A High-Efficiency Hybrid Resonant Converter with Wide-Input Regulation for Photovoltaic

Applications

Abstract:

A hybrid pulsewidth modulated single-phase quasiZ-source grid-tie photovoltaic (PV) power

system is proposed. The hybrid pulsewidth modulation (HPWM) combines the PWM and the pulse-
amplitude modulation (PAM). The PWM works when the ac output voltage is lower than the dc
source voltage, otherwise the PAM operates the single-phase quasi-Z source inverter. The HPWM
leads to the reduction of power loss, and the quasi-Z source capacitance and inductance. An
effective control strategy is proposed for the new PV power system to manage the MPPT of PV
panel, grid-tie power injection, and dc-link voltage. A grid-tie current controller, combining a
repetitive controller and a proportional-resonant regulator, achieves strong harmonic suppression,
fast dynamic, and zero tracking error. A 500-W prototype is built to verify the new system A
microconverter serves as a front-end dcdc stage of a microinverter to convert the power from a
photovoltaic (PV) module to a dc-bus. These front-end microconverters require isolation, high-
boost ratio, wideinput voltage regulation, and high-efficiency. This paper introduces an isolated
resonant converter with hybrid modes of operation to achieve wide-input regulation while still
maintaining high-efficiency. The proposed converter is designed as a series resonant converter with
nominalinput voltage and operates under two additional modes: a boost converter with low-input
voltage and a buck converter with high-input voltage. Unlike conventional resonant converters, this
converter operates at discontinues conduction mode (DCM) with a fixed frequency, simplifying the
design and control. In addition, this converter can achieve zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and/or
zero-current switching (ZCS) of the primary-side MOSFETs, ZVS and/or ZCS of the secondary-
side MOSFETs and ZCS of output diodes under all operating conditions.

Block Diagram:

SOLAR RESONANT LOAD

PANEL CONVERTER
Existing system:

The existing system is able to regulate the converter voltage and power flow while either delivering
or taking power from the utility grid. The converter presented in this study contains a bidirectional
buck-boost converter and an LLC resonant converter in addition to a voltage source grid-tied
inverter which are interfacing the PV, the battery and the utility.

Proposed System:

A resonant microconverter with hybrid operation modes is proposed to achieve high-efficiency and
wide-input voltage regulation. This microconverter topology operates as a series resonant converter
at the nominal-input voltage where it reaches peak efficiency. Two operation modes combine to
allow the converter to operate on either side of this optimized point. Under low-input voltage, the
converter behaves as a boost converter. A new switching technology is proposed under this
condition to allow simple control, and reduced switching and gate charge loss. Under high-input
voltage, the converter acts like a buck converter. The switching frequency is fixed at the series
resonant frequency during the entire operating range.

LITERATURE SURVEY :

Full-Range Soft-Switching Isolated Buck-Boost Converters With Integrated Interleaved Boost

Converter and Phase-Shifted Control
A new method for deriving isolated Buck-Boost (IBB) converter with single-stage power
conversion is proposed in this paper, and novel IBB converters based on high-frequency bridgeless
interleaved Boost rectifiers are presented. The semiconductors, conduction losses and switching
losses are reduced significantly by integrating the interleaved Boost converters into the full-bridge
diode-rectifier. Various high-frequency bridgeless Boost rectifiers are harvested based on different
types of interleaved Boost converters, including conventional Boost converter and high step-up
Boost converters with voltage multiplier and coupled inductor. The full-bridge IBB converter with
voltage multiplier is analyzed in detail. The voltage multiplier helps to enhance the voltage gain and
reduce the voltage stresses of the semiconductors in the rectification circuit. Hence, a transformer
with reduced turns ratio and parasitic parameters, and low-voltage rated MOSFETs and diodes with
better switching and conduction performances can be applied to improve the efficiency. Moreover,
optimized phase-shift modulation strategy is applied to the full-bridge IBB converter to achieve
isolated Buck and Boost conversion. What’s more, soft-switching performance of all of the active
switches and diodes within the whole operating range is achieved. A 380V output prototype is
fabricated to verify the effectiveness of the proposed IBB converters and its control strategies.
Microinverter and string inverter grid-connected photovoltaic system — A comprehensive
study
This paper present a comparison between a string inverter based photovoltaic (PV) energy system
and a microinverter based system. Reliability, environmental factors, inverter failure, and electrical
safety of a test case 6kW residential PV system are thoroughly evaluated and compared using the
two different approaches. The impact of all these features on the cost of the PV system is estimated.
The results showed that when the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is considered the break-even
cost can be reached by the microinverter more quickly than with a string inverter operating in the
same environment Moreover, considering the replacement costs associated with the expected string
inverter failure, the microinverter configuration is the more cost effective.
Leakage current evaluation of a single-phase transformerless PV inverter connected to the
grid
For low-power grid connected applications a single phase converter can be used. In PV applications
it is possible to remove the transformer in the inverter in order to reduce losses, costs and size.
Galvanic connection of the grid and the DC sources in transformerless systems can introduce
additional leakage currents due to the earth parasitic capacitance. This currents increase conducted
and radiated electromagnetic emissions, harmonics injected in the utility grid and losses. Amplitude
and spectrum of leakage current depends on the converter topology, on the switching strategy and
on the resonant circuit formed by the ground capacitance, the converter, the AC filter and the grid.
In this paper, the leakage current in a 1.5 kW PV installation is measured under different conditions
and used to build simulation model. The installation includes a string of sixteen PV panel, a full
bridge inverter and a LCL filter. This model allows studying the influence of the harmonics injected
by the inverter on the leakage current.
Topologies of Single-Phase Inverters for Small Distributed Power Generators: An Overview
This paper presents an overview of single-phase inverters developed for small distributed power
generators. The functions of inverters in distributed power generation (DG) systems include dc-ac
conversion, output power quality assurance, various protection mechanisms, and system controls.
Unique requirements for small distributed power generation systems include low cost, high
efficiency and tolerance for an extremely wide range of input voltage variations. These
requirements have driven the inverter development toward simpler topologies and structures, lower
component counts, and tighter modular design. Both single-stage and multiple-stage inverters have
been developed for power conversion in DG systems. Single-stage inverters offer simple structure
and low cost, but suffer from a limited range of input voltage variations and are often characterized
by compromised system performance. On the other hand, multiple-stage inverters accept a wide
range of input voltage variations, but suffer from high cost, complicated structure and low
efficiency. Various circuit topologies are presented, compared, and evaluated against the
requirements of power decoupling and dual-grounding, the capabilities for grid-connected or/and
stand-alone operations, and specific DG applications in this paper, along with the identification of
recent development trends of single-phase inverters for distributed power generators.
Fuel Cell Generation System With a New Active Clamping Current-Fed Half-Bridge
Converter
In this paper, a new active clamping current-fed half-bridge converter is proposed, which is suitable
for fuel cell power generation systems. The proposed converter is superior to conventional dc-dc
converters in terms of efficiency and component utilization. The overall efficiency is estimated to
be 94% at full load.

CAPACITOR:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms
of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking
direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output
of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between
large areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early
means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

HISTORY:
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania in Germany found that charge could
be stored by connecting a high voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a
hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors and the jar as a dielectric
(although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found, after
removing the generator that touching the wire resulted in a painful spark. In a letter describing the
experiment, he said "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France. The following
year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named
the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked. Daniel Gralath was the first to
combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge storage capacity. Benjamin
Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and "proved" that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the
water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery",(denoting the increasing of power
with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon), subsequently applied to clusters of
electrochemical cells.Leyden jars were later made by coating the inside and outside of jars with
metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils. The earliest unit of
capacitance was the 'jar', equivalent to about 1 nanofarad.
Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil
conductors were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio)
created a demand for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required
capacitors with lower inductance. A more compact construction began to be used of a flexible
dielectric sheet such as oiled paper sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a
small package. Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally
used today. The term was first used for this purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to
the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.
Theory of operation:
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region called the
dielectric medium though it may be a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically
identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net
electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and
opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a
capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of
one volt across the device .The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within
electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as
the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them.
 Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage:
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field
and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position.
The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by

