Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Chapter 11
Acids, Bases and Salts

11.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids & Bases

11.2 Types of Oxides

A. Acidic Oxides
B. Basic Oxides
C. Amphoteric Oxides

11.3 Preparation of Salts

A. Preparing of soluble salts
B. Preparing insoluble salts

11.4 Identification of Ions & Gases

A. Identification of Cation
B. Identification of Anion
C. Identification of Gases

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

11.1 The Characteristic Properties of Acids &

Bases
Properties of Acids

 Acids have pH values of below 7, have a sour taste and are corrosive
 In acidic conditions blue litmus paper turns red and methyl orange indicator turns red
 Acids are substances that can neutralise a base, forming a salt and water
 When acids react, they will lose electrons to form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
 The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic

Example: Hydrochloric Acid

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Typical reactions of acids

Acids and metals

 Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.
 When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Examples of reaction between acids and metals:

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Acids with bases (alkalis)

 Metal oxides and metal hydroxides can act as bases

 When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs
 In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Examples of reaction between acids and bases:

Acids with metal carbonates

 Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon
dioxide and water:

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon

Dioxide + Water
Examples of reaction between acids and carbonates:

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Properties of Bases

 Bases have pH values of above 7

 A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali
 In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue and methyl orange indicator
turns yellow
 Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
 Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals
 When alkalis react, they gain electrons to form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)
 The presence of the OH– ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali

Example: Sodium Hydroxide

NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Typical reactions of bases

Bases and acids

 When they react with an acid,a neutralisation reaction occurs

 Acids and bases react together in a neutralisation reaction and produce a salt and water:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Examples of reaction between bases and acids:

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Alkalis and ammonium salts

 Ammonium salts undergo decomposition when warmed with an alkali

 Even though ammonia is itself a weak base, it is very volatile and can easily be displaced
from the salt by another alkali
 A salt, water and ammonia are produced

Example:

NH4Cl + NaOH →NaCl + H2O + NH3

 This reaction is used as a chemical test to confirm the presence of the ammonium ion
(NH4+)
 Alkali is added to the substance with gentle warming followed by the test for ammonia
gas using damp red litmus paper
 The litmus paper will turn from red to blue if ammonia is present

Neutrality, Relative Acidity & Alkalinity

The pH scale

 The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a
solution is
 It goes from 1 – 14 (extremely acidic substances can have values of below 1)
 All acids have pH values of below 7, all alkalis have pH values of above 7
 The lower the pH then the more acidic the solution is
 The higher the pH then the more alkaline the solution is
 A solution of pH 7 is describe as being neutralg. water

The pH scale showing acidity, neutrality and alkalinity

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Universal indicator

 Universal indicator is a mixture of different indicators which is used to measure the pH

 A drop is added to the solution and the colour is matched with a colour chart which
indicates the pH which matches specific colours

The pH scale with the Universal Indicator colours which can be used to determine the pH of a
solution

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

The importance of pH and soil acidity

 Soil pH is analysed to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of soil

 Most plants favour a pH value of between 5 and 8
 Changes in soil which cause a pH to be outside this range adversely affect plant processes
resulting in reduced growth and crop yield
 Soils may become acid from acid rain, overuse of fertilisers which contain ammonium
salts or by the excessive breakdown of organic matter by bacteria
 Crushed or powdered limestone (calcium carbonate) or lime (calcium oxide) or slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to neutralise the excess acidity in the soil
 The addition process must be carefully monitored though, as if added in excess, further
damage could be done if the pH goes too high

Proton Transfer, Weak & Strong Acids & Bases

Proton transfer

 The earlier definition of an acid and a base can be extended

 In terms of proton transfer, we can further define each substance in how they interact
with protons

Acids

 Acids are proton donors as they ionize in solution producing protons, H+ ions
 These H+ ions make the aqueous solution acidic

Bases (Alkalis)

 Bases (alkalis) are proton acceptors as they ionize in solution producing OH– ions which
can accept protons
 These OH– ions make the aqueous solution alkaline

Diagram showing the role of acids and bases in the transfer of protons

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Strong acids and bases

 Acids and alkalis can be either strong or weak, depending on how many ions they
produce when dissolved in water
 Strong acids and bases ionize completely in water, producing solutions of very low
pH for an acid or very high pH for a base
 Strong acids include HCl and H2SO4 and strong bases include the Group I hydroxides

