482097

research-article2013
QIXXXX10.1177/1077800413482097Qualitative InquirySvensson and Doumas

Article
Qualitative Inquiry

Contextual and Analytic Qualities

19(6) 441­–450
© The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/1077800413482097

in Research on Teaching qix.sagepub.com

Lennart Svensson1 and Kyriaki Doumas2

Abstract
The aim of the present article is to discuss contextual and analytic qualities of research methods. The arguments are specified
in relation to research on teaching. A specific investigation is used as an example to illustrate the general methodological
approach. It is argued that research methods should be carefully grounded in an understanding of the nature of the
investigated phenomena. This makes a case-based description fundamental. It is also argued, that the complexity and
uniqueness of phenomena have to be met by a combination of contextual and analytic methodological characteristics, to
reach descriptions that give a valid basis for a sustainable development of knowledge. Contextual analysis is presented as a
useful methodology meeting those requirements. The aim is to discuss the most fundamental characteristics of contextual
analysis and not to give a detailed description of the use of the methodology.

Keywords
research methodology, quality in research, case-based studies, contextual analysis, research on teaching.

Introduction have to be used to test the hypotheses. A similar focus on

definitions, use of variables, and statistical calculations
Within the field of research on teaching, there has been an was also combined with an inductive approach in much
interesting development of research methods, which is human, social, and educational research. Cronbach (1957)
also in line with the general development of research wrote about these two parts of the dominant methodology
methods within the human and social sciences. In the first within scientific psychology as the experimental and cor-
Handbook of Research on Teaching (Gage, 1963) the two relation traditions.
first parts, “Theoretical orientations” (Chapter 1 to 3) and Since the time of the first handbook on teaching much
“Methodologies in research on teaching” (Chapters 4 to 9), has happened concerning research methods. The view of
outline the dominant methodology of the time. The plac- definition of concepts and variables, on measurement and
ing of the two parts (of four) in the beginning signifies the on experiment as the ideal has changed a lot. The idea of a
importance given to methodology as the foundation of general scientific method as the basis for research was ques-
research. Chapter 1 is about “Historical exemplars of tioned. The most radical general critique of starting with the
teaching method.” Chapter 2 presents what is taken to be method was given by Feyerabend (1975) in his book Against
the general approach to development of scientific knowl- Method. The methodological development within the field
edge. The approach is focusing on scientific language, of research on teaching is mirrored in the three editions of
which should be developed through definition in a deduc- Handbook of Research on Teaching following the first edi-
tive way from definition of general concepts to operational tion (Richardson, 2001; Travers, 1973; Wittrock, 1986).
definitions of observable data. Chapter 3 is on “Paradigms The handbooks have the same general disposition, starting
for research on teaching,” Chapter 4 on “Statistics as an with chapters on historical, philosophical, and foundational
aspect of scientific method,” and Chapter 5 is on “Experimental
and quasi-experimental designs” for research on teaching.
There is an idea of developing scientific knowledge 1
Faculty of Social Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
deductively, much in line with Poppers view (Popper, 2
Department of Education, Linaeus University, Sweden
1959, 1963), and through measurement and testing of
Corresponding Author:
hypotheses. The way of testing hypotheses is ideally by Lennart Svensson, Professor emeritus, Lund University, Faculty of Social
use of experiments. The concepts defined and observations Sciences, Box 117, 221 00 Lund, Sweden.
made are in terms of variables, and statistical calculations Email: [email protected]

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442 Qualitative Inquiry 19(6)

