central
system, these need to be a large size and require a lot of space for ductwork. In
some applications, the system can provide cooling, preheating, and
humidification, while combined with separate heating systems (i.e., a separate
air, water, steam, or electric heating or reheat system) can reduce ductwork size.
ƒ Air-Water systems. These supply air and water to meet the cooling loads, by
changing the fluid temperature to control the indoor temperature. Water pipes
take much less space than the ductwork for air, and the pumping power required
for the water is much lower than the fan power required for air supply and return
circulation in an all-air system. Savings are significant especially in large
buildings. In the case that the air supply is sufficient to meet the outdoor air
requirements for zone ventilation and/or to balance the exhaust air, the return air
system (ductwork and accessories) can be eliminated all-together.

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ƒ All-Water systems. These supply cold or hot water to fan coil and unit
ventilators, while unconditioned ventilation air is supplied by an opening
through the wall, natural ventilation, and infiltration. Cooling and humidification
is supplied by circulating chilled water or a refrigerant through a coil in the unit.
Heating is supplied by hot water pumped through the same or a different coil, or
by an electric resistance.

All-air systems include the following categories:

ƒ Single-duct systems. These involve one common duct distribution system that
supplies the ventilation air at all local terminal units that is distributed to all
zones. The air handling unit (AHU) contains the main heating and cooling coils
in a series flow air path, so they either heat or cool the ventilation air using a
common duct distribution system at a common air temperature to feed all
terminal units. The system may be modified for reheat, an application with a

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secondary heating coil inserted in the duct system, to heat either preconditioned

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primary supply air or recirculated air, before it enters the space. This makes
possible zone and space control with different loads (i.e., provide heating and
cooling with a single-duct system) but it is a high energy consuming process.
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Dual-duct systems. These involve two ducts to supply a cold and a warm air
stream that is mixed at the local terminal units to reach the desirable conditions
(according to the zone thermostat) before the air is supplied indoors.
Alternatively the two air streams are mixed at the main supply fan and then use a
single supply duct to each zone. The AHU contains the main heating and cooling
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coils in a parallel flow or series-parallel flow air path, so they heat and cool air
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at the same time. This system provides great flexibility for handling variable
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loads and satisfy concurrent needs for warm and cool temperature air supply, but
at high energy cost (a similar disadvantage as in the case of reheat).
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ƒ Multizone systems. In these, a central unit provides a single duct for each zone
and meets the load by mixing warm and cold air at the central unit (controlled by
the zone thermostat). They can serve several zones with different indoor space
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requirements. They are similar to the dual-duct system, in the sense that the
supply air for meeting the different zone loads is prepared by mixing cold and
warm air, but then single-zone ducts distribute the air. They are common in
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applications with high sensible heat loads and limited ventilation requirements,
but with a high initial cost.

The systems can be designed to operate as:

ƒ Constant Air Volume (CAV) systems. Varying loads are handled by regulating
the temperature of the supply air, while maintaining a constant air volume.
Single-duct CAV systems change the temperature of the air supply in response
to the indoor load. The systems can be single zone (spaces with the same
temperature requirements) or multiple-zones with reheat (spaces with different
load requirements). A bypass system can be used in place of the reheat. In this
case, the main system operates under CAV conditions, but if the space load is
reduced then a portion of the supply air is bypassed before it is supplied indoors.
The volume of the space-supplied air varies with time, but the AHU operates

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with a constant air volume. Energy consumption for conditioning the air at the
AHU is reduced since the return air is maintained at more favorable conditions.
Dual-duct CAV systems are similar but with a bypass for the mixture of outdoor
and return air as indoor conditions change.
ƒ Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems. Varying loads are handled by regulating
the volume of the supply air. Single-duct VAV systems control indoor space
conditions by varying the volume of the supply air, thus decreasing the air
supply with space load. Precise humidity control is problematic with this kind of
a system. Secondary heating systems are usually necessary during winter.
Terminal units can be designed in several configurations, like reheat, induction
and fan-powered. Dual-duct VAV systems mix cold and warm air at different
volume rates. The available types include a single supply fan for both airflows
(located upstream of the reheat and cooling coils) or a dual supply fan that
utilizes two independently controlled fans for each air stream.

