Continuity

Let 𝑓 be a function and let 𝑎 be a point in its domain. Then 𝑓 is continuous at the single
point 𝑥 = 𝑎 provided

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

If 𝑓 is continuous at each point in its domain, then we say that 𝑓 is continuous.

Many functions are continuous such as sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥 and any polynomial. Other functions
𝜋 𝜋
are continuous over certain intervals such as tan 𝑥 for − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 .

Standard Results for Continuity of Functions

➢ If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are continuous at 𝑎 then 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)
(provided 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0) are all continuous at 𝑎.
➢ If 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎) and 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑎 then the composite 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is continuous
at 𝑎.

Thus the sum, difference, product, quotient (provided the denominator is non-zero) and
composite of two continuous functions is again continuous.

Continuity of a Piecewise-defined Function

A piecewise-defined function is of the form

𝑓1 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = { 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = { 1
𝑓2 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑓2 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑓2 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑎

For a function of this form to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, we must have:

✓ lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) must exist and be equal (that is, lim 𝑓(𝑥) must exist);
𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

✓ 𝑓(𝑎) must be defined; and

✓ 𝑓(𝑎) must equal lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎
Types of Discontinuities

If a piecewise-defined function 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then there is a discontinuity

which can take one of the following forms:

1) If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists, but 𝑓(𝑎) is either not defined or does not equal the limit. Then
𝑥→𝑎

there is a “hole in the graph,” which is formally called a removable discontinuity.

2) If the one-sided limits are finite but not equal, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), then there is a
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

jump discontinuity, which is also called a non-removable discontinuity.

3) If one or both one-sided limits is infinite, then there is a vertical asymptote, which is
called an infinite discontinuity.

Examples

Determine the values of 𝑥 where the given function is discontinuous, if any such values
exist.

𝑥 2 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 3
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑥−1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 2 − 1 3

𝑥→2− 𝑥→2 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−1
= 22 − 1
3
=4−1 =
2−1
=3 3
=
1
=3
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at the point 𝑥 = 2

 3𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥 + 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 2

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− −𝑥 + 2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 3𝑥 + 1

𝑥→2− 𝑥→2 𝑥→2+ 𝑥→2

= −2 + 2 = 3(2) + 1
=0 =6+1
=7
since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous because the limit at 𝑥 = 2 does not exist

𝑓(𝑥) has a jump discontinuity

1
2
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
4

1 1
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥2
1 1
= =
4 22
1
=
4

1 1
since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = , the limit at 𝑥 = 2 exists
𝑥→2 4 𝑥→2 4
but 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2 because 𝑓(𝑥)is undefined
 1
𝑥3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 8
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = {4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 8
√𝑥 − 4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 8

1
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑥 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ √𝑥 − 4
𝑥→8+ 𝑥→8
𝑥→8 𝑥→8
1 = √8 − 4
= 83
= √4
=2
=2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥),
𝑥→8 𝑥→8

∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠

𝑥→8

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 8

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑓(8) = 4
since lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(8) ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 8
𝑥→8
 5. The function 𝑓 on ℝ is defined by

𝑥 2 − 5 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 4
𝑓(𝑥) = {
3 + 𝑝𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 4

Find:

i. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→4+

ii. The value of the constant 𝑝 such that lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→4

iii. Hence, determine the value of 𝑓(4) for the function to be continuous at the point 𝑥 =
4.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥2 − 5

𝑥→4+ 𝑥→4

= 42 − 5

= 16 − 5

= 11

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 3 + 𝑝𝑥

𝑥→4− 𝑥→4

𝐼𝑓 lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑥→4

3 + 𝑝𝑥 = 11

3 + 𝑝(4) = 11

4𝑝 = 11 − 3

4𝑝 = 8

𝑝=2

For the function 𝑓 to be continuous at the point 𝑥 = 4:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(4) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→4− 𝑥→4

Hence, the value of 𝑓(4) is 11

Continuity of a Rational Function
𝑝(𝑥)
A rational function has the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥), where 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) are polynomials. Then

𝑓(𝑥) is not defined whenever 𝑞(𝑥) = 0, so 𝑓 cannot be continuous at these points. These
discontinuities will either be asymptotes or removable.

Examples

𝑥 2 −9
1. Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , determine the value(s) of 𝑥 where it is discontinuous and
𝑥−3

the type of continuity.

𝑥 2 − 9 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑓(𝑥) = =
𝑥−3 𝑥−3

=𝑥+3

𝑠𝑜 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑥−3=0

⟹𝑥=3

𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 = 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠

𝑥2 − 9
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3

= lim 𝑥 + 3
𝑥→3

=3+3

=6

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3

 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
2. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−𝑥−12. Determine and describe all discontinuities.

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
=
𝑥 − 𝑥 − 12 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3)

𝑥−2
=
𝑥−4

𝑠𝑜 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 4

𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 = −3 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 12

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
= lim
𝑥→−3 (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3)

𝑥−2
= lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥 − 4

−3 − 2
=
−3 − 4

5
=
7

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓(𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −3

𝑥 = 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟,

𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 4