issues followed by chapters on methodology. The later parts methods, and case studies. We will briefly refer to some
of the books are about different subfields of research on general arguments we agree on, and which are also impor-
teaching. tant in this article.
In the second handbook observation, assessment, cate- Lincoln (1995) argues that criteria of quality cannot be
gory systems, and instruments are main methodological generally relevant but have to be relational and contextual.
themes, related to focus on variables and measurement. One Seale (1999) argues that there is no clear logical relation
extensive chapter (Light, 1973) is about “Issues in the analy- between paradigms and general criteria on one hand, and
sis of qualitative data.” It deals only with quantitative aspects specific methods and techniques on the other hand. Denzin
and treatments of qualitative data. In the third handbook (2010), in discussing mixed methods, argues that we have
(Wittrock, 1986) there are chapters about “Measurement reached a moment where we should leave paradigm wars
of teaching” (Chapter 3), “Quantitative methods in research and focus on fruitful procedures. Flyvbjerg (2006) argues
on teaching” (Chapter 4), “Qualitative methods in research on that for certain important research tasks in the social sci-
teaching” (Chapter 5), and “Observation as inquiry and ences the case study is a necessary and sufficient method,
method” (Chapter 6). The chapter on qualitative methods and that good research is not method driven but problem
(Erickson, 1986) is very different compared to the chapter driven. Ruddin (2006) argues that the case study is possibly
on qualitative methods in the previous handbook. It includes the basic method of science.
a presentation of interpretive research, field studies, and dif- Hesse-Biber (2010) argues that the orientation has been
ferent forms of qualitative reports in relation to a broad too focused on methods, that methods only are tools, and
social and cultural context. that the important thing with case studies is that the case is
The greatest change can be seen between the previous what is investigated. Thomas (2010) argues with Stake
editions, including the third edition, and the fourth edition (2005) that case study is not a methodology but a choice of
of the handbook (Richardson, 2001). The change concerns what is to be studied, and that cases have to be seen in con-
the whole of the handbook, the way of presenting founda- text. The possibility of generalization is seen as limited in
tions, and not the least methodology. This, of course, reflects social sciences, and not specifically in case studies, and
the change that has taken place in the research reported on. abduction is suggested as the way to develop knowledge.
In Chapter 10 on “Critical issues, current trends, and possi- Halkier (2011) argues for the importance of exemplifica-
ble futures in quantitative methods” (Crawford & Impara, tion, and specific and context-bound descriptions. Koro-
1973/2001) an AERA survey is presented of AERA confer- Ljungberg (2010) stresses the importance of not using
ence presentations 1997. The survey showed that methods mechanical validation and not excluding differences. We
used were to 57.4% qualitative, to 33.5% combined qualita- agree on all these arguments. We think that the way of deal-
tive and quantitative, and to 9.4% quantitative. The chapter ing with similarities and differences is at the heart of the
deals with general questions about quantitative methods matter, and is what gives the basis for generalization.
and is the only one on quantitative methods. Chapters 12 to Our general conclusion from our understanding of the
18 form a main section named “Special topics in qualitative field and the ongoing discussion is that methods should be
methodology,” which deals with a range of different issues understood and discussed in close relation to the fields of
in relation to qualitative methods. Thus, there is a very great research and phenomena investigated. General distinctions
change from use of mainly quantitative to mainly qualita- and criteria are important, but their meaning and relevance
tive methods related to a corresponding change in method- have to be discussed in close relation to the understanding
ological, epistemological, and ontological underpinnings. of what is investigated. In line with the arguments referred
Dimitriadis (2011) in a recent article about Torrance’s to above we will argue for contextual analysis as a relevant
(2010) four-volume edited collection Qualitative Research methodology, exemplified in relation to research on teach-
Methods in Education lifts forward, that the general field ing and a specific investigation of teaching.
of qualitative inquiry has a parallel development within The position taken in the present article is that methods
education, and is coconstituted through this development. are secondary. What should come first is the understanding
Qualitative inquiry has during the latest decades developed of the investigated phenomena, and the character of the
as a special field within human and social sciences. The knowledge aimed at, and then comes the question of meth-
development has been manifested in an increasing number ods that make the aim realizable. This position is in line with
of handbooks and journals. In this journal, Qualitative the development of the use of research methods in human
Inquiry, there has been an ongoing discussion about qualita- and social sciences and in research on teaching. There has
tive methods since 1995. Most of the articles have focused been an increasing variation in methods used, with a closer
on specific aspects of qualitative methods in relation to spe- connection to the investigated phenomena and the aim of the
cific research areas and investigations. Quite a number of research. We have seen a development of qualitative analy-
articles have been concerned with more general issues, ses and a great variation in methods inspired by ethno-
especially criteria of quality in qualitative research, mixed graphic, phenomenological, and hermeneutic traditions.

