Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Developmental Reading

What is reading?

This is the primary question that this module will answer. It is most
appropriate then to ask the following queries as well:

1. When does reading begin?

2. Where does reading begin?

This chapter will look into the socio- historical perspective of reading
as it provides enlightenment about the “genesis” and basic process of
the activity called “reading”.

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Determine the meaning of reading and its stages of development

B. Illustrate the relationship between knowledge and reading
C. Draw implications from the socio- historical perspective to reading
instruction.

Resources/ Materials

Watch the brief history of writing through the link

provided below:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_DFrEVhvLQ

Developmental Reading 1
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

This is Reading (1965) by Frank Jennings

Reading begins with wonder at the world about us. It starts with the
recognition of repeated events like thunder, lightning, and rain. It starts
with the seasons and growth of things. It starts with an ache that
vanished with food or water. It occurs when time is discovered.
Reading begins with the management of signs of things. It begins
when the mother, holding the child’s hands, says that a day is
“beautiful” or “cold” or the wind is “soft”. Reading is “signs” and
“portents”, the flight of birds, the changing moon, the “changeless” sun
and the “fixed” stars that move through the night. Reading is the
practical management of the world about us. It was this for the man at
the cave’s mouth. It is this for us at the desk, the bench or the control
panel. these for major headings within each module. Avoid using more
than one or two on each page. Discuss the content for this topic.

The special kind of reading that you are doing now is the
culmination of all the other kinds of reading. You are dealing with
the signs of the things represented. You are dealing with ideas and
concepts that have no material, matter, or substance and yet are
“real”. But you cannot do this kind of reading if you have not
become skilled in all the other kinds. Unless you know down from up,
hot from cold, now from then, you could never learn to understand
things that merely represent other things. You would have no language,
as you now understand it, and you could not live in the open society of
human beings. It is quite conceivable that a true non- reader can only
survive in a mental hospital.

Throughout his history man has “read” many things: the flight of
birds, the guts of sheep, sun spots, liver spots, and life lines on a hand.
He has read the lore of the jungle, the spoor of the beast and portents in
a dish of tea. But whatever he has read and however he has read, it
has always been for reasons. When he invented symbols for the words
in his mouth and the ideas teeming in his brain, other kinds of reading
became useful, desirable, and possible. At the beginning, this kind of
writing and reading was mainly magical. It was converted to practical
use when man realized that many of the meanings of many of his words
stayed the same for a very long time. They were a kind of memory that
never dulled. They could be depended upon to report to tomorrow’s
children what had happened a long time ago.

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Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Reading begins in the womb when the body first senses the universe,
and the message center of the brain scans the scrambled reports of
the senses. Reading gains precision as the sign of an ache or an
emptiness is correctly translated into appropriate and soothing action.
Reading gains in scope when faces and features become organized into
personalities. Reading begins to encompass that universe when the
mother, standing with the child at the window, “reads” the beauty of the
day.

Stages of Language Development

1. Prof. Jespersen, considered one of the great authorities on

language, points out that primeval man had celebrations
following a successful communal activity. Drum beating,
accompanied by pantomimic actions and primeval cries marked
the “play excitement”. Having used his vocal apparatus, man
discovered how to make some notes stand out. Being richer and
more flexible than the drum beats, voices soon made lilting
vocal patterns that were woven into songs which became part of
the celebration… “There was once a time when all speech was
song, or rather when these two were not yet differentiated.”

2. At the outset, primeval man’s gestures and movements

celebrating an event were an approximation or a pantomime of
that event. Later, they became symbolic dances that embodied a
concept of that event. Meanwhile the primitive songs and
symbolic dances became so much part of each other that the
sight of the gestures invariably stimulated people to utter the

Developmental Reading 3
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

same vocal symbols that went with the melodies. Thus the vocal
symbols became the name for the event or the celebration.