Capacitor types:
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal
dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics
of the capacitor, and its applications. Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while
arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limiting factor) to about 5 kF super capacitors. Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic
capacitors are usually used because of their small size and low cost compared with other
technologies, unless their relatively poor stability, life and polarized nature make them unsuitable.
Very high capacity super capacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material.
Dielectric materials:
Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These
dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a vacuum
between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable
capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits.
Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no
significant air space between them.
In order to maximize the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to
have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as possible.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic materials.
Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance.
However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film
capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in timer
circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic
capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their
capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized as class
1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics,
which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and
tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications.
Electrolytic capacitors and super capacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy,
respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in
circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by
the configuration of the circuit layout.
Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The
second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic
capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss
of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors
may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte
drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for
power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many
applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and
when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually
blowing a fuse or causing arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be restored before use (and damage) by
gradually applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a
period of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. Unfortunately, the use of
this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by
operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the
consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies
as these produce full output voltage even with reduced input.
Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum,
but higher dielectric absorption and leakage. OS-CON (or OC-CON) capacitors are a polymerized
organic semiconductor solid-electrolyte type that offers longer life at higher cost than standard
electrolytic capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications.
Super capacitors store large amounts of energy. Super capacitors made from carbon
aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials offer extremely high capacitance
(up to 5 kF as of 2010) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.
Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power
circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large
currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal
cases that can be easily grounded /earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown.
Applications:
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a rare
electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
Energy storage:
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can
be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain
power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile
memory.) Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy density,
while capacitors using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52 kilojoules per
kilogram. In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand.
Also for a flash tube a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage.
Power factor correction:
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such
capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of
these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive
(VAr). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and
transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads
may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic
switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.
Decoupling:
 A decoupling capacitor is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of
another, for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is
shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most
commonly used between the power supply and ground. An alternative name is bypass capacitor as it
is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.
Noise filters and snubber:
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly,
creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large
enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or
sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly
opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their
life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in
smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate
undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors
are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI.
Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. Capacitors are also used in
parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage circuit breaker in order to equally distribute the voltage
between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors. In schematic diagrams, a
capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the
lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the
device, if it is polarized (see electrolytic capacitor).
Hazards and safety:
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can
cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example,
even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt
AA battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of
delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to
discharge large or high-voltage capacitors. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to
dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage
capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages
due to dielectric absorption. Some old, large oil-filled capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors
containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel"
and several other trade names. PCB-filled capacitors are found in very old (pre 1975) fluorescent
lamp ballasts, and other applications. High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when
subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life.
Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid,
resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-
current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used
within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes
sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum
capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and
preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards. High-voltage capacitors can benefit
from a pre-charge to limit in-rush currents at power-up of high voltage direct current (HVDC)
circuits. This will extend the life of the component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
FOD 3120 DRIVER IC:

Features:

 High noise immunities characterized by 35 Kv/us minimum common mode

rejection.
 2.5A peak output current driving capabilities for most 1200V/20A IGBT
 USE OF p-CHANNEL MOSFET’s output stage enables output voltage swing
close to the supply rail.
 Wide supply voltage range from 15v to 30v
 FAST switching speed
400ns max.propogation delay
100ns max.pulse width disortion
 Under voltage Lockout(ULVO) with hysteresis
 Extended industrial temp ramge -40c to 100c temp range
 Safety and regulatory approved.
 1414 peak working insulation voltage.

Description:

The FOD3120 is a 2.5A output current gate drive opto coupler, capable of driving most
1200v/20A IGBT/MOSFET. It is ideally suited for fast switching driving of power IGBT and
MOSFETs used in motor control inverter applications, and high performance power system.

It consists of a gallium aluminum arsenide (Alga As) light emitting diode optically coupled to
an integrated circuit with a high-speed driver for Push pull MOSFET output stage.
Applications:

 Industrial inverter.
 Uninterruptable power supply.
 Induction heating.
 Isolated IGBT/MOSFET gate drive.

The word ‘inverter’ in the context of power-electronics denotes a class of power conversion
(or power conditioning) circuits that operates from a dc voltage source or a dc current source and
converts it into ac voltage or current. The ‘inverter’ does reverse of what ac-to-dc ‘converter’ does
(refer to ac to dc converters). Even though input to an inverter circuit is a dc source, it is not
uncommon to have this dc derived from an ac source such as utility ac supply. Thus, for example,
the primary source of input power may be utility ac voltage supply that is ‘converted’ to dc by an ac
to dc converter and then ‘inverted’ back to ac using an inverter. Here, the final ac output may be of
a different frequency and magnitude than the input ac of the utility
 The simplest dc voltage source for a VSI may be a battery bank, which may consist of
several cells in series-parallel combination. Solar photovoltaic cells can be another dc voltage
source. An ac voltage supply, after rectification into dc will also qualify as a dc voltage source. A
voltage source is called stiff, if the source voltage magnitude does not depend on load connected to
it. All voltage source inverters assume stiff voltage supply at the input.
Some examples where voltage source inverters are used are: uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) units, adjustable speed drives (ASD) for ac motors, electronic frequency changer circuits etc.
Most of us are also familiar with commercially available inverter units used in homes and offices to
power some essential ac loads in case the utility ac supply gets interrupted. In such inverter units,
battery supply is used as the input dc voltage source and the inverter circuit converts the dc into ac
voltage of desired frequency. The achievable magnitude of ac voltage is limited by the magnitude of
input (dc bus) voltage. In ordinary household inverters the battery voltage may be just 12 volts and
the inverter circuit may be capable of supplying ac voltage of around 10 volts (rms) only. In such
cases the inverter output voltage is stepped up using a transformer to meet the load requirement of,
say, 230 volts.

How to Get AC Output From DC Input Supply?

Figs. 33.1(a) and 33.1(b) show two schematic circuits, using transistor-switches, for
generation of ac voltage from dc input supply. In both the circuits, the transistors work in common
emitter configuration and are interconnected in push-pull manner. In order to have a single control
signal for the transistor switches, one transistor is of n-p-n type and the other of p-n-p type and their
emitters and bases are shorted as shown in the figures. Both circuits require a symmetrical bipolar
dc supply. Collector of n-p-n transistor is connected to positive dc supply (+E) and that of p-n-p
transistor is connected to negative dc supply of same magnitude (-E). Load, which has been
assumed resistive, is connected between the emitter shorting point and the power supply ground.

The transistors work in active (amplifier) mode and a sinusoidal control voltage of desired
frequency is applied between the base and emitter points. When applied base signal is positive, the
p-n-p transistor is reverse biased and the n-p-n transistor conducts the load current. Similarly for
negative base voltage the p-n-p transistor conducts while n-p-n transistor remains reverse biased. A
suitable resistor in series with the base signal will limit the base current and keep it sinusoidal
provided the applied (sinusoidal) base signal magnitude is much higher than the base to emitter
conduction-voltage drop. Under the assumption of constant gain (h ) of the transistor over its
fe
working range, the load current can be seen to follow the applied base signal. A typical load voltage
(in blue color) and base signal (green color) waveforms. This particular figure also shows the switch
power loss for n-p-n transistor (in brown color). The other transistor will also be dissipating
identical power during its conduction. The quantities are in per unit magnitudes where the base
values are input supply voltage (E) and the load resistance (R). Accordingly the base magnitudes of
2
current and power are E/R and E /R respectively. As can be seen, the power loss in switches is a
considerable portion of circuit’s input power and hence such circuits are unacceptable for large
output power applications.
The conducting switch remains fully on having negligible on-state voltage drop and the non-
conducting switch remains fully off allowing no leakage current through it. The load voltage
waveform output by switched-mode circuit is rectangular with magnitude +E when the n-p-n
transistor is on and –E when p-n-p transistor is on. shows one such waveform (in ink color). The on
and off durations of the two transistors are controlled so that (i) the resulting rectangular waveform
has no dc component (ii) has a fundamental (sinusoidal) component of desired frequency and
magnitude and (iii) the frequencies of unwanted harmonic voltages are much higher than that of the
fundamental component. The fundamental sine wave, shown in blue color, is identical to the
sinusoidal output voltage.
Both amplifier mode and switched mode circuits are capable of producing ac voltages of
controllable magnitude and frequency, however, the amplifier circuit is not acceptable in power-
electronic applications due to high switch power loss. On the other hand, the switched mode circuit
generates significant amount of unwanted harmonic voltages along with the desired fundamental
frequency voltage. As will be shown in some later lessons, the frequency spectrum of these
unwanted harmonics can be shifted towards high frequency by adopting proper switching pattern.
These high frequency voltage harmonics can easily be blocked using small size filter and the
resulting quality of load voltage can be made acceptable.
General Structure of Voltage Source Inverters:
These topologies require only a single dc source and for medium output power applications the
preferred devices are n-channel IGBTs. ‘Edc’ is the input dc supply and a large dc link capacitor

(Cdc) is put across the supply terminals. Capacitors and switches are connected to dc bus using

short leads to minimize the stray inductance between the capacitor and the inverter switches.
Needless to say that physical layout of positive and negative bus lines is also important to limit
stray inductances. Q1, Q2, Q3 etc. are fast and controllable switches. D 1, D2, D3 etc. are fast

recovery diodes connected in anti-parallel with the switches. ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ are output terminals
of the inverter that get connected to the ac load. A three-phase inverter has three load-phase
terminals whereas a single-phase inverter has only one pair of load terminals.
The current supplied by the dc bus to the inverter switches is referred as dc link current and has
been shown as ‘idc’ in Figs 33.4(a) and 33.4(b). The magnitude of dc link current often changes in

step (and sometimes its direction also changes) as the inverter switches are turned on and off. The
step change in instantaneous dc link current occurs even if the ac load at the inverter output is
drawing steady power. However, average magnitude of the dc link current remains positive if net
power-flow is from dc bus to ac load. The net power-flow direction reverses if the ac load
connected to the inverter is regenerating. Under regeneration, the mean magnitude of dc link current
is negative. [The dc link current may conceptually be decomposed into its dc and ac components.
The individual roles of the ‘dc voltage source’ and the ‘dc link capacitor’ may be clearly seen with
respect to the dc and ac components of the dc link current. For the dc component of current the
capacitor acts like open circuit. As expected, under steady state, the capacitor does not supply any
dc current. The dc part of bus current is supplied solely by the dc source. A practical dc voltage
source may have some resistance as well as some inductance in series with its internal emf. For dc
component of bus current, the source voltage appears in series with its internal resistance (effect of
source inductance is not felt). But for ac component of current, the internal dc emf of source
appears as short and its series impedance (resistance in series with inductance) appears in parallel
with the dc-link capacitor. Thus the ac component of current gets divided into these two parallel
paths. However, the high frequency component of ac current mainly flows through the capacitor, as
the capacitive impedance is lower at high frequencies. The step change in dc link current is
associated with significant amount of high frequency components of current that essentially finds its
path through the capacitor.]