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Svensson and Doumas 443

Those methods have been explorative, descriptive, and teaching is leading to is not what is considered the aimed at
interpretive. To a large extent the specific meaning of and/or achieved educational result, but only a condition for
descriptive categories and concepts, central to the research, this result. The educational result is expected to come
have been research results rather than predefined. This mir- through the student, who comes in between the teaching
rors the insight that the meaning and significance of central method and/or process and the result. The student is an
concepts and categories have to be delimited in the individ- agent that achieves the educational result. The educational
ual cases of investigated phenomena. result is only indirectly related to the teaching method and/
or process.
In theorizing about teaching, in practice and research,
The Understanding of Teaching
there has been a tendency to separate between content and
The term teaching focuses on the activity of teachers. At the form. The focus on content has been a concern with what
same time it presupposes a relation to a person taught (or subject matter should be dealt with in the teaching, when
often a group of persons), and in this sense refers to a social and why. This is the focus of much curriculum thinking and
phenomenon. Teaching is seen as aiming at and resulting in research. The focus on form has concerned general aspects
changes in the activity of the other person (the student/ of the way of dealing with subject matter, when and why.
learner), which gives teaching its meaning. Our understand- There is much of an educational planning perspective in
ing of teaching is that the fundamental character of teaching those focuses on content and form. At the same time there
concerns the relation between what the teacher does, and has been an awareness that content and form are intimately
the learning environment, on one hand, and the result as related in teaching.
expressed by the learner(s) on the other hand. This rela- In developing an empirically based understanding of
tional character of teaching is common to educational phe- teaching we have to start from teaching as manifested.
nomena. There is a corresponding double meaning of the Teaching as manifested is both content and form without a
concept of education as referring to the system of education divide. The most interest in teaching, in both practice and
(the teaching) on one hand, and the values, knowledge, and research, is in characteristics representing or related to val-
skills of an educated person (the student result) on the other ued outcomes. Also, the outcomes have the character of
hand. The main educational issue concerns the relation wholes of content and form. Thus it seems relevant to find
between the conditions created by systems of education and crucial qualities within the whole of content and form rather
the resulting education of educated people. than making a divide between content and form. In Doumas’
The understanding of teaching that seems to have under- investigation (Doumas, 2011), used as an example in the
pinned much early research is teaching as a method. Using following, the focus is on what stands out in students’ expe-
the expression teaching method we most often think of riences of teaching as a whole, without focusing on content
ways of teaching directly used by teachers. A broader con- and form separately.
cept is educational program, most often seen as a part of an In much talk about teaching, and also in research on
educational system. Using the term method here we refer teaching, the content is taken to be equal to content in a
both to methods directly used by teachers and educational discipline or some existing body of knowledge. The content
programs and systems. The issue raised concerns the idea of is considered as predefined in relation to the activity taking
predefined ways of doing teaching (education) as leading to place in teaching. This predefined content may also be the
educational results. Both in educational practice and educa- content given in curricula, textbooks, and educational mate-
tional research there has been an interest in finding a better rials. However, this is not the actual content of teaching,
and the best teaching method (including program and sys- which is what has to be understood to understand teaching,
tem) and to compare methods. Very close to the thinking in and understand it to its consequences. The actual content is
terms of method is the so-called process-product research what the teachers and students think, feel, say, and do in
on effective teaching that dominated during the 1960s and relation to subject matter. That is what is related to the out-
1970s (Dunkin & Biddle, 1974). come. The same goes for the form or method of teaching.
The thinking of teaching as a matter of method or pro- The forms are not predefined and/or generally described
cess is seductive. A method is assumed to be used to achieve forms and methods but the forms and methods manifested
a result and a process to lead to the result. This makes the in what teachers and students say and do. If we want to
method and process all important for the result. However, understand teaching, especially if we want to understand
this does not apply to what is described as teaching methods teaching to its effect and outcome, we have to focus on the
(or programs and systems) and processes in relation to what actual teaching.
is seen as aimed at and achieved results. Teaching is done in The student mediates between what the educational sys-
a certain way. The way of doing something of course leads tem and the teacher afford and the outcome of this affor-
to the result. This is the seductive element in talking about dance in the activity and achievement, the learning, of the
teaching methods and processes. What the way of doing student. To investigate this relation is a demanding task. It

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444 Qualitative Inquiry 19(6)