3. From purely expressive reaction of screeches and shouts, from

primeval cries to a group of syllables that became the vocal
symbols for a celebration is a long process of development.
The process, however, strongly suggests that the origin of
language is the desire for naming objects and fixating them in
the mind of the beholder.

4. Early man, endowed with the gift of reason and free will,
apprehended the significant in the world about him. For the riot
of colors at sundown, for the clouds , for a tall wide spreading
balete tree, for the boulders and the stone and soils under his
feet—each neither a threat nor of immediate use—he would feel
a “vague emotional arrest of the mind,” as Susanne Langer puts
it.

5. Whatever struck him as attractive useful or powerful or of no

consequence at all, he would fixate in the mind with vocal
sounds addressed to himself. He created the oral symbols to
mark it with, sometimes expressing them to his fellows. Later
when the same experiences came up, as in the skies being
similarly ablaze, he would utter the same vocal sounds he had
marked it with. Smiles and nods of understanding would come
from those who recognized the experience as a repetition of the
previous one. His fellows repeating the sounds would then
signal their tacit acceptance of the oral symbols for that
experience. Gradually the frequent association of vocal sounds
and the actual experience would be so fixed that mention of one
recalled the other, until later, the vocal sound by themselves
were sufficient to recreate the entire experience. This did the
vocal sounds became the name for a thing.

6. Just a droplets of rain on rolling terrain meandered toward each

other and gathering created a rivulet, so did minds at the
beginning of time inter- acting among themselves come to use
conventional oral symbols to represent each experience.

7. Language, however, is a functioning system. The names do not

stand alone independent of one another. Bear, night, rock,
cave, food do not make sense. Such names should make a
complex pattern that reflects the complex relationships of
things in the world of reality. Thus one should say instead,
“Last night a big bear came and ran away with our food on the

Developmental Reading 4
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

big rock in my cave.” Such a structure, however, did not exist

in the elementary stage of language development.

8. Early man used names of objects to indicate whole situations.

He would say the single word “food” to mean “Give me some
food,” or “ I have some food for all of us,” or “ The food is
gone.” Gestures and facial expressions might accompany the
utterance. But the single word would be the core of the whole
experience and would be sufficient to recall the entire situation.
Carl Buhler calls this stage of development the “empractic”
use of language. The whole situation was clear to both the
speaker and hearer, or common between them. The one word
for it was enough.

9. The grammatical structure gradually evolved by a process called

“emendation”. More and more oral symbols came to be needed
to modify and original expression as time went on, because there
were many other similar situations for the name of an event or
thing. One – word sentences no longer worked well. There was
the risk of being misunderstood. Having apprehended the
relationship of objects, actions and events to one another, man
realized the need for the patterns of utterances to reflect the
relationships in the situation the utterances symbolize. The
single word “food” had to be explained by other oral symbols
that made new ‘food” clear. In man’s attempt to amend or
correct the vagueness of his one-word utterance, the structure of
the language grew and developed.

Implications for Reading Instruction

 Reading is a linguistic process. Children being taught to read

must understand the relationship between reading and their
language.

 In second language situations, oral language development in

the second language should be an integral part of reading
instruction.

 The ultimate goal of reading instruction is to produce efficient

readers who love to read and who will use it for a variety of
purposes all their lives.

 The home has a very important role in the development of

language experiences that are prerequisites for learning to read.

Developmental Reading 5
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Knowledge and Reading

The figure shown above shows the three types of knowledge we use
when we read, and their relationship to each other. The reading of C
(written or printed symbols) is, according to Jennings, the culmination
of all other kinds of reading. These symbols represent oral language
which, in turn, represent things that are real—our experiences. Circles
B and C, which are symbolic, cannot be possible without Circle A.
Therefore, we cannot read Circle C unless we have become skilled in
the use of Circles A and B.