For an ideal input (dc) supply, with no series impedance, the dc link capacitor does not have
any role. However a practical voltage supply may have considerable amount of output impedance.
The supply line impedance, if not bypassed by a sufficiently large dc link capacitor, may cause
considerable voltage spike at the dc bus during inverter operation. This may result in deterioration
of output voltage quality, it may also cause malfunction of the inverter switches as the bus voltage
appears across the non-conducting switches of the inverter. Also, in the absence of dc link
capacitor, the series inductance of the supply line will prevent quick build up or fall of current
through it and the circuit behaves differently from the ideal VSI where the dc voltage supply is
supposed to allow rise and fall in current as per the demand of the inverter circuit.

The dc link capacitor should be put very close to the switches so that it provides a low
impedance path to the high frequency component of the switch currents. The capacitor itself must
be of good quality with very low equivalent series resistor (ESR) and equivalent series inductor
(ESL). The length of leads that interconnect switches and diodes to the dc bus must also be
minimum to avoid insertion of significant amount of stray inductances in the circuit. The overall
layout of the power circuit has a significant effect over the performance of the inverter circuit.

Single-Phase Voltage Source Inverters:

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies.
Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in power supplies, single-
phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static power topologies, such as for
instance, the multi cell configurations.
Half-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, consists of two large capacitors are required to provide a
neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage (Vi)/2. Because the current
harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large
capacitors (C+ and C-) is required. It is clear that both switches S+ and S- cannot be ON
simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced.
There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as In order to avoid
the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating
technique should always ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter
leg is on.

Single-phase half-bridge VSI

Full-Bridge VSI:
This inverter is similar to the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point
to the load. As expected, both switches S1+ and S1- (or S2+ and S2-) cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced. There are four
defined (states 1, 2, 3, and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states. The undefined condition
should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the ac output voltage. It can be observed
that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value Vi, which is twice that obtained
with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed that are
applicable to full-bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.
Three Phase Voltage Source Inverters:
Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover the
medium- to high-power applications. The main purpose of these topologies is to provide a three-
phase voltage source, where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages should always be
controllable. Although most of the applications require sinusoidal voltage waveforms (e.g., ASDs,
UPSs, FACTS, VAR compensators), arbitrary voltages are also required in some emerging
applications (e.g., active filters, voltage compensators).
The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown and the eight valid switch states. As in
single-phase VSIs, the switches of any leg of the inverter (S1 and S4, S3 and S6, or S5 and S2)
cannot be switched on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc link
voltage supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus undefined ac
output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously
as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the respective line current polarity. Of the eight
valid states, two of them produce zero ac line voltages. In this case, the ac line currents freewheel
through either the upper or lower components. The remaining states produce non-zero ac output
voltages. In order to generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one state to
another. Thus the resulting ac output line voltages consist of discrete values of voltages that are Vi,
0, and -Vi for the topology. The selection of the states in order to generate the given waveform is
done by the modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid states.
Need For Isolated Gate-Control Signals for the Switches:
 As already mentioned the switches in bridge configurations of inverters need to be provided
with isolated gate (or base) drive signals. The individual control signal for the switches needs to be
provided across the gate (base) and source (or emitter) terminals of the particular switch. The gate
control signals are low voltage signals referred to the source (emitter) terminal of the switch. For n-
channel IGBT and MOSFET switches, when gate to source voltage is more than threshold voltage
for turn-on, the switch turns on and when it is less than threshold voltage the switch turns off. The
threshold voltage is generally of the order of +5 volts but for quicker switching the turn-on gate
voltage magnitude is kept around +15 volts
where as turn-off gate voltage is zero or little negative (around –5 volts). It is to be
remembered that the two switches of an inverter-leg are controlled in a complementary manner.
When the upper switch of any leg is ‘on’, the corresponding lower switch remains ‘off’ and vice-
versa. When a switch is ‘on’ its emitter and collector terminals are virtually shorted. Thus with
upper switch ‘on’, the emitter of the upper switch is at positive dc bus potential. Similarly with
lower switch ‘on’, the emitter of upper switch of that leg is virtually at the negative dc bus potential.
Emitters of all the lower switches are solidly connected to the negative line of the dc bus. Since gate
control signals are applied with respect to the emitter terminals of the switches, the gate voltages of
all the upper switches must be floating with respect to the dc bus line potentials. This calls for
isolation between the gate control signals of upper switches and between upper and lower switches.
Only the emitters of lower switches of all the legs are at the same potential (since all of them are
solidly connected to the negative dc bus) and hence the gate control signals of lower switches need
not be isolated among themselves. As should be clear from the above discussion, the isolation
provided between upper and lower switches must withstand a peak voltage stress equal to dc bus
voltage. Gate-signal isolation for inverter switches is generally achieved by means of optical-
isolator (opto-isolator) circuits. Fig.33.5 shows a typical opto-isolator circuit. The circuit makes use
of a commercially available opto-coupler IC, shown within dotted lines in the figure. Input stage of
the IC is a light emitting diode (LED) that emits light when forward biased. The light output of the
LED falls on reverse biased junction of an optical diode. The LED and the photo-diode are suitably
positioned inside the opto-coupler chip to ensure that the light emitted by the LED falls on the
photo-diode junction. The gate control pulses for the switch are applied to the input LED through a
current limiting resistor of appropriate magnitude. These gate pulses, generated by the gate logic
circuit, are essentially in the digital form. A high level of the gate signal may be taken as ‘on’
command and a low level (at ground level) may be taken as ‘off’ command. Under this assumption,
the cathode of the LED is connected to the ground point of the gate-logic card and anode is fed with
the logic card output. The circuit on the output (photo-diode) side is connected to a floating dc
power supply, as shown in Fig. 33.5. The control (logic card) supply ground is isolated from the
floating-supply ground of the output. In the figure the two grounds have been shown by two
different symbols. The schematic connection shown in the figure indicates that the photo-diode is
reverse biased. A resistor in series with the diode indicates the magnitude of the reverse leakage
current of the diode. When input signal to LED is high, LED conducts and the emitted light falls on
the reverse biased p-n junction. Irradiation of light causes generation of significant number of
electron-hole pairs in the depletion region of the reverse biased diode. As a result magnitude of
reverse leakage current of the diode increases appreciably. The resistor connected in series with the
photo-diode now has higher voltage drop due to the increased leakage current. A signal comparator
circuit senses this condition and outputs a high level signal, which is amplified before being output.
Thus an isolated and amplified gate signal is obtained and may directly be connected to the gate
terminal of the switch (often a small series resistor, as suggested by the switch manufacturer, is put
between the output signal and the gate terminal of the switch).
 Three-phase VSI topology

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a control within the
inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing this is by pulse-width modulation control used
within an inverter.
In this method, a fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverter and a controlled ac output
voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components. This is the most
popular method of controlling the output voltage and this method is termed as Pulse-Width
Modulation (PWM) Control.
The advantages possessed by PWM techniques are as under:
(i) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any additional
components.
(ii) With the method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimized along with its
output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering
requirements are minimized.
The main disadvantage of this method is that SCRs are expensive as they must possess low turn-on
and turn-off times.
PWM inverters are quite popular in industrial applications. PWM techniques are characterized by
constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses is however modulated to obtain inverter output
voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content. The different PWM techniques are as under:
(a) Single-pulse modulation

(b) Multiple pulse modulations

(c) Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (Carrier based Pulse Width Modulation Technique)
Here we studied about Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation for permanent magnet synchronous
motor drive.

Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation:

The switches in the voltage source inverter can be turned on and off as required. In the
simplest approach, the top switch is turned on and off only once in each cycle, a square wave
waveform results. However, if turned on several times in a cycle an improved harmonic profile may
be achieved. In the most straightforward implementation, generation of the desired output voltage is
achieved by comparing the desired reference waveform (modulating signal) with a high-frequency
triangular ‘carrier’ wave as depicted schematically in Fig. Depending on whether the signal voltage
is larger or smaller than the carrier waveform, either the positive or negative dc bus voltage is
applied at the output. Note that over the period of one triangle wave, the average voltage applied to
the load is proportional to the amplitude of the signal (assumed constant) during this period. The
resulting chopped square waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in its low frequency
components, with the higher frequency components being at frequencies of a close to the carrier
frequency. Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage waveform is still equal to the dc
bus voltage, and hence the total harmonic distortion is not affected by the PWM process. The
harmonic components are merely shifted into the higher frequency range and are automatically
filtered due to inductances in the ac system. When the modulating signal is a sinusoid of amplitude
Am, and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Ac, the ratio m=Am/Ac is known as the
modulation index. Note that controlling the modulation index therefore controls the amplitude of
the applied output voltage. With a sufficiently high carrier frequency (see Fig: drawn for fc/fm = 21
and t = L/R = T/3; T = period of fundamental), the high frequency components do not propagate
significantly in the ac network (or load). However, a higher carrier frequency does result in a larger
number of switching’s per cycle and hence in an increased power loss. Typically switching
Frequencies in the 2-15 kHz range are considered adequate for power systems applications. Also in
three-phase systems it is advisable to use so that all three waveforms are Symmetric.
For, there are periods of the triangle wave in which there is no intersection of the carrier and the
signal. However, a certain amount of this “overmodulation” is often allowed in the interest of
obtaining a larger ac voltage magnitude even though the spectral content of the voltage is rendered
somewhat poorer. Note that with an odd ratio for fc/fm, the waveform is anti-symmetric over a 360
degree cycle. With an even number, there are harmonics of even order, but in particular also a small
dc component. Hence an even number is not recommended for single phase inverters, particularly
for small ratio of fc/fm.

SPWM Spectra:
Although the SPWM waveform has harmonics of several orders in the phase voltage waveform,
The dominant ones other than the fundamental are of order n and n±2 where n = fc/fm. This is
evident for the spectrum for n=15 and m = 0.8 shown in Fig.5. Note that if the other two phases are
identically generated but 120o apart in phase, the line-line voltage will not have any triplen
harmonics. Hence it is advisable to choose, as then the dominant harmonic will be eliminated. It is
evident from Fig 5b, that the dominant 15th harmonic in Fig. 5a is effectively eliminated in the line
voltage. Choosing a multiple of 3 is also convenient as then the same triangular Waveform can be
used as the carrier in all three phases, leading to some simplification in hardware. It is readily seen
that as the where E is the dc bus voltage, that the rms value of the output voltage signal is
unaffected by the PWM process. This is strictly true for the phase voltage as triplen harmonic
orders are cancelled in the line voltage. However, the problematic harmonics are shifted to higher
orders, thereby making filtering much easier. Often, the filtering is carried out via the natural high-
impedance characteristic of the load.
PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION:

In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s (t) are used to effect the
amplitudes of a corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling
rate. No quantization of the samples normally occurs. In principle the pulses may occupy the entire
time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty cycle, is
limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of
interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a
process known as time-division multiplexing (TDM).
PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION:

In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes
but vary in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be
changed relative to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center. To allow for time-
division multiplexing, the maximum pulse duration may be limited to a fraction of the time between
samples

PULSE-POSITION MODULATION
PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant
duration relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the pulses
is typically a fraction of the sampling interval. In addition, the maximum time excursion of the
pulses may be limited.

PULSE-CODE MODULATION:
Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulse of
two distinct amplitudes. In these so-called binary digital systems, the analog-to-digital conversion
process is extended by the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse
representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses
with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code
modulation. Figure 2a shows the example of three successive quantized samples of an analog signal
s(t), in which sampling occurs every T seconds and the pulse representing the sample is limited to
T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number of quantization levels is limited to 8, each level can be
represented by a unique sequence of three two-valued pulses.

WHY PULSE WIDTH MODULATION?

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its
duty cycle, to either convey information over a communications channel or control the amount of
power sent to a load.

ADVANTAGES OF PWM
1. Using pulse width modulation has several advantages over analog control.
2. The entire control circuit can be digital, eliminating the need for digital-to-analog
converters.
3. Using digital control lines will reduce the susceptibility of your circuit to
interference.
4. Finally, motors may be able to operate at lower speeds if you control them with
PWM.
5. When you use an analog current to control a motor, it will not produce significant
torque at low speeds.
6. The output voltage control can be obtained
PLUSE WIDTH MODULATION:
There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information. When a high
frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower frequency signal we have AM
(amplitude modulation). When the signal frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal
we have FM (frequency modulation. These signals are used for radio modulation because the high
frequency carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by
pulses was introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible modulation
options. In many power electronic converters where the output voltage can be one of two values the
only option is modulation of average conduction time.
 The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the pulses varies
proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of linear processing for this application
lies in the ease of de-modulation. The modulating signal can be recovered from the PWM by low
pass filtering. For a single low frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width of a
fixed frequency (fs) pulse train the spectra. Clearly a low pass filter can extract the modulating
component fm.
SAW TOOTH PWM
The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by comparison with a
linear slope waveform such as a saw tooth. The output signal goes high when the sine wave is
higher than the saw tooth. This is implemented using a comparator whose output voltage goes to
logic HIGH when ne input is greater than the other. Other signals with straight edges can be used
for modulation a rising ramp carrier will generate
REGULAR SAMPLED PWM:
The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of crossing of the sine
wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement using analog electronics but suffers the
imprecision and drifts of all analog computation as well as having difficulties of generating multiple
edges when the signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are now implemented
digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise intercept of the modulating wave and the
carrier. Regular sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse proportional to the value of the
modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier period. The intercept of the sample values with the
triangle determine the edges of the Pulses. For a saw tooth wave of frequency fs the samples are at
2fs.

MODULATION DEPTH:
For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine-saw tooth comparison, if we compare a sine
wave of magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle from -1 to +1 the linear relation between the input
signal and the average output signal will be lost. Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the triangle
the pulses will be of maximum width and the modulation will then saturate. The Modulation depth
is the ratio of the current signal to the case when saturation is just starting. Thus sine wave of peak
1.2 compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth.

SINGLE PHASE PWM INVERTERS:

 In many industrial applications, it’s often required to control the output voltage of inverters
for the following reasons

• To cope with the variations of DC input voltage

• For voltage regulation of inverters

• For the constant volts/frequency control requirement

There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain. The most efficient method of
controlling the gain (and output voltage) is to incorporate pulse width modulation (PWM) control
within the inverters. The commonly used techniques are

1. Single Pulse width Modulation

2. Multiple Pulse width Modulation
3. Sinusoidal Pulse width Modulation
4. Trapezoidal Pulse width Modulation
5. Stair case Pulse width Modulation.

In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential. The PWM techniques listed above differ
from each other in the harmonic content in their respective output voltages. Thus, choice of a
particular PWM technique depends upon the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output
voltage. Industrial applications PWM inverter is supplied from a diode bridge rectifier and an LC
filter. The inverter topology remains the same for a single phase inverter and for a three phase
inverter. But now the devices are now switched ON and OFF several times within each half cycle to
control the output voltage which has low harmonic content
SINGLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
In this control, there’s only one pulse per half cycle and the width of the pulse is varied to
control the inverter output. The gating signals are generated by comparing a rectangular reference
signal of the amplitude Ar with triangular carrier wave of amplitude Ac, the frequency of the carrier
wave determines the fundamental frequency of output voltage. By varying Ar from 0 to Ac, the
pulse width can be varied from 0 to 100 percent. The ratio of Ar to Ac is the control variable and
defined as the modulation index.