will take observation of both educational conditions and investigation teachers and students of literature and physics
teachers’ activity as well as observation of students’ activ- in some Greek high school classes during a year of educa-
ity, and still this is not enough to clarify the relation, since tion formed the cases. The activity in each school class was
the relation is internal and dependent on the experience, seen as a case of teaching. A classical case study would
intention, and approach of the student. A fruitful way to have meant a concentration on one class (or very few
deal with the complexity of teaching seems to be to focus classes) and as an exhaustive observation and description of
on students’ experiences, intentions, and approaches. This the life of this class as possible. In our investigation the aim
is what is done in Doumas’ investigation. Although a is not to describe the life of a school class but crucial educa-
description of students’ experiences of teaching only cap- tional qualities of the activity of the class. This means that
tures a part of the phenomenon of teaching, this is the most the social, emotional cognitive, interactive, communicative
central part to understand teaching in terms of the relation life of the class (including the teacher) is not comprehen-
between teaching affordances and teaching outcomes. sively investigated. Those qualities are only considered in
Thus, such a focus may illuminate the whole character of relation to teachers and students relation to subject matter as
cases of teaching. experienced by the students. The data collection and
In all teaching there is a normative stance. There is descriptions are much more focused, selective, and limited
something that is aimed at and expected to be achieved, compared to a classical case study, but they and the analysis
considered to be good. There is an interest in forming the are case based as the data of each class are dealt with as the
good teaching. In line with this aim, and considering the main unit of analysis. Since the study of each case is limited
role of the intention and approach of students, it is relevant there is room for more cases, and comparison of cases is an
to investigate what is good teaching as experienced by stu- important part of the investigation.
dents. This has been done in Doumas’ investigation. We Cases of teaching may be delimited in many different
will use this investigation to exemplify points made about ways and have a very different extension and character,
methodology, at the same time as we are giving a critical from a short encounter between two persons, an episode,
reflection on that investigation. where one may be seen as teacher and the other as student,
to a whole educational system with thousands of persons
involved. A case of teaching within an educational system
Case-Based Research may be delimited as an episode between a teacher and a
The methodology argued for here has in previous research student within a lesson, a whole lesson, or an educational
been called contextual analysis (Marton & Svensson, 1979; program. The cases could concern teaching one class one
Svensson, 1976, 1986). It is fundamental to this method- subject, several subjects, or all subjects during one term, a
ological approach to start with cases equal to the investi- year, or a whole educational program. Other delimitations
gated phenomena. Miles and Huberman (1994) group ways are also possible. What delimitations and choices of cases
of collecting and ordering empirical data in two main cate- of teaching that are made is dependent on what qualities and
gories, variable-based and case-based ways. We do not find problems of teaching are focused on, and how these are
this difference to be mainly conventional but a fundamental considered to be best investigated.
one. Contextual analysis is case based in a special way. We In Doumas’ investigation the qualities and problems of
argue that research basically should be case based, and the teaching focused on was what students experience as good
cases equal to the investigated phenomena. The main rea- teaching. The question of what constitutes good teaching is
son for this stance is the importance of clarity about what is a classical question. The most common way to deal with
investigated, and what the results are confined to. In our this question has been to do it in a philosophical theoretical
example the investigated phenomena are cases of teaching. normative way, starting from some postulated fundamental
One methodological challenge then is to delimit these phe- values and formulating qualities that would correspond to
nomena in collecting and treating empirical data. Case- those values. Based on this normative approach cases of
based studies are not equal to classical case studies, although teaching could be described and discussed as having the
those are case based. In case studies there is usually an wanted qualities or not. Doumas’ investigation, however,
extensive exploration and description of one or very few starts with empirical cases of teaching and focuses on the
cases. There is usually no clear delimitation of investigated experience of students within those cases. There is still a
phenomena from a theoretical perspective or based on the normative question about good teaching but in the empiri-
formulation of a research problem, which is the starting cal form of good teaching as experienced by students. This
point in studies we are arguing about here. The difference means openness to variation on what good teaching is.
may be explicated in relation to research on teaching. A case of teaching in Doumas’ investigation is a unit of
A case of teaching may be delimited as an activity car- teaching with one teacher, one class, one subject, during 1
ried out by specified persons at certain places during certain year. The investigation is an interview study of students’
times within a system of organized activities. In Doumas’ experiences of classroom teaching in one subject during 1