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CAV systems are commonly used in facilities with high internal loads (i.e., occupancy,

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equipment, and lighting loads) and require a large air supply and primarily cooling.
Spaces with large load diversity are better served with a VAV system in order to
optimize energy use at low levels. VAV systems have a low initial cost and low
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operating costs since there are significant fan power savings from reduced fan speed in
relation to the supply air volume. Designs of VAV systems with improved volume-
throttling devices and better-designed outlets have resolved the problems previously
encountered for applications with significantly varying loads (that is, loss of control of
indoor air movement and drafts, and noise from throttling dampers) and have extended
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their use. Large volume spaces and large buildings that need considerable amounts of
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ventilation air supply are usually served by single zone or variable volume all-air
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systems. Separate air-handling units can serve different zones (spaces), although
multizone, dual-duct, or reheat types can also be applied with lower operating
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efficiency. In large buildings with high loads it is common to use several air handling
systems that serve a single space, because of the limits in equipment size and for better
control of energy consumption.
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Air-Water systems include central air-conditioning equipment to treat the air that is then
distributed through the ductwork to the zone terminal units. The air is supplied at
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constant volume. The water is pumped to a heat exchanger coil in the terminal unit (i.e.
induction unit), or independent components in the zone (i.e. radiant panel), or a fan coil
unit.

Air-Water systems are categorized as:

ƒ two-pipe systems, one water supply and one return pipe

ƒ three-pipe systems, one cold water supply, one hot water supply, and one
common return
ƒ four-pipe systems, one hot water supply with one return and one cold water
supply with one return.

Regulation of indoor conditions can be obtained by either water flow control through
the heat exchange surface or airflow control over it. The same coil can be used for

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cooling or heating, or two coils used (one cooling coil and one heating coil), or an
independent device for heating used.

Air-Water induction systems receive the conditioned air supply at medium to high
pressure and a balancing damper adjusts the amount of supply air to be mixed with the
return air from the zone. The return air is conditioned as it flows over water coil, mixed
with the main supply air and then delivered indoors. A fan coil unit can also be used,
but this is more common with all-water systems.

All-Water systems are categorized again as two-pipe, three-pipe, or four-pipe systems

for the water distribution from the central equipment. A fan coil can be used to draw
outdoor air through a wall opening. Local unit ventilators are supplied with outdoor and
indoor air, properly mixed with adjusting dampers. The air is then filtered and flows
through a cooling/heating coil (used with a two pipe system) or two separate coils (used
with a four pipe system). Additional heating may also be provided through a local

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electric resistance.

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In 1989 the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) established a technical
committee, CEN TC 156 “Ventilation for buildings”. The committee has produced
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standards and other reference documents for ventilation products and systems, and for
the terminology (CR 12792—Symbols, Units and Terminology). TC 156 collaborates
with other technical committees (TC 89 and 228) in a joint effort to produce information
on applicable calculation procedures.
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A European Pre-standard was published in 1997 on the requirements for ductwork

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components to facilitate the maintenance of ventilation systems (ENV 12097—

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Ductwork: Requirements for components to facilitate maintenance of systems) and

other dimensional standards for ductwork (i.e. dimensional standards on rectangular
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sheet metal ducts (EN 1505—Ductwork: Rectangular sheet metal air ducts:
Dimensions), circular sheet metal ducts (EN 1506—Ductwork: Circular sheet metal
ducts - Dimensions), circular flanges for ventilation ductwork (EN 12220—Ductwork:
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Circular flanges for general ventilation - Dimensions) and other in progress) and for
dampers and valves (EN 1751—Terminals: Aerodynamic testing of dampers and
valves), and air handling units (EN 1886—Air handling units: Mechanical
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performance). Other drafts include duct covering, performance testing for air terminal
devices, constant and variable rate terminal units, louvres, chilled ceilings, and beams
and air handling units.

The item that caused the most controversy was an attempt to standardize design criteria
for the indoor environment. The criteria developed have been published as a CEN
Technical Report CR 1752—Design criteria for the indoor environment. It specifies the
levels of temperature, air velocity, noise, and ventilation for occupied spaces. Values are
given for three categories of environmental quality: A—a high level of expectation, B—
a medium level and C—a moderate level. Supporting information is given on the
derivations of the specified values of the parameters as well as to enable alternatives,
such as different clothing levels, to be accommodated in the design assumptions.
Practical examples of the derivation of appropriate criteria are also included.