MULTIPLE PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle of output
voltage. The gating signals are generated for turning ON and OFF transistors by comparing a
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The frequency Fc, determines the number of pulses
per half cycle. The modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is also
known as uniform pulse width modulation (UPWM).
SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:
The switches in the voltage source inverter can be turned on and off as required. In the
simplest approach, the top switch is turned on If turned on and off only once in each cycle, a square
wave waveform results. However, if turned on several times in a cycle an improved harmonic
profile may be achieved. In the most straightforward implementation, generation of the desired
output voltage is achieved by comparing the desired reference waveform (modulating signal) with a
high-frequency triangular ‘carrier’ wave as depicted schematically in Fig. Depending on whether
the signal voltage is larger or smaller than the carrier waveform, either the positive or negative dc
bus voltage is applied at the output. Note that over the period of one triangle wave, the average
voltage applied to the load is proportional to the amplitude of the signal (assumed constant) during
this period. The resulting chopped square waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in
its low frequency components, with the higher frequency components being at frequencies of an
close to the carrier frequency. Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage waveform is
still equal to the dc bus voltage, and hence the total harmonic distortion is not affected by the PWM
process. The harmonic components are merely shifted into the higher frequency range and are
automatically filtered due to inductances in the ac system. When the modulating signal is a sinusoid
of amplitude Am, and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Ac, the ratio m=Am/Ac is known as
the modulation index. Note that controlling the modulation index therefor controls the amplitude of
the applied output voltage. With a sufficiently high carrier frequency (see Fig: drawn for fc/fm = 21
and t = L/R = T/3; T = period of fundamental), the high frequency components do not propagate
significantly in the ac network (or load). Due the presence of the inductive elements. However, a
higher carrier frequency does result in a larger number of switching’s per cycle and hence in an
increased power loss. Typically switching Frequencies in the 2-15 kHz range are considered
adequate for power systems applications. Also in three-phase systems it is advisable to use so that
all three waveforms are Symmetric.
For, there are periods of the triangle wave in which there is no intersection of the carrier and the
signal as in Fig. 4. However, a certain amount of this “overmodulation” is often allowed in the
interest of obtaining a larger ac voltage magnitude even though the spectral content of the voltage is
rendered somewhat poorer. Note that with an odd ratio for fc/fm, the waveform is anti-symmetric
over a 360 degree cycle. With an even number, there are harmonics of even order, but in particular
also a small dc component. Hence an even number is not recommended for single phase inverters,
particularly for small
Ratio of fc/fm.
PWM STRATEGIES WITH DIFFERING PHASE RELATIONSHIPS:
This section of the chapter extends the principles of carrier-based PWM that are used for
multilevel inverter. One of the most straightforward methods of describing voltage-source
modulation is to illustrate the intersection of a modulating signal (duty cycle) with triangle
waveforms. There are three alternative PWM strategies with differing phase relationships:
• Alternate phase disposition (APOD) – every carrier waveform is in out of phase with its
neighbor carrier by 180.
• Phase opposition disposition (POD) – All carrier waveforms above zero reference are in phase
and are 180 degree out of phase with those below zero.
• Phase disposition (PD) - All carrier waveforms are in phase.

ALTERNATE PHASE DISPOSITION (APOD):

In case of alternate phase disposition (APOD) modulation, every carrier waveform is in out
of phase with its neighbor carrier by 180 degree. Since APOD and POD schemes in case of three
level inverter are the same, a five level inverter is considered to discuss about the APOD scheme.
The rules for APOD method, when the number of level N = 5, are
• The N – 1 = 4 carrier waveforms are arranged so that every carrier waveform is in out of phase
with its neighbor carrier by 180
• The converter switches to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than the entire carrier
waveforms.
• The converter switches to Vdc / 4 when the reference is less than the uppermost carrier waveform
and greater than all other carriers.
• The converter switches to 0 when the reference is less than the two uppermost carrier waveform
and greater than two lowermost carriers.
• The converter switches to - Vdc / 4 when the reference is greater than the lowermost carrier
waveform and lesser than all other carriers.
PHASE OPPOSITION DISPOSITION (POD):

For phase opposition disposition (POD) modulation all carrier waveforms above zero
reference are in phase and are 1800 out of phase with those below zero. The rules for the phase
opposition disposition method, when the number of level N = 3 are
• The N –1 = 2 carrier waveforms are arranged so that all carrier waveforms above zero are in
phase and are 1800 out of phase with those below zero.
• The converter is switched to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than both carrier waveforms.

• The converter is switched to zero when the reference is greater than the lower carrier waveform
but less than the upper carrier waveform.

• The converter is switched to - Vdc / 2 when the reference is less than both carrier waveforms.

In the PWM scheme there are two triangles, upper triangle magnitude from 1 to 0 and the
lower triangle from 0 to –1 and these two triangle waveforms are in out of phase. When the
modulation signal is greater than both the carrier waveforms, S1ap and S2ap are turned on and the
converter switches to positive node voltage and when the reference is less than the upper carrier
waveform but greater than the lower carrier, S2ap and S1an are turned on and the converter
switches to neutral point. When the reference is lower than both carrier waveforms, S1an and S2an
are turned on and the converter switches to negative node voltage.
PHASE DISPOSITION (PD):
In the present work, in the carrier-based implementation the phase disposition PWM scheme
is used. Figure demonstrates the sine-triangle method for a three-level inverter. Therein, the a-phase
modulation signal is compared with two (n-1 in general) triangle waveforms. The rules for the
phase disposition method, when the number of level N = 3, are
• The N –1 = 2 carrier waveforms are arranged so that every carrier is in phase.

• The converter is switched to + Vdc / 2 when the reference is greater than both carrier

waveforms.

• The converter is switched to zero when the reference is greater than the lower carrier
waveform but less than the upper carrier waveform.

• The converter is switched to - Vdc / 2 when the reference is less than both carrier
waveforms.
 In the carrier-based implementation at every instant of time the modulation signals are
compared with the carrier and depending on which is greater, the definition of the switching pulses
is generated. As seen from Figure, the figure illustrates the switching pattern produced by the
carrier-based PWM scheme. In the PWM scheme there are two triangles, the upper triangle ranges
from 1 to 0 and the lower triangle ranges from 0 to –1. In the similar way for an N –level inverter,
the (N-1) triangles are used and each has a peak-to-peak value of 2/(N-1). Hence the upper most
triangle magnitude varies from 1 to (1-2/(N-1)), second carrier waveform from (1-4/(N-1)), and the
bottom most triangle varies from (2-2/(N-1)) to –1.

The switching pattern of each device can be seen. It is clear from the figure that during the
positive cycle of the modulation signal, when the modulation is greater than Triangle 1 and Triangle
2, then S1ap and S2ap are turned on and also during the positive cycle S2ap is completely turned
on. When S1ap and S2ap are turned on the converter switches to the + Vdc / 2 and when S1an and
S2ap are on, the converter switches to zero and hence during the positive cycle S2ap is completely
turned on and S1ap and S1an will be turning on and of and hence the converter switches from +
Vdc / 2 to 0. During the negative half cycle of the modulation signal the converter switches from 0
to -Vdc / 2. The phase voltage equations for star-connected, balanced three-phase loads expressed in
terms of the existence functions and input nodal voltage.

Rectifier:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses
direction, to direct current (DC), which is in only one direction, a process known as rectification.
Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio
signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and
other components.

A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an

inverter. When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive portion of
the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one of usage,
i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers
comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC
than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers,
vacuum tube diodes and copper oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used. Early radio receivers,
called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide)
to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector". Rectification may occasionally serve in
roles other than to generate direct current per se. For example, in gas heating systems flame
rectification is used to detect presence of flame. Two metal electrodes in the outer layer of the flame
provide a current path, and rectification of an applied alternating voltage will happen in the plasma,
but only while the flame is present to generate it.

Half-wave rectification

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is
very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single
diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supplyIn half wave rectification,
either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked.
Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for
power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply,
or with three diodes in a three-phase supply

Full-wave rectification

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center
tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification.
Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.
 Single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (i.e.
anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many windings are
required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage compared to the bridge
rectifier above.

Applications:

The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually all
electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers find uses inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more
complicated. One method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a device
called an inverter), then use a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies power back to
DC. Rectifiers also find a use in detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The signal may be
amplified before detection, but if un-amplified, a very low voltage drop diode must be used. When
using a rectifier for demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched. Too
low a capacitance will result in the high frequency carrier passing to the output and too high will
result in the capacitor just charging and staying charged.

Rectifiers are also used to supply polarised voltage for welding. In such circuits control of
the output current is required and this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the diodes in
bridge rectifier with thyristors, whose voltage output can be regulated by means of phase fired
controllers. Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine
control of the traction motors can be achieved. Gate turn-off thyristors are used to produce
alternating current from a DC supply, for example on the Eurostar Trains to power the three-phase
traction motors.

Rectification technologies:

Electromechanical Early power conversion systems were purely electro-mechanical in

design, since electronic devices were not available to handle significant power. Mechanical
rectification systems usually rely on some form of rotation or resonant vibration in order to move
quickly enough to match the frequency of the input power source, and cannot operate beyond
several thousand cycles per second. Due to the complexity of mechanical systems, they have
traditionally needed a high level of maintenance to keep operating correctly. Moving parts will have
friction, which requires lubrication and replacement due to wear. Opening mechanical contacts
under load results in electrical arcs and sparks that heat and erode the contacts.

Synchronous rectifier:

To convert AC currents into DC current in electric locomotives, a synchronous rectifier may be

used. It consists of a synchronous motor driving a set of heavy-duty electrical contacts. The motor
spins in time with the AC frequency and periodically reverses the connections to the load just when
the sinusoidal current goes through a zero-crossing. The contacts do not have to switch a large
current, but they need to be able to carry a large current to supply the locomotive's DC traction
motors.

Electrolytic:

The electrolytic rectifier was an early device from the 1900s that is no longer used. When two
different metals are suspended in an electrolyte solution, it can be found that direct current flowing
one way through the metals has less resistance than the other direction. These most commonly used
an aluminum anode, and a lead or steel cathode, suspended in a solution of tri-ammonium ortho-
phosphate. The rectification action is due to a thin coating of aluminum hydroxide on the aluminum
electrode, formed by first applying a strong current to the cell to build up the coating. The
rectification process is temperature sensitive, and for best efficiency should not operate above 86 °F
(30 °C). There is also a breakdown voltage where the coating is penetrated and the cell is short-
circuited. Electrochemical methods are often more fragile than mechanical methods, and can be
sensitive to usage variations which can drastically change or completely disrupt the rectification
processes. Similar electrolytic devices were used as lightning arresters around the same era by
suspending many aluminium cones in a tank of tri-ammomium ortho-phosphate solution. Unlike the
rectifier, above, only aluminium electrodes were used, and used on A.C., there was no polarization
and thus no rectifier action, but the chemistry was similar .The modern electrolytic capacitor, an
essential component of most rectifier circuit configurations was also developed from the electrolytic
rectifier.