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Svensson and Doumas 445

year. This is of course different from observing the teaching main relation between the classroom activity and the educa-
and from using different documents about teaching like tional outcome.
course plans, course assignments, knowledge test, and other In Doumas’ investigation the cases of teaching are
data from the teaching. Also, interviewing the teachers described based on students’ reported experiences of the
about their experience of teaching would give a comple- cultural subject matter oriented interaction in the class in
mentary and possibly somewhat different picture of the relation to their own dealing with subject matter. All inves-
teaching. Teaching is a very complex activity and process tigations have and must have their limitations. What is
and there are many different qualities that may be focused. most important is that the limitation is well-grounded in
The focus on certain qualities means a certain delimitation the understanding of the phenomena, and that the results
of the unit actually researched. The first delimitation made are interpreted in consideration of the limitations and an
in Doumas’ investigation is to an educational perspective. understanding of the phenomena as wholes. The results
What is going on in a classroom may be described from have to be interpreted considering the existence of a wider
many perspectives, for instance a general social perspective not investigated context. This concerns for instance a vari-
focusing on social relations in the class, or a psychological ation among students not described, students’ actual knowl-
perspective focusing on the emotional climate, or a com- edge of subject matter, teachers intentions and so on.
municative perspective focusing on the communication pat- Despite this limitation, it is claimed that the results say
terns. As described above our perspective is educational and something very central and crucial about the cases of teach-
focuses on the relation between conditions of learning and ing investigated.
learning. It then is of special relevance to focus on students’
experiences since they constitute this relation.
Thus, the investigation is limited to the experience of
The Issue of Analysis
students, of 1 year’s teaching in one subject. The focusing Contextual analysis is based on a specific understanding of
on the unit of 1 year teaching also has consequences for analysis. To use a case-based design to collect and order data
what qualities will be attended to and discerned. If the unit gives a ground for a case-based analysis of data. A case-based
had been one lesson some qualities specific to the content analysis means that the data of each case are considered
and events of that lesson had been discerned. The unit could together, in relation to each other and within the case as a
also have been an event within a lesson. With the unit of 1 whole. This does not exclude comparisons between cases
year what is common to and what holds together different during analysis, to identify specific characteristics of each
lessons and what seems outstanding over a longer period of case. The important thing is that the specifics of each case are
time may be expected to come to the fore. The students interpreted and understood as parts of the case. This is in line
describe both general qualities over the year and events spe- with what we think should be the meaning of analysis, but
cific to individual lessons. In the latter case these events which is not what is commonly referred to as analysis.
then stand out in the experience of a longer period. Thus in Quantitative analyses and also variable based qualitative
interpreting the result it is important to understand it in rela- analyses, as for instance described by Miles and Huberman
tion to what is the main unit of teaching focused. (1994), are not analysis in the sense argued for here. They
A main characteristic of teaching as a unit of research build on definitions of “parts of phenomena” out of their con-
approached from an educational perspective is that it has texts, as isolated units, given generalized meanings. To ana-
closely related collective and individual parts. The individ- lyze then means to ascribe generalized units of meaning to
ual parts are what the teacher and each student is feeling, cases, and not to discern meanings of parts of the case/phe-
thinking, saying, and doing. The collective part is what is nomenon as a whole. The result becomes a composition of
said and done in the classroom interaction between the par- data units rather than an analysis of the case. Often the result
ticipants. This interaction develops over time and a com- is a variable-based compilation across cases. In Doumas’
mon history is developed. What individuals feel, think, say, investigation this alternative variable-based approach would
and do is dependent on the interaction and the history of have meant a definition and use of specific codes or catego-
interaction in the class as well as on the individuals own ries. The same defined meanings would have been used in
history. The teacher has the main responsibility in forming describing the different school classes. Instead, in the analy-
the interaction and its cultural content and especially the sis made, abstract categories with varying discerned specific
dealing with subject matter content. It is this cultural and meanings are delimited as a result.
subject matter content of the classroom interaction that is What is here argued for and meant by analysis involves
focused and expected to be related to the intended and a clear starting point in a phenomenon/case as a whole, and
achieved educational outcome within an educational per- a discerning of parts of the whole as parts, and not as sepa-
spective. However, this relation is through each student’s rated, isolated units with generalized meanings. This means
activity and learning. This makes a first person perspective, that the relation of parts to each other and to the whole is
exploring the agents’ experiences, crucial to understand the considered important to the meaning and understanding of

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446 Qualitative Inquiry 19(6)