References

Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of reading. Q.C: University of

the Philippines Open University

Image

Retrieved from
http://static.guim.co.uk/sysimages/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2010/7/9/127
8687340486/Ancient-Norfolk-006.jpg
January 12, 2015

Developmental Reading 6
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Developmental Reading 7
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

Not all humans read or learn to read. Among those who read, there are
good readers and poor readers. Based on this observation, many
experts argue that reading is not a natural language process which can
be acquired without instruction. While the reader’s knowledge of
language is recognized as an integral part of reading print, reading is
viewed as a skill that is learned (Aulls, 1982)

Within the reading-as-a-skill model, one issue is debated on: Is reading

a complex unitary skill, or is it made up of observable, identifiable
discrete specific skills?

This module will answer the aspects of reading when viewed as a skill.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Determine different reading skills and subskills.

B. Compare and contrast these views: reading as skill and reading as
skills.
C. Enumerate implications of the skill or skills view to reading
instruction.

Developmental Reading 1
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Resources/ Materials

Do you know that reading comprehension worksheets are available online for
FREE? Below are just few of the websites where you can download
printable comprehension worksheets.

http://englishforeveryone.org/Topics/Reading-Comprehension.htm

http://mrnussbaum.com/reading_comprehension_printable/

https://www.havefunteaching.com/worksheets/reading-worksheets/reading-
comprehension-worksheets

Viewing Reading as a Skill

Attribute of skills-development (Otto and Chester, 1976)

1. The skills essential for success in reading can be identified and

described in a reasonably objective manner. This means that
their development does not depend on any single set of
methods or materials, nor is their development tied to any
given grade or age level.
2. The skills generally tend to be sequentially related. That is,
certain skills must be taught and mastered before others can be
introduced.
3. The skills are generalizable. Except for a few unique skills
peculiar to the language an taxonomy of specialized subject
matter, the same skills are applicable in all content areas.

Developmental Reading 2
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Teachers who use a reading skills framework usually base

instruction on some organized list of skills—the so-called scope
and sequence charts.

Global Reading Skills and Sub skills

A. Word Recognition

Word Recognition is a twofold process that includes

1. The recognition of printed symbols by some method so that

the word can be pronounced

2. The attachment to or association of meaning with the word

after it has been properly pronounced

 Word recognition strategies for pronunciation

1. Phonic analysis and synthesis- a decoding technique that is

dependent on the students’ ability to make the proper
grapheme-phoneme (or letter-sound) correspondence.

2. Whole- word or “look-and-say” method- this method has the

teacher or any other individual directing your attention to a
word and then saying the word.

3. Structural analysis and synthesis (word parts)- this involves the

breaking down (analysis)of word parts and the building up
(synthesis) of word parts into words. Word parts are prefixes,
suffixes, roots (bases), and combining forms.

4. Look up the pronunciation in the dictionary- involves checking

the word in the dictionary

5. Context clues- refers to the words surrounding a word that can

shed light on its
meaning.

Developmental Reading 3
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

 Word recognition strategies for word meaning

1. Context- by context we mean the words surrounding a

particular word that can help shed light on its meaning

2. Structural analysis and synthesis for word meaning- this

involves the breaking down (analysis) of word meanings and
the putting up (synthesis) of word meanings into larger scales
of meaning.

B. Comprehension
Reading comprehension is a complex intellectual process
involving many skills

C. Study Skills
Study skills are strategies and techniques that enable you to
make the most efficient use of your
time, resources, and academic potential. These are very
important in content area reading.

Skill Learning
Otto and Chester (1976) think that problems of identification and
sequencing will be solved if Skills instruction follow these steps:
1. Identify the skills, using lists that have the support of
successful teachers.
2. State the objectives that describe either mastery levels of
behavior, or describe situations for developing the skills.
3. Examine individual skill development to determine students’
strengths and weaknesses.
4. Identify and carry out appropriate teaching/learning activities.
5. Evaluate the results

Developmental Reading 4
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Reading as Skill, Not Skills

The reading skills “myth”
John Downing (1982) asks: “Is the learning of separate subskills a
prerequisite for Learning to read?”.