Mercury arc

A rectifier used in high-voltage direct current power transmission systems and industrial processing
between 1909 and 1975 is a mercury arc rectifier or mercury arc valve. The device is enclosed in a
bulbous glass vessel or large metal tub. One electrode, the cathode, is submerged in a pool of liquid
mercury at the bottom of the vessel and one or more high purity graphite electrodes, called anodes,
are suspended above the pool. There may be several auxiliary electrodes to aid in starting and
maintaining the arc. When an electric arc is established between the cathode pool and suspended
anodes, a stream of electrons flows from the cathode to the anodes through the ionized mercury. In
principle, this is a higher-power counterpart to flame rectification, which uses the same one-way
current transmission properties of the plasma naturally present in a flame.

These devices can be used at power levels of hundreds of kilowatts, and may be built to handle one
to six phases of AC current. Mercury arc rectifiers have been replaced by silicon semiconductor
rectifiers and high power thyristor circuits, from the mid 1970s onward. The most powerful mercury
arc rectifiers ever built were installed in the Manitoba Hydro Nelson River Bipole HVDC project,
with a combined rating of more than one million kilowatts and 450,000 volts.

Argon gas electron tube:

The General Electric Tungar rectifier was an argon gas-filled electron tube device with a tungsten
filament cathode and a carbon button anode. It was useful for battery chargers and similar
applications from the 1920s until low-cost solid-state rectifiers (the metal rectifiers at first)
supplanted it. These were made up to a few hundred volts and a few amperes rating, and in some
sizes strongly resembled an incandescent lamp with an additional electrode The 0Z4 was a gas-
filled rectifier tube commonly used in vacuum tube car radios in the 1940s and 1950s. It was a
conventional full wave rectifier tube with two anodes and one cathode, but was unique in that it had
no filament (thus the "0" in its type number). The electrodes were shaped such that the reverse
breakdown voltage was much higher than the forward breakdown voltage. Once the breakdown
voltage was exceeded, the 0Z4 switched to a low-resistance state with a forward voltage drop of
about 24 volts.

Recent developments:
High-speed rectifiers

Researchers at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) have proposed high-speed rectifiers that would sit
at the center of spiral nano antennas and convert infrared frequency electricity from AC to DC.
Infrared frequencies range from 0.3 to 400 terahertz.

Uni molecular rectifiers:

A Uni molecular rectifier is a single organic molecule which functions as a rectifier. The technology
is still in the experimental stage.

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS:

The main objective of static power converters is to produce an ac output waveform from a
dc power supply. These are the types of waveforms required in adjustable speed drives (ASDs),
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), static var compensators, active filters, flexible ac
transmission systems (FACTS), and voltage compensators, which are only a few applications. For
sinusoidal ac outputs, the magnitude, frequency, and phase should be controllable.
According to the type of ac output waveform, these topologies can be considered as voltage
source inverters (VSIs), where the independently controlled ac output is a voltage waveform. These
structures are the most widely used because they naturally behave as voltage sources as required by
many industrial applications, such as adjustable speed drives (ASDs), which are the most popular
application of inverters. Similarly, these topologies can be found as current source inverters (CSIs),
where the independently controlled ac output is a current waveform. These structures are still
widely used in medium-voltage industrial applications, where high-quality voltage waveforms are
required. Static power converters, specifically inverters, are constructed from power switches and
the ac output waveforms are therefore made up of discrete values. This leads to the generation of
waveforms that feature fast transitions rather than smooth ones.
For instance, the ac output voltage produced by the VSI of a standard ASD is a three-level
waveform .Although this waveform is not sinusoidal as expected its fundamental component
behaves as such. This behavior should be ensured by a modulating technique that controls the
amount of time and the sequence used to switch the power valves on and off. The modulating
techniques most used are the carrier-based technique (e.g., sinusoidal pulse width modulation,
SPWM), the space-vector (SV) technique, and the selective-harmonic-elimination (SHE) technique
 The ac output voltage produced by the VSI of a standard ASD
a) The electrical power conversion topology;
b) The ideal input (ac mains) and output (load) waveforms; and
c) The actual input (ac mains) and output (load) waveforms.

Single-Phase Voltage Source Inverters:

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and full-bridge topologies.
Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used in power supplies, single-
phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static power topologies, such as for
instance, the multi cell configurations.

Half-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, consists of two large capacitors are required to provide a
neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage (Vi)/2. Because the current
harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large
capacitors (C+ and C-) is required. It is clear that both switches S+ and S- cannot be ON
simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced.
There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as In order to avoid
the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating
technique should always ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter
leg is on.

Single-phase half-bridge VSI

Full-Bridge VSI:
This inverter is similar to the half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point
to the load. As expected, both switches S1+ and S1- (or S2+ and S2-) cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source Vi would be produced. There are four
defined (states 1, 2, 3, and 4) and one undefined (state 5) switch states. The undefined condition
should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the ac output voltage. It can be observed
that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value Vi, which is twice that obtained
with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed that are
applicable to full-bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

Three Phase Voltage Source Inverters:

Single-phase VSIs cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover the
medium- to high-power applications. The main purpose of these topologies is to provide a three-
phase voltage source, where the amplitude, phase, and frequency of the voltages should always be
controllable. Although most of the applications require sinusoidal voltage waveforms (e.g., ASDs,
UPSs, FACTS, VAR compensators), arbitrary voltages are also required in some emerging
applications (e.g., active filters, voltage compensators).
The standard three-phase VSI topology is shown and the eight valid switch states. As in
single-phase VSIs, the switches of any leg of the inverter (S1 and S4, S3 and S6, or S5 and S2)
cannot be switched on simultaneously because this would result in a short circuit across the dc link
voltage supply. Similarly, in order to avoid undefined states in the VSI, and thus undefined ac
output line voltages, the switches of any leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously
as this will result in voltages that will depend upon the respective line current polarity. Of the eight
valid states, two of them produce zero ac line voltages. In this case, the ac line currents freewheel
through either the upper or lower components. The remaining states produce non-zero ac output
voltages. In order to generate a given voltage waveform, the inverter moves from one state to
another. Thus the resulting ac output line voltages consist of discrete values of voltages that are Vi,
0, and -Vi for the topology. The selection of the states in order to generate the given waveform is
done by the modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid states.
 Three-phase VSI topology

SOLAR ENERGY

1. INTRODUCTION

Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energy²called solar energy. It
radiates more energy in one second than the world has used since time began. This energy
comes from within the sun itself.

Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. The
sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called nuclear fusion. Only a small part of
the solar energy that the sun radiates into space ever reaches the earth, but that is more than
enough to supply all our energy needs. Every day enough solar energy reaches the earth to
supply our nation¶s energy needs for a year!

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since
ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with
secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave
power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on
earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used. Solar powered electrical
generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by
human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through
solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection,daylighting, solar hot water,
solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.To harvest the solar
energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar
depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar
techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar
 Fig.circuit diagram of solar energy;

thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building
to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

2. PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is created by light and heat which is emitted by the sun, in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.

With today's technology, we are able to capture this radiation and turn it into usable
forms of solar energy - such as heating or electricity.

Although one could go into technical dissertations on the subject

of electromagnetic radiation, how it is converted into solar energy, and the exact qualities of its
electromagnetic rays, this is not something the average person needs or wants to know.
 Fig:-working of solar energy

But in order to be able to benefit from the use of solar energy, there are a few facts you should
know. Knowing these facts can assist you to make a sound decisions, when looking at the use
of solar power as a clean energy source for your home, RV, or whatever the case may be.

1. The first and the foremost advantage of utilizing wind energy is of course that it is not
harmful for the environment as nothing is burned to attain the electricity from moving air.
Even solid biofuels like sawdust, wood, charcoal, manure and all

the others give out polluting gases and particulates that are unhealthy for the

environment, but wind energy solves that problem quite effectively.

2. As mentioned before, the main function of wind energy or any other form of renewable
source of energy is to reduce the pressure of global demand on fossil fuels that is shortening
their already limited life. If the areas that are suitable for harvesting wind energy start to rely
on it instead of relying on traditional sources of electricity, then this goal can be achieved
effectively.

3. A very significant advantage that windmills have over the traditional power stations is the
fact that they require much lesser area to set up. Not only does this advantage make it cheaper to
set the mill up as one would require less land, but one must also not forget that the area around
the windmill can then be used for setting up adjacent farms also, which in fact is often the case
at places like this.

4. Just as with harvesting solar energy, earlier it used to be quite costly to effectively utilize
the power of wind. Even then, the total energy that was successfully converted to electricity
was hardly enough. In other words, the wind energy conversion rates were poor, but as
technology have improved over the
years, it has now become possible to utilize and convert wind energy at a much lower cost
and a significantly higher conversion ratio.