each part. These relations may be understood in two differ- research. The compatibility concerns the understanding of
ent ways, as internal or external relations (Bradley, 1908; relations between parts, and parts and wholes, of phenom-
Moore, 1922). If the relation is internal the meaning of the ena. However, these mentioned traditions emphasize, for
unit, the part, is dependent on its relation. It cannot be given different reasons, description, reduction, and interpretation,
a meaning in itself, in isolation, but it can be given a mean- and not analysis. Wolcott (1994) argues that description,
ing if the relation is external. If the relation between a part analysis, and interpretation are all aspects involved in trans-
of a case and the whole case is external, it is justified to deal forming qualitative data, with different emphasis on and
with it as a separate unit. However, to use generalized character of the one and the other in different cases of
meanings (categories, variable values) one also has to show research.
that different cases have identical parts. The later condition A contextual analytic approach is relevant and called for
may be fulfilled even when the relations are internal, which when there is an interest to understand investigated phe-
means that the cases/phenomena are identical in aspects nomena as wholes in terms of parts and relations between
described. The assumption about identical parts has proven parts making up the whole. This is relevant in the develop-
useful in fields of natural science like for instance mechan- ment of knowledge of most human and social phenomena.
ics, where parts with the same meaning are found to have It is especially relevant when phenomena are delimited
the same relation to each other from one case to another. from a more precise perspective and/or approached based
However, within the field of human and social sciences, on the formulation of a problem. Such an approach means
it has not been possible to show a corresponding relation that the object of research is delimited within a broader con-
between cases and parts and is not reasonable to expect. text, and that it is seen as consisting of some main parts
This means that the use of generalized meanings (catego- constituting the phenomenon. This is the case with teaching
ries), that are related using external relations (qualitatively as an educational phenomenon. It clearly is a part of a broad
or quantitatively—all quantitative methods use external sociocultural, material, and spiritual context, and it has
relations), have a limited value in understanding cases/phe- some main constituent parts. Above the two main parts
nomena. Instead, we have to work with internal relations to were delimited as the relation between the teaching/learn-
reach a deeper understanding of the cases investigated. To ing environment conditions and the individual learning
do contextual analysis means to work with internal rela- activity and outcome.
tions. This is done in Doumas’ investigation, where differ-
ent aspects are discerned in relation to, and as dependent on,
A Both Contextual and Analytic
each other, for finding their meaning. To work with internal
relations means to consider how the meaning of parts are Approach
dependent on the meaning of other parts and the whole, in In this section we will further outline what characterizes
an mutually interdependent way that is unique for each contextual analysis in line with the description already
case. This has to be done since we cannot assume similarity given. We will also discuss how the investigation of teach-
between cases but rather has to assume variation. To deal ing referred to can be seen within the framework of contex-
with this variation means to deal with both similarities and tual analysis, in what way it exemplifies contextual analysis,
differences, and to understand similarities against the back- and in what way it is limited as an example of contextual
ground of differences. This gives generalization a different analysis. We will also defend the limitations from a contex-
character compared to generalization based on external tual analytic perspective. Contextual analysis is not primar-
relations and an assumption about similarity between cases. ily a method but a methodology based on epistemological
Generalization here has the character of work with internal and ontological assumptions about how we are able to and
relations and interpretation in comparisons of cases. should best develop scientific knowledge. Even if contex-
Analysis of internal relations is a matter of interpretation, tual analysis is not a specific method it puts limitations on
and is what here is meant by contextual analysis. In method- and frames the way to carry out research and develop
ological discussions, it has been common to see analysis and knowledge. A characteristic of the approach is that it is both
its interpretation as opposite methodological characteristics. contextual and analytic in an integrated way.
This is due to the meaning given to analysis of partitioning The seemingly obvious simple starting point in research
and dealing with separate units in a generalized way. Due is from what is going to be investigated, the phenomena. The
mainly to this meaning given to analysis ethnographic, phe- phenomena are not so clearly the starting point in dominat-
nomenological, and hermeneutic traditions in focusing on ing research traditions. Rather the starting point has been
description, reduction, and interpretation have been critical taken in theoretical definitions of concepts and in general
to analysis. However, the meaning of contextual analysis, of methods. This has meant that both phenomena and parts of
clarification of internal relations, argued for here, is clearly a phenomena have been defined beforehand. This is necessary
meaning of analysis compatible with the meaning of descrip- in the use of quantitative methods but also the case in
tion, reduction, and interpretation used in those traditions of some qualitative methods. One fundamental characteristic

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Svensson and Doumas 447

of contextual analysis is to approach a phenomenon in an to its context—physical, historical, sociocultural—and in