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3. Equipment

Typical Air Handling Units (AHU) consist of a single volume unit with a supply fan,
heating coil, cooling coil, humidifier where necessary, filters, mixed air economizer
dampers, and sound attenuator. A typical system layout is illustrated in Figure 1. The
layout and configuration can include different kind of methods for any stage of the air
conditioning and treatment (i.e. for heating, cooling, humidification, filtering). The fan
is located downstream of the coil and is referred to as a draw-through configuration.
The AHU can be centrally located in a mechanical room or distributed at various
locations in the building (local AHU minimize the required distribution ductwork and
the size of the units).

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Figure 1. Typical plan view and cross section of a single stage draw-through AHU. OA:
Outdoor Air, RA: Return Air, RLA: Relief Air, SA: Supply Air, V: Heating coil, K:
Cooling coil, F: Filters, H: Humidifier, SF: Fan, S: Sound attenuator, E: Economizer
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Economizers offer an attractive alternative for reducing energy costs. The economizer is a
heat exchanger used to retrieve heat from the return air for the outdoor air (i.e. using a
plate heat exchanger), but without mixing by using 100% outdoor air (see chapter Space
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Loads and Energy Conservation for more information).

The system may use a simple mixing-damper instead, for mixing some return with
outdoor air. A minimum outdoor air damper specifies the amount of necessary outdoor
(fresh) air. The amount of the return air that is not used is exhausted as relief air.
Depending on the application and the outdoor air quality, the air may need to be
properly treated at different levels, using filters with the appropriate efficiency. For
example, the first filter is usually a prefilter (30% efficiency), followed by a chemical
filter, and then a final filter before the air is supplied to the indoors (65–85%
efficiency). (For more details on filters, see chapter Filters and Maintenance)

Indoor humidity levels must be controlled at a relative humidity of 30-60% in order to

minimize microbial growth, so AHU must provide, if necessary, air humidification and
dehumidification (preferably without reheat). Humidifiers add moisture to the supply air

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in order to ensure that the air is not too dry, which may occur during winter. The
amount of moisture should not be excessive for the given conditions, so that the supply
air can absorb it without condensing. Nearly saturated supply air can lead to
condensation inside the system (i.e. ductwork or diffusers) that may create IAQ
problems by supporting the growth of pathogenic and allergic organisms.

Cooling and heating coils are supplied by cold and warm water from conventional
chillers and heating systems. Cooling coils are heat exchangers for removing sensible
and latent heat from the ventilation air. Operating conditions determine the size of the
heat exchanger. Some air can bypass the finned coils, that is, the airflows without
contacting the heat exchange surface, depending on the number of coil rows.

Heating coils can be located upstream in the outdoor air stream (preheating) or in the
mixed air stream. Preheating coils operate when the temperature of the outdoor air is
below 10oC. A heating coil can be used at the terminal units to bring the ventilation air

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to the desirable indoor temperature in the event that no other means for space heating is

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provided. In some applications where internal gains are high, very little heating of the
ventilation air is required. The system can also be combined with other conventional
modes of heating.
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Some systems are also equipped with a reheat coil in order to ensure proper supply air
temperature when dehumidification takes place. Reheat should not be used unless there
is an energy recovery system. A less expensive alternative is a coil runaround loop that
recovers some heat from the exhaust air and is used to reheat the subcooled,
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dehumidified air leaving the air handler (see chapter Space Loads and Energy
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Conservation for more information).

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All together, the AHU needs to have easy access for thorough inspection and cleaning
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of the system components, according to a regular maintenance program and during

problematic operation. Usually, outside air is measured and balanced during the start-up
of the system. However, after some time of operation, the amount of outside air volume
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can change and as a result this may have a direct impact on the indoor air quality of the
ventilated spaces.
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To maintain the correct amount of ventilation air and verify proper operation it is
necessary to install control systems for monitoring the operating conditions, in order to
properly calibrate the system or perform periodic measurements and implement
necessary adjustments during regular maintenance. Properly controlled dampers of the
AHU along with airflow data can be used to accurately control the operating conditions
and assure conformance with regulations and standards.