5. To set up a power station to supply electricity in remote and secluded places at higher
altitudes is not an easy job. It would require a lot of money as well as effort and even then it
may take quite some time before it can even be successfully operated. This is where the utility
of wind turbines are fully realized. Mountainous localities usually have an atmosphere where
the wind is very strong as well being reliably consistent. Setting up a wind turbine big enough
to serve the electrical

needs of the entire locality would not only be cheaper in this case, but it will be

much faster and perhaps even more useful as well.

6. The similarity between solar energy and wind energy is that both of them are renewable and
free sources of energy; what is more interesting is that it is possible to install a system that will
make both the alternative sources of energy work together to offer an even more reliable and
powerful energy source. The use of such a hybrid system is not only limited to underdeveloped
areas, because even in the developed areas where traditional power stations are already well set
up, it could save a lot of money and non-renewable energy.

7. It is hard to believe and may even come as a surprise to someone who does not have the
knowledge, but the cost of producing wind energy has become almost 80% cheaper than what
it used to be twenty or thirty years ago. As the technology is still developing to make the wind
mills more productive and less costly, we can almost assume that the prices will come down
further and someday it might even be the cheapest alternative for electricity production in the
market.

8. It is no secret that petroleum is chiefly saturated in certain geographical areas which come
within the national borders of the countries that are located in that particular geographic area.
This has created acertain kind of monopoly and has also raised the price of fuel quite
significantly in all the countries that are dependent on it. Wind energy is
something that cannot be monopolized in this way as it is free and cannot be confined within the
geographical boundaries of a country either. Therefore, if in the near future, wind energy can be
made more usable and more efficient, we can also hope to reduce the hiked up oil prices as well.

3. SOLAR ENERGY OVERVIEW

Fig.solar power overview

Solar energy is all about harnessing the power of the sun to produce energy. The sun rains
enough solar energy on the Earth in one day to power the entire energy needs of the world for
one year. Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source because it will exist for as long
as our sun does, estimated to be another 4.5 billion years. Solar energy is also considered a
clean energy because it does not produce pollutants or byproducts harmful to the environment.

Solar energy was the first energy source used by mankind. Of course, the use was limited to
drying things and heating caused by direct contact, but it was a use. In modern times, solar
energy has been a power source since the early 1950s, but was not widespread due to
technological issues which rendered it an ineffective and expensive energy source. With
technology advancements, solar energy is moving to the forefront as a potential alternative to
fossil fuels.

The future is indeed bright for solar energy as new solar nanotechnology is close to creating
solar platforms that boggle the mind. For instance, a few companies are trying to create solar
quantum dots, which will be mixed in the paint you use for your home. Yes, you will actually
paint on solar energy panels that will power your home

Currently, solar energy is produced primarily through the use of solar cells, also known as
photovoltaic cells. The process works by placing the cells in direct sunlight. Sun hits the
cells causing a chemical reaction that creates an electric current. The current is then turned
into electricity. The problem with these cells, however, is they are only about 15 percent
efficient.

Solar energy is typically classified in two ways, passive solar and active solar. Both
approaches produce solar energy, but in very different ways

Passive solar is exactly what it sounds like. It does not involve panel systems or other moving
mechanisms to produce solar energy. Instead, passive solar involves planning a structure in
such a way as to capture the power of the sun with windows, tanks and so on. These systems
can be used to heat homes, water and so on.

Active solar energy systems typically involve some form of solar panels. The panels are
oriented to maximize exposure to the sun. Depending on the system, the panels will then either
directly convert sunlight to electricity, which is then transformed from direct current electricity
to alternate current electricity and stored in batteries or fed into the grid system of the local
utility. Active systems are more expensive and complex.

Solar energy has numerous advantages over other energy platforms. It is produces no pollution,
requires little maintenance and comes with significant financial incentives in the form of tax
deductions, tax credits and rebates from manufactures. In a majority of states, solar energy can
also be sold back to utilities per a concept known as net metering. This reduces the need for
batteries and significantly cuts utility bills.

Unfortunately, solar energy has some disadvantages as well. The initial cost of purchase and
installation can be expensive. Second, areas with limited sunlight are problematic. Third, solar
energy obviously can't be produced at night. Despite these disadvantages, solar energy is a
booming energy platform.

The largest producers of solar energy in the world are Germany, Japan and the United States.
California has recently introduces a solar initiative devoting over three billion dollars to
promoting solar energy use by residents in the state. As this overview demonstrates, the solar
energy platform is coming on strong.

4. SOLAR WATER HEATING

Solar water heating (SWH) systems comprise several innovations and many mature renewable
energy (or SHW Solar Hot Water) technologies which have been accepted in most countries for
many years. SWH has been widely used in Greece, Turkey, Israel, Australia, Japan, Austria and
China.
In a "close-coupled" SWH system the storage tank is horizontally mounted immediately
above the solar collectors on the roof. No pumping is required as the hot water naturally rises
into the tank through thermosiphon flow. In a "pump-circulated" system the storage tank is
ground or floor mounted and is below the level of the collectors; a circulating pump moves
water or heat transfer fluid between the tank and the collectors.

SWH systems are designed to deliver the optimum amount of hot water for most of the year.
However, in winter there sometimes may not be sufficient solar heat gain to deliver sufficient
hot water. In this case a gas or electric booster is normally used to heat the water.

Fig:-solar water heating

Hot water heated by the sun is used in many ways. While perhaps best known in a residential
setting to provide hot domestic water, solar hot water also has industrial applications, e.g. to

generate electricity.[1] Designs suitable for hot climates can be much simpler and cheaper,
and
can be considered an appropriate technology for these places. The global solar thermal market
is dominated by China, Europe, Japan and India.

In order to heat water using solar energy, a collector, often fastened to a roof or a wall facing
the sun, heats working fluid that is either pumped (active system) or driven by natural
convection (passive system) through it. The collector could be made of a simple glass topped
insulated box with a flat solar absorber made of sheet metal attached to copper pipes and
painted black, or a set of metal tubes surrounded by an evacuated (near vacuum) glass cylinder.
In industrial cases a parabolic mirror can concentrate sunlight on the tube. Heat is stored in a
hot water storage tank. The volume of this tank needs to be larger with solar heating systems in
order to allow for bad weather, and because the optimum final temperature for the solar
collector is lower than a typical immersion or combustion heater. The heat transfer fluid (HTF)
for the absorber may be the hot water from the tank, but more commonly (at least in active
systems) is a separate loop of fluid
containing anti-freeze and a corrosion inhibitor which delivers heat to the tank through a heat
exchanger (commonly a coil of copper tubing within the tank). Another lower-maintenance
concept is the 'drain-back': no anti-freeze is required; instead all the piping is sloped to cause
water to drain back to the tank. The tank is not pressurized and is open to atmospheric
pressure. As soon as the pump shuts off, flow reverses and the pipes are empty before freezing
could occur.

Residential solar thermal installations fall into two groups: passive (sometimes called
"compact") and active (sometimes called "pumped") systems. Both typically include an
auxiliary energy source (electric heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central
heating system) that is activated when the water in the tank falls below a minimum temperature
setting such as 55°C. Hence, hot water is always available. The combination of solar water

heating and using the back-up heat from a wood stove chimney to heat water[2] can enable a hot
water system to work all year round in cooler climates, without the supplemental heat
requirement of a solar water heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.
When a solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used in conjunction, solar
heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated by the
central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will replace the lower heating element and the upper
element will remain in place to provide for any heating that solar cannot provide. However, the
primary need for central heating is at night and in winter when solar gain is lower. Therefore,
solar water heating for washing and bathing is often a better application than central heating
because supply and demand are better matched. In many climates, a solar hot water system can
provide up to 85% of domestic hot water energy. This can include domestic non-electric
concentrating solar thermal systems. In many northern European countries, combined hot water
and space heating systems (solar combisystems) are used to provide 15 to 25% of home heating
energy.

5. SOLAR TOWER

A solar tower, in the context of astronomy, is a structure used to support equipment for
studying the sun, and is typically part of solar telescope designs. Generically, the term
solar tower has many more uses especially for a type of power production using Earth's
Sun. Solar tower observatories are also called vacuum tower telescopes.

Solar towers are used to raise the observation equipment above the atmospheric
disturbances caused by solar heating of the ground and the radiation of the heat
into the atmosphere. Traditional observatories do not have to be placed high above ground
level, as they do most of their observation at night, when ground radiation is at a minimum.

The horizontal Snow solar observatory was built on Mount Wilson in 1904. It was soon
found that heat radiation was disrupting observations. Almost as soon as the Snow
Observatory opened, plans were started for a 60-foot-tall (18 m) tower that opened in 1908
followed by a 150-foot (46 m) tower in 1912. The 60-foot (18 m) tower is currently used to
study helioseismology, while the 150-foot (46 m) tower is active in UCLA'sSolar Cycle
Program.
The term has also been used to refer to other structures used for experimental purposes,
such as the Solar Tower Atmospheric Cherenkov Effect Experiment (STACEE), which is
being used to study Cherenkov radiation, and the Weizmann Institute solar power tower.