open way and search for its delimitation in context. The relation to the personal experience of the students. The
same approach is taken in finding out what characterizes the existential approach involved a tracing and perception of
phenomenon. It is a searching out of parts of the phenome- the content in direct relation to the entirety of the student
non and their characteristics in their context. This approach as a person, her existence, and personal transformation.
involves two sides, the analytic of delimitation of the whole The investigation of the pedagogical quality named
of a phenomenon and of its parts, and the contextual of dis- Dialogical interrelatedness and reflection brought out the
cerning and delimiting this whole and the parts in and as qualities:
dependent of their contexts. Thus, the delimitation is ana-
lytic and contextual at the same time and based on approach- •• Freedom of authentic expression and exploration,
ing phenomena rather than defining them beforehand. •• Support of personal partaking and otherness
To do a contextual analysis means to start from an under- •• Argumentative mutual thinking and awareness
standing of the investigated phenomenon. The phenomenon
may be of any kind, physical, psychic, social, or cultural. In The quality Freedom of authentic expression and explora-
this article we focus on cases of teaching as phenomena. In tion involved a personal and authentic exploration of the
Doumas’ investigation the phenomena are cases of teach- texts or the physical phenomena without obligation to be in
ing, as experienced by students. To start with the phenom- agreement with preconceived and expected answers. The
enon, in contextual analysis involves considering the quality Support of the personal partaking and otherness
context of the phenomenon. In Doumas’ investigation this involved the encouragement the teacher gave students to
meant to see the experiences of students in school classes, participate in the discussion and to express their own
of what constitutes good teaching in the class, as a delimita- thoughts on the subject as well as to listen to and to respect
tion related to the existence of surrounding individual, everyone’s contribution. The quality Argumentative mutual
sociocultural, physical, and spiritual contexts, and depend- thinking and awareness involved the joy of the common
ing for their meanings on those contexts. search for meaning and creation of thought when students
Most forms of qualitative analysis starts with individual came into contact with each other’s differing ways to under-
data as meaning units, codifies and/or categorize those and stand and develop arguments or solve a problem.
group them into bigger meaning units in an inductive way. Teacher’s involvement in students’ learning and in teach-
In contextual analysis we start with the whole of the data, ing subject matter was characterized by the qualities:
preliminary delimited as being about the whole of the phe-
nomena investigated, and search for main parts of the phe- •• Teacher’s ethos
nomena, main aspects, and/or components. In Doumas’ •• Teacher’s passion
investigation, the main parts discerned of the cases as •• Teacher’s rhetoric
wholes, delimited as described above, were three main
aspects of the experience of good teaching in literature and Teachers’ ethos referred to the ethical quality of teachers’
physics, found in all the classes, although with varying spe- pedagogical approach toward students developed in
cific meanings: teaching. Students stressed that the ethics of the relation-
ship established between their teacher and them affected
•• In-depth teaching and understanding of the subject significantly their disposition to and understanding of the
matter subject matter. Teachers’ passion referred to their involve-
•• Dialogical interrelatedness and reflection ment in a knowledge relation to the subject matter as well as
•• Teacher’s involvement in students’ learning and in to their desire and devotion to share this relation with the
teaching subject matter students and stimulate them to partake in a further common
exploration of the subject matter.
In brief, the following approaches to In-Depth teaching and Teachers’ rhetoric referred to the embodiment of teachers’
understanding of the subject matter were identified: ethos and passion (through e.g., movements, gestures, facial
expressions) that expressed their emotional and intellectual
•• Logical/analytical approach engrossment and to the varying verbal or other incidents
•• Holistic/reflective approach (such as amusing stories, personal examples, spontaneous,
•• Existential approach and humorous events etc.) that interrupted the formal teach-
ing procedure and gave space to a more personal, relaxed,
The logical-analytical approach was characterized by an and emotional engagement of the students.
analytic and structural way of elaborating and under- In Doumas’ investigation, the contextual analytic char-
standing subject matter. The holistic/reflective approach acter of the investigation includes the identification of the
involved an exploration of the focused content in relation experience of good teaching in each class as a unit, the

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448 Qualitative Inquiry 19(6)