Periodically it is necessary to measure the actual airflow rates in the AHUs, to ensure
that there are no serious deviations from manufacturer data or design. Data from on-site
measurements indicate that AHUs rarely maintain their design characteristics and with
time there is a significant decrease in the ventilation efficiency.

Measured deviations that have been reported range between 64% and 154%. The
airflow rates in the AHU can be measured using tracer gas. This can provide useful

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insights for detecting shortfalls in the AHU and for assessing the ventilation efficiency.
However, these measurements must be performed with great scrutiny, following a
detailed testing protocol to ensure the proper selection of tracer gas injection and air
sampling locations, and properly process the results using the appropriate interpretation
algorithms.

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Bibliography

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Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. [This is part of a four Handbook series published by
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ASHRAE-Standard 62 (1999). Ventilation for Acceptable Air Quality. Atlanta: American Society of
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Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. [The purpose of this standard is to specify
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intended to minimize the potential for adverse health effects. The Standard is split into 62.1—Ventilation
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Indoor Air Quality in Low Rise Residential Buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-1999 is under
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economizers, ASHRAE Journal 40, 49–60, October. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
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outdoor air economizer (OAE) diagnostician, monitors the performance of AHUs and detects problems
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BS 5925 (1991). Code of Practice for Ventilation Principles and Designing for Natural Ventilation, 46
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conditioning, Automatic control, Sound control, Refrigeration and Heat rejection, and miscellaneous
equipment.]

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AIR CONDITIONING-ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY – Mechanical Ventilation and
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CIBSE (2000). Application Manual 13—Mixed Mode Ventilation, 96 pp. London: Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers. [This manual provides advice on the advantages and pitfalls of mixed mode
ventilation that is combining natural ventilation with mechanical ventilation and/or cooling. Properly
integrating these systems with passive building elements and finding the best methods of control results to
improved energy efficiency.]
CIBSE (2000). Guide H—Building Control Systems, 226 pp. London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. [This guide provides a comprehensive understanding of modern control systems and
relevant information technology. Covers topics on the practical design of control systems, the hardware
components, and their inclusion in networks, control strategies, the relationship between Building
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EN 1886 (1998). Ventilation for buildings—Air Handling Units: Mechanical Performance. 16 pp.
Brussels: The European Committee for Standardization. [This European standard covers topics on
mechanical ventilation and equipment, air-conditioning systems, air control devices, air filters,
performance and strength of materials, mechanical and performance testing, leak tests, thermal testing,
sound insulation, and testing procedures and equipment. It provides mathematical calculations.]

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Etheridge D. and Sandberg M. (1996). Building Ventilation Theory and Measurement, 764 pp.
Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. [This book includes fundamentals and theory and is therefore

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deeply mathematical. Topics cover mechanisms, flow through envelope openings, mathematical models,
mass transport, mixing, momentum, buoyancy, airflow in rooms, flow through large openings,
experimental techniques for evaluating flow characteristics, multi-zone representation of buildings, tracer
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considers both natural and mechanical ventilation. It includes a detailed bibliography.]
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reference documents for ventilation products and systems.]

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Kent J. H. (1994). Air Conditioning modeling by Computational Fluid Dynamics. Architectural Science
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Review 37, 103–113, September. [This paper discusses the use of CFD to provide some useful insight on
HVAC system design to satisfy the specifications. Presents the approach and results for the design of the
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Kirkpatrick A. T., and Elleson J. S. (1996). Cold Air Distribution System Design Guide, 196 pp. Atlanta:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. [This guide presents
background information, an overview of the steps in the design, installation, control strategies,
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commissioning, economic evaluation, and computer modeling. It includes an annotated bibliography.]