Fig:-solar tower
6. SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected

assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial
and residential applications.

Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many installations
contain several panels. Aphotovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an
inverter, may contain a battery and interconnection wiring.

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top
layer or the back layer. The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium
telluride or silicon. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain
silver, copper or other conductive (but generally not magnetic) transition metals.
The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Cells
must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid,
but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. Electrical connections are made
in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current
capability.

Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading,
and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse
current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse

currents waste power and can also lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become
less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind

solar panels.[1]
Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses
or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per
unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective
way.[citation needed]

Fig:-working of pv cells.
Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of
frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet,
infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by
solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic
light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges

and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. [2] This has been projected to
be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of infrared photovoltaic cells has also been

proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps produce power at night.[citation needed]

Sunlight conversion rates (solar panel efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial
products, typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. Panels with
conversion rates around 18% are in development incorporating innovations such as power

generation on the front and back sides.[citation needed] The Energy Density of a solar panel
is the efficiency described in terms of peak power output per unit of surface area, commonly

expressed in units of Watts per square foot (W/ft2). The most efficient mass-produced solar

panels have energy density values of greater than 13

W/ft2.
Fig:- construction of pv cells.
 7. ENERGY STORAGE METHODS

Solar energy is not available at night, and energy storage is an important issue because

modern energy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy.[96]

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful
temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily
available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-
designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce

overall heating and cooling requirements.[97][98]

Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage
media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful
temperatures (approximately 64 °C). The "Dover House"

(in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948.[99]
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective
storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can
deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two

used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m3 storage tank with
an annual storage efficiency of about
99%.[100]

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess

electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid,
while standard grid electricity can be used to meet
shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they
deliver to the grid. This is often legally handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the
home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the

utility is required to pay for the extra at the same rate as they charge consumers. [101] Other
legal approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs.
electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second
meter. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when
recovered when demand is high by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric power
generator

8. ADVANTAGES

1. SOLAR ENERGY IS A RENEWABLE RESOURCE

You will never run out of solar energy. Sure, the sun sets at night, and on those dark and
gloomy days it may not always be visible, but you can be sure that it will return. Oil, on the
other hand, is limited, and once you run out, it is gone forever. Although the amount of
power the sun can generate is limited to the amount of sunlight you get, it is possible to
generate electricity even on cloudy days.

2. SOLAR POWER IS NON-POLLUTING

Unlike oil, solar power does not emit any sort of toxic gases into the environment. It is a
completely environmentally friendly approach to generating electricity. There is even work
being done to make the recycling of solar panels more effective.

3. LIGHT FROM THE SUN IS FREE

After the initial costs involved in setting up the solar panels and solar lights etc, you will
never have to pay to run them.

4. SOLAR POWER IS QUITE FLEXIBLE

You can have an array of solar panels on your roof to generate power from your home. You
can also have smaller solar cells on garden lights or anything else outside that only needs a
small amount of electricity. Not having to run a wire can be a huge time saver.

5. SOLAR CELLS REQUIRE MINIMAL MAINTENANCE

Once the solar cells are set up, they require very little maintenance, mainly

because there are no moving parts that have to be maintained. Solar cells can last a lifetime
and is very easy to install.

6. SOLAR POWER IS SILENT

The methods that are used to find and extract oil are very noisy. Even wind power can
create a lot of noise. Solar power is completely silent.

7. SOLAR ENERGY CAN SAVE MONEY IN THE LONG RUN

Solar energy has many advantages, some of them not as common as others. The main reason
for this perhaps is that the initial cost is quite high. However, you can save a significant
amount of money using solar power, which compares favorably to paying an electricity bill
at the end of the month. There is a lot of work that has been done to make solar power more
accessible to the common man, with researchers finding ways and means to make this
resource a common practice. Solar power is indeed an amazing, natural energy resource
with so much potential to be tapped into. It is just a matter of time before solar power
becomes a global hit.

THE APPLICATIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS

RURAL ELECTRIFICATION

The provision of electricity to rural areas derives important social and economic benefits to
remote communities throughout the world. Power supply to remote houses or villages,
electrification of the health care facilities, irrigation and water supply and treatment are just
few examples of such applications.

1. WATER PUMPING:

Solar pumps are used principally for two applications: village water supply (including
livestock watering), and irrigation. Since villages need a steady supply of water, provision
has to be made for water storage for periods of low insolation. In contrast, crops have
variable water requirements during the year which can often be met by supplying water
directly to produce without the need for a storage tank.

Fig:- solar pumping.

2. LIGHTENING:
In terms of the number of installations, lighting is presently the biggest application of
photo-voltaic, with tens of thousands of units installed world-wide. They are mainly used to
provide lighting for domestic or community buildings, such as schools or health centers.
PV is also being increasingly used for lighting streets and tunnels, and for security lighting.

PROFESSIONAL APPLICATIONS

1. For some time, cells.

2.TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: radio transceivers on mountain tops or
telephone boxes in the country can often be solar powered.

3. REMOTE MONITORING AND CONTROL: scientific research stations, seismic

recording, weather stations, etc. use very little power which, in combination with a
dependable battery, is provided reliably by a small PV module.
photovoltaic modules have proved to be a good source of power for high-reliability remote
industrial use in inaccessible locations, or where the small amount of power required is more
economically met from a stand-alone PV system than from mains electricity. Examples of
these applications include:

1. OCEAN NAVIGATION AIDS: Many lighthouses and most buoys are now
powered by solar

4. CATHODIC PROTECTION: this is a method for shielding metalwork from

corrosion, for example, pipelines and other metal structures. A PV system is well suited
to this application since a DC source of power is required in remote locations along the
path of a pipeline.

GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS

Two types of grid-connected installations are usually distinguished, centralized PV power
stations, and distributed generation in units located directly at the customer's premises(PV
in buildings).
1. PV POWER Stations: A PV power station feeds the generated power
instantaneously into the utility distribution network (the 'grid') by means of one or
more inverters and transformers. PV power stations may be approaching economic
viability in locations where they assist the local grid during periods of peak
demand, and obviate the need to construct a new power station. This is known as
peak shaving. It can also be cheaper to place small PV plants within the
transmission system rather than to upgrade it ('embedded' generation).
 Fig solar power station.

2. PV In Buildings: PV arrays mounted on roof tops or facades offer the possibility of

large-scale power generation in decentralized medium-sized grid-connected units.

The main advantages of these distributed systems over large PV plants are as follows:
¢ There are no costs in buying the land and preparing the site.
¢ The transmission losses are much lower because the load is on the same site as
the supply.
¢ The value of the PV electricity is also higher because it is equal to the selling price
of the grid electricity which has been replaced, rather that to the cost of generating it.

Fig solar building

 9. DISADVANTAGES:

One of the main disadvantages is the initial cost of the equipment used to
harness the suns energy. Solar energy technologies still
remain a costly alternative to the use of readily available fossil fuel technologies.
As the price of solar panels decreases, we are likely to see an increase in the use of
solar cells to generate electricity.
A solar energy installation requires a large area for the system to be efficient in
providing a source of electricity. This may be a
disadvantage in areas where space is short, or expensive (such as inner cities).

Pollution can be a disadvantage to solar panels, as pollution can degrade the

efficiency of photovoltaic cells. Clouds also provide the same effect, as they can
reduce the energy of the suns rays. This certain disadvantage is more of an issue
with older solar
components, as newer designs integrate technologies to overcome the worst of
these effects.

Solar energy is only useful when the sun is shining. During the night,
your expensive solar equipment will be useless, however the use of solar battery

chargers can help to reduce the effects of this disadvantage.

The location of solar panels can affect performance, due to possible obstructions
from the surrounding buildings or landscape.

SOLAR CONVERSION EFFICIENCY

he solar conversion efficiency of a solar cell or a photovoltaic cell is determined

by how much of the sunlight the cell is able to convert into electrical energy. In
other words, the proportion of the total light energy that a photovoltaic cell is able
to convert into usable electricity is the solar conversionefficiency of that particular
type of PV cell. It is
on the basis of the solar conversionefficiency of a cell and the cost of its
production that a PV cell is judged and ranked. The reason why it is so important
that the solar conversion efficiency is significantly higher than previous
generations is due to the fact that it is an alternative source of power that was
invented mainly to reduce the pressure off from non-renewable sources of
energy.
Photovoltaic solar generators have been and will remain the best choice for providing
electrical power to satellites in an orbit around the Earth. Indeed, the use of solar cells on the
U.S. satellite Vanguard I in 1958 demonstrated beyond doubt the first practical
application of photovoltaics. Since then, the satellite power requirements have evolved
from few Watts to several kilowatts, with arrays approaching 100 kW being planned for a
future space station.
A space solar array must be extremely reliable in the adverse conditions of space
environment. Since it is very expensive to lift every kilogram of weight into the orbit, the
space array should also have a high power-to-weight ratio.