Weak acids and bases

 Weak acids and bases partially ionize in water and produce pH values which are closer
to the middle of the pH scale
 Weak acids include organic acids such as ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and weak bases
include aqueous ammonia
 For both weak acids and bases, there is usually an equilibrium set-up between the
molecules and their ions once they have been added to water
 Example of a weak acid: propanoic acid

CH3CH2COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3CH2COO-
 Example for a weak base: aqueous ammonia

NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-

 In both cases the equilibrium lies to the left, indicating a high concentration of intact acid
/ base molecules, with a low concentration of ions in solution

Effect of concentration on strong and weak acids and alkalis

 A concentrated solution of either an acid or a base is one that contains a high number of
acid or base molecules per dm3 of solution
 It does not necessarily mean that the acid or base is strong though, as it may be made
from a weak acid or base which does not dissociate completely
 For example a dilute solution of HCl will be more acidic than a concentrated solution of
ethanoic acid, since most of the HCl molecules dissociate but very few of the CH3COOH
do

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

11.2 Types of Oxides

Classifying Oxides

Acid and basic oxides

 Acidic and basic oxides have different properties and values of pH

 The difference in their pH stems from whether they are bonded to a metal or
a nonmetal element
 The metallic character of the element influences the acidic or alkaline behaviour of the
molecule

Metals form basic oxides and hydroxides while nonmetals form acidic oxides

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Acidic oxides

 Acidic oxides are formed when a nonmetal element combines with oxygen
 They react with bases to form a salt and water
 When dissolved in water they produce an acidic solution with a low pH
 Common examples include SO2 and SiO2

Basic oxides

 Basic oxides are formed when a metal element combines with oxygen
 They react with acids to form a salt and water
 When dissolved in water they produce a basic solution with a high pH
 Common examples include NaOH, KOH and Ca(OH)2

Neutral & Amphoteric Oxides

Neutral oxides

 Some oxides do not react with either acids or bases and thus are said to be neutral
 Examples include N2O, NO and CO

Amphoteric oxides

 Amphoteric oxides are a curious group of oxides that can behave

as both acidic and basic, depending on whether the other reactant is an acid or a base
 In both cases a salt and water is formed
 Two most common amphoteric oxides are zinc oxide and aluminum oxide
 The hydroxides of both of these elements also behave amphoterically
 Example of aluminium oxide behaving as a base:

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

 Example for an aluminium oxide behaving as an acid:

Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

11.3 Preparation of Salts

Preparation, Separation & Purification of Salts

Salts

 A salt is a compound that is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is replaced by
a metal
 For example if we replace the H in HCl with a potassium atom, then the salt potassium
chloride is formed, KCl
 Salts are an important branch of chemistry due to the varied and important uses of this
class of compounds
 These uses include fertilisers, batteries, cleaning products, healthcare products and
fungicides

Naming salts

 The name of a salt has two parts

 The first part comes from the metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate used in the reaction
 The second part comes from the acid
 The name of the salt can be determined by looking at the reactants
 For example hydrochloric acid always produces salts that end in chloride and contain
the chloride ion, Cl–
 Other examples:
o Sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride
o Zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate

Preparing salts

 Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the laboratory.
 There are two key ideas to consider when preparing salts:
o Is the salt being formed soluble or insoluble in water?
o Is there water of crystallisation present in the salt crystals?

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Solubility of the common salts

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

A. Preparing soluble salts

Method A: adding acid to a solid metal, base or carbonate

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Diagram showing the preparation of soluble salts

Method:

 Add dilute acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame
 Add the insoluble metal, base or carbonate, a little at a time, to the warm dilute acid and
stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until the base stops disappearing and a suspension of
the base forms in the acid)
 Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base
 Heat the solution to evaporate water and to make the solution saturated. Check the
solution is saturated by dipping a cold, glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals
form on the end
 Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize
 Decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Preparation of pure, Hydrated Copper (II) Sulfate Crystals using Method A

Acid = Dilute Sulfuric Acid

Insoluble base = Copper (II) Oxide

Method:

 Add dilute sulfuric acid into a beaker and heat using a bunsen burner flame
 Add copper (II) oxide (insoluble base), a little at a time to the warm dilute sulfuric acid
and stir until the copper (II) oxide is in excess (stops disappearing)
 Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess copper (II) oxide
 Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallize
 Decant excess solution
 Blot crystals dry

Equation of reaction:

Copper (II) Oxide + Dilute Sulfuric Acid → Copper (II) Sulphate + Water

CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (s) + H2O (l)

Method B: reacting a dilute acid and alkali

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to prepare a salt by titration

Method:

 Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator
(phenolphthalein or methyl orange)
 Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume
 Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes
to appropriate colour
 Note and record the final volume of acid in burette and calculate the volume of acid
added (starting volume of acid – final volume of acid)
 Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator
 Heat to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated solution
 Leave to crystallise decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

B. Preparing Insoluble Salts

 Insoluble salts can be prepared using a precipitation reaction

 The solid salt obtained is the precipitate, thus in order to successfully use this method the
solid salt being formed must be insoluble in water

Using two soluble reactants

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Diagram showing the filtration of the mixture to remove the precipitate

Method:

 Dissolve soluble salts in water and mix together using a stirring rod in a beaker
 Filter to remove precipitate from mixture
 Wash filtrate with water to remove traces of other solutions
 Leave in an oven to dry

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Preparation of Pure, Dry Lead (II) Sulfate Crystals using a precipitation reaction

Soluble Salt 1 = Lead (II) Nitrate

Soluble Salt 2 = Potassium Sulfate

Method:

 Dissolve Lead (II) Nitrate and Potassium Sulfate in water and mix together using a
stirring rod in a beaker
 Filter to remove precipitate from mixture
 Wash precipitate with water to remove traces of potassium nitrate solution
 Leave in an oven to dry

Equation of reaction:

Lead (II) Nitrate + Potassium Sulfate → Lead (II)

Sulfate + Potassium Nitrate
Pb(NO3)2 (s) + K2SO4 (s) → PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (s)

Selecting a Method of Preparation

Selecting a method of preparation

 When deciding the method of preparation, it is important to first know whether the salt
being produced is soluble or insoluble
 If it is soluble then it can be prepared using either method (A or B) for preparing a
soluble salt
 If it is insoluble then it must be prepared by using precipitation

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

11.4 Identification of Ions & Gases

A. Identification of Cations

 Metal cations in aqueous solution can be identified by the colour of the precipitate they form on
addition of sodium hydroxide and ammonia
 If only a small amount of NaOH is used then normally the metal hydroxide precipitates
 In excess NaOH some of the precipitates may dissolve
 A few drops of NaOH is added at first and any colour changes or precipitates formed are noted
 Then the NaOH is added in excess and the reaction is observed again
 The steps are repeated for the test using ammonia solution

Analysing results

 The table below contains the results for each of the cations included in the syllabus
 If a precipitate is formed from either NaOH or aqueous ammonia then the hydroxide is insoluble
in water
 Zinc for example reacts as such:

ZnCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →Zn(OH)2 + 2NaCl (aq)

 Ca2+ ions can be distinguished from Zn2+ and Al3+ as calcium hydroxide precipitate does not
dissolve in excess NaOH but both zinc hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide do
 Zn2+ ions can be distinguished from Al3+ ions as ZnOH dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia but
Al(OH)3 does not
 Most transition metals produce hydroxides with distinctive colours

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

Tests for cations

 The flame test is used to identify the metal cations by the colour of the flame they produce
 A small sample of the compound is placed on an unreactive metal wire such as nichrome or
platinum
 The colour of the flame is observed and used to identify the metal

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

The colours formed in the flame test for metal ions

Results

Exam Tip

The ammonia or sodium hydroxide solution must be added very slowly. If it is

added too quickly and the precipitate is soluble in excess, then you run the risk of
missing the formation of the initial precipitate, which dissolves as quickly as it
forms if excess solution is added.

Be sure to distinguish between the term “colourless” and “clear”. A solution that
loses its colour has become colourless. A clear solution is one that you can see
through such as water. Solutions can be clear and have colour eg. dilute copper
sulphate.

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

B. Identification of Anions

Exam Tip

When it comes to qualitative inorganic analysis, always remember that there will be a test for the
metal cation part of the molecule and another test for the anion part.

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Chapter 11 Acids, bases and salts

C. Identification of Gases
 Several tests for anions and cations produce gases which then need to be tested
 The table below indicates the tests for the gases included in the syllabus

Exam Tip

It is easy to confuse the tests for hydrogen and oxygen. Try to remember that a ligHted splint has
a H for Hydrogen, while a glOwing splint has an O for Oxygen.

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