identification of three main aspects of good teaching, and All investigations have their limitations. The main ques-
the identification of qualities of good teaching within all tion concerns whether the limitations are well chosen, moti-
three aspects. The results and the way of reporting are based vated, and given due attention. Doumas’ investigation is
on similarities and differences between cases. The similari- limited to students’ experiences of good teaching. This is
ties and difference can be described and summarized in dif- motivated by the central and crucial role of students’ experi-
ferent ways. In Doumas’ description, the same abstract ences and approaches in constituting the main educational
categories and labels are used for different classes to bring internal relation between teaching as conditions of learning
forward characteristics which are understood to be of prin- on one hand, and learning activity and outcome on the other
ciple importance. At the same time, this means that there is hand. The limitation to some students in each class and to
a great specific variation in the meaning of those labels/ common experiences is motivated as a strategic use of
categories and within the categories, representing differ- resources. The limitations in explicating variation in cate-
ences between cases. gory meanings and internal relations in the analysis, and the
The same category has different specific meanings in reporting of the result, are depending on general conditions
different cases and it is the specific meanings that are of development and communication of knowledge. We
empirically related to other parts of the phenomena and the have to take one-step at a time in going deeper into the com-
meaning of other categories. If we for instance consider the plexity of teaching and in reporting results. In awareness of
first main aspect and its first subcategory, a logical/analytical those main and other limitations, this investigation is an
approach, it is clear that this approach is similar in certain example of a contextual analysis, and is special in its holis-
respects, but also different for instance between teaching in tic, contextual, and analytic approach to investigating teach-
literature and physics. To deal with meanings and structures ing compared to most research on teaching.
of literary texts is specifically different from solving phys-
ics problems, although both tasks can be made in a logic
analytic way. It is the activities in their specific character
Discussion
that are related internally to other aspects of the teaching, The general development toward using more qualitative
for instance the dialogue aspect, and then to the specific methods, described in the introduction, we think has been
empirical meanings of the categories used to describe the driven by a wish for better understanding of the phenomena
dialogue. The analysis could have focused more on differ- investigated. Ellis et al. (2008) present talking and thinking
ences and could have given a description in terms of more of researchers about their personal histories of starting to
and different categories and labels. It is important to con- use qualitative methods that supports this interpretation.
sider such choices made in comparing different investiga- The interpretation is also supported by arguments given in
tions and in generalizing the results. the literature and referred to in the introduction of this arti-
Doumas’ investigation is clearly case based since all data cle. Arguments which we think are also reasons for the
are treated and results reported for each case. The analysis development we have seen. There has lately been an empha-
could have been more fully case based and contextual both sis on the importance of evidence in a way that asks for
in collection and analysis of data. In the understanding of generalization of cause–effect relations to populations,
teaching argued for above, the relation between what the partly as a reaction to the extensive development of qualita-
educational system and the teacher afford and the outcome tive research, not the least in the field of education.
of this affordance in the activity and achievement, the learn- Polkinghorne (2007) discusses this reaction in relation to
ing, of the student, is emphasized. This main educational narrative research, and questions about validity. He points
relation is only partly described in Doumas investigation. to differences in what is considered to count as evidence
The outcome is described in a very limited way, and the and argument, and to the importance of the analysis or inter-
affordances are partly described, and then as experienced pretation of evidence.
by the students. The main focus is on central aspects of the What counts as evidence has to be grounded in an under-
internal relation between affordances and outcome in cases standing of the investigated phenomena, the objects of
that are very complex, as are most cases of education. The research, and not in general preferences. Ruddin (2006)
relations between main aspects found were dealt with as argues that case study is possibly the basic method of sci-
internal relations and interpreted together in a case-based ence and refers to examples from the history of natural sci-
contextual way. The variation in meaning between subjects, ence. We would say that cases, that are equal to the objects
grades, classes, and students of the different categories of of research, of course are the fundamental units of research,
description used may be further explored and described as and thereby case-based methods are most fundamental in
well as the internal relations between categories in each all research. What is critical is the use of internal relations
case. Only some students from each class were interviewed (Bradley, 1908; Moore, 1922). What has here been pre-
and what is common in their experience has been empha- sented as contextual analysis equals conceptualizing objects
sized more than the differences. of research in terms of internal relations. In mechanics, for

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Svensson and Doumas 449

instance, the new way of delimiting cause and effect in the internal relations between those parts. For instance,
Newtonian explanation of physical motion, compared to the in the case of teaching, a main relation is that
Aristotelian way, is in principle a contextual analysis. It between the activity of educators and teachers on
means working with a main internal relation in differentiat- one hand and of students on the other hand. This
ing between cause and effect and in discerning this relation takes an analytic approach.
in a broader context. To give general definitions to the cause 3. Critical characteristics of parts of human and social
and the effect and the relation, and to quantify those, has phenomena will vary from case to case. It therefore
been very powerful in natural science, and has meant work has limited relevance to use the same predefined cat-
with external relations (mathematics and statistics). egories and variables. Rather, characteristics have to
However, the work with external relations is a second step be discerned and interpreted contextually in each
in this development of knowledge. It can be said to be based case, based on delimitation of internal relations.
on, that the objects of research can be seen as identical in 4. A cumulative development of knowledge takes a clari-
critical aspects, and as having the same relation to context fication and comparison between cases of delimitations
in those aspects. of internal relations between parts of investigated phe-
In human and social sciences, the objects of research are nomena and between phenomena and their contexts.
not identical, and cannot be treated as identical cases, when 5. Research methods should be developed and argued
it comes to qualities of interest. This can be considered the for in relation to the present understanding of the
most well-established result in human and social research. investigated phenomena and the understanding of
Discerned internal relations have not been shown to have what knowledge is possible to achieve about those
the form of a mathematical function or to give a correlation phenomena.
of 1 across cases. An escape from this situation to mere sta-
tistical descriptions of degrees of relations between vari- Declaration of Conflicting Interests
ables at a group level is not much of a solution. Often such
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
variable-based descriptions means great obscurity, when it the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
comes to what phenomena that are investigated. A more
serious attempt to develop knowledge, grounded in a thor-
Funding
ough understanding of what is investigated, would take a
contextual analysis and description of the phenomena. The The authors received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
openness and uncertainty of descriptions, due to the context
dependent nature and complexity of human and social phe-
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Paul. fields of research, learning at work, and intercultural learning. He
Richardson, V. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of research on teach- was one of the researchers who originally developed the research
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