Li Z. H., Zhang J. S., and Zhivov A. M. (1993). Characteristics of diffuser air jets and airflow in the
occupied regions of mechanically ventilated rooms—a literature review, ASHRAE Transactions 99, Part
1, Paper no. CH–93–12–1, pp. 1119–1127. [This paper reviews and summarises previous research
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findings on the characteristics of diffuser air jets and airflow in the occupied zones of mechanically
ventilated rooms and their relationships. Compares results from different sources.]
Stanke D. A. (1998). Ventilation where it’s needed, ASHRAE Journal 40, 39–47, October. [This paper
uses a single-duct VAV system to illustrate the difficulties involved in achieving proper ventilation with
them. Describes the correct design procedures to meet the challenge of designing for peak ventilation
capacity, operating with required ventilation at all loads and controlling to minimize the ventilation
energy impact.]
Roulet C. A., Deschamps L., Pibiri M., and Foradini F. (2000). DAHU—Diagnosis of Air Handling Units,
42 pp. Lausanne: EPFL, École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne, Institut De Technique Du Bâtiment,
Laboratoire D'energie Solaire Et De Physique Du Bâtiment, May. [This report presents the methods
applied and the principles used in an elaborate test protocol for measuring airflow rates, ventilation and
fan power efficiency, and heat exchangers to detect shortcuts in AHUs. It includes a description of the
necessary tracer-gas equipment and an example of application to real AHU.]
What engineers want in a ventilation standard, Editorial - ASHRAE Journal 40, 30–46, June. [This article
presents excerpts from a round table discussion involving key members of the committee revising

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ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62–1989, “Ventilation for Acceptable indoor Air Quality,” experienced
engineers and building operations professionals. Topics addressed include the elements of an ideal
ventilation standard, what should “drive” the standard, the removal of odor, the inclusion of elements
such as building envelope, determining minimum ventilation, and determination of compliance with a
standard.]
Wouters P., Delmotte Ch., and Faÿsse J-C. (1998). Towards Improved Performances of Mechanical
Ventilation Systems. TIP-VENT Project, Air Infiltration Review 20, December, World Wide Web
Edition. http://www.aivc.org/Air/air_backissues.html [This publication is prepared by the Air Infiltration
and Ventilation Centre—AIVC. The article reviews the activities and main results of a research project
funded in part by the European Commission. The TIP-VENT project contributes to the improvement of
the performances of mechanical ventilation systems for better energy performances and better indoor
climate conditions.]

Biographical Sketch

Constantinos A. Balaras, Ph.D. Born in Athens, 1962. Married, one son. Mechanical engineer,
researcher at the National Observatory of Athens, IERSD, Group Energy Conservation. Ph.D. and

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M.S.M.E. from Georgia Tech., B.S.M.E. from Michigan Tech. Active in the areas of energy conservation,
thermal and solar building applications, renewable energy sources, analysis and numerical modeling of

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thermal energy systems, and HVAC systems. Previous affiliations with the University of Athens, Central
Institute for Energy Efficiency Education, Protechna Ltd, Technological Educational Institute of Pireaus,
British-Hellenic College, American Standards Testing Bureau Inc., American Combustion Inc., Georgia
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Institute of Technology, Hellenic Shipyards Co., Georgia Power Co. Participated in various European and
national research projects, as a project manager and scientist in charge, including projects on energy
renovation of office and apartment buildings, HVAC systems in hospital operating rooms, solar
absorption heat pump, solar control, passive cooling, and regional development of renewable energy
sources. Private practice includes electromechanical design and installation projects for new constructions
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and renovations of residential and office buildings, and a small size industrial building. Member of the
H
Hellenic Technical Chamber (Chartered Mechanical Engineer), EUR ING, Hellenic Society of
Mechanical—Electrical Engineers, Hellenic Society of Heat and Power Cogeneration, Hellenic Forum for
PL O

the Dissemination of Renewable Energy Sources (ELFORES), ASHRAE (Inititating representative and
president of Hellenic Chapter 1999-2000), and ASME (Member of the Governing Board ASME Greek
M SC

Section), ISES. Author and co-author of over 35 papers in international Journals and 50 papers at
conferences, chapter contributions in 9 scientific books and numerous technical project reports. Guest
editor for a special issue of the Journal Energy and Buildings; Invited Reviewer of papers for the Journal
of Solar Energy; Invited Technical Assessor for the European Architectural Competition Living in the City
SA NE

and Working in the City (under the auspices of the European Commission); Member of The Scientific
Research Society; Pi-Tau-Sigma, Honorary Mechanical Engineering Fraternity.
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