Downing’s answer to the above question seems to be “No,” as he cites

psychologists’ definition of reading as a skill. He quotes McDonald
(1965) who cites playing baseball as an example of a “skill.” A
baseball player needs to “perform sets of responses with ease,
quickness, and the economy of motion.” But this is not merely a matter
of motor behavior The player “must also understand” the game, like
playing it, and have appropriate attitudes
about winning and sporting behavior. The total performance—
cognitive, attitudinal, and manipulative.” This complex integration of
processes is what psychologists mean when they refer to “skill.”

Based on these observations and the absence of definitive answers

from research studies regarding their validity, Downing concludes that
reading skills (or subskills) are largely “mythical.”

 Reading as a unitary skill

The most- often quoted reading expert who argues for reading as a
holistic process is Kenneth Goodman (1970). He writes, “There is
no possible sequencing of skills in reading Instruction, since all
systems must be used independently in the reading process even in
the first attempts at learning to read. “

Reading as Skill Reading= Skill₁ + Skill₂+Skill₃+…Skilln

Reading as a unitary skill Reading> Skill₁+Skill₂+Skill₃+… Skilln

Reconciling the Two Views

The point that these two positions can be reconciled can be gleaned
from Aulls (1982) when he says that as a n observable unitary skill,
we can define reading as a level of proficiency in reading a text, or
components of a text, with concomitant identifiable subskills.

Developmental Reading 5
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Taxonomies of Reading Comprehension (Based on the Gray,

Gates, Smith & Barrett Models)

1. Literal Comprehension- the ability to obtain a low- level type of

understanding by using only information explicitly stated in the text.

2. Interpretation- demands a higher level of thinking because the

questions are concerned with answers not directly stated in the text
but are suggested or implied.

3. Evaluation- involves the making of a personal judgment on the text

by the reader.

4. Integration- stresses reading for use and for values clarification

5. Creative reading- uses divergent thinking skills to come up with

new ideas or alternative solutions to those presented by the writer.

Developmental Reading 6
Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Figure 2.1

Comprehension Subskill

References

Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of reading. Q.C: University of

the Philippines Open University

Developmental Reading 7
Theories on Reading Process

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

How can a reader relate and integrate the meanings within sentences and
between sentences as he/she reads along a passage of text?

This module will provide a background knowledge that will help you
compare and understand three specific views or models of how
processing is done by the reader. From the understanding of the
processing dimension of reading, implication will be drawn for teaching
reading which is substantially different from the implications you have
drawn on the skills view of reading.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Enumerate and describe different theories on reading process.

B. Illustrate different reading situations where the theories on

reading process apply or manifest.

C. Compare and contrast the theories on reading process.

D. Draw implications from the theories for reading instruction.

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Developmental Reading 1
Theories on Reading Process

Resources/ Materials

Explore the different study techniques in reading. . ..from start to

finish! Check the link provided below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PELOZ6l4ld4

Viewing Reading as a Skill

1. Bottom-up- depicts reading starting with the input of some

graphic signals or stimulus. The role of the reader is to get
meaning from the text based on the stimulus or the words used.
This is also called data- driven processing.

 Dechant (1991), citing Gove (1983), claims that the

adherents of the BOTTOM-UP MODEL of reading put
forward the idea that:

A. It is imperative for readers to recognize every word in a

selection so that they can comprehend it;

Developmental Reading 2
Theories on Reading Process

B. Word and sound- letter cues should be the primary tool that
readers should use so that they can identify unrecognized
words;

C. The mastery of a series of word- recognition skills is the

primary requirement for reading acquisition;

D. Instruction should focus principally on the teaching of

letters, letter- sound relationships, and words;

E. Accuracy in recognizing words is significant; and

F. It is important for readers to have the knowledge of discrete

sub-skills.

2. Top- down- depicts reading beginning with the cognitive

processes occurring in the reader’s mind as he reads or she
reads. The role of the reader is to give meaning to the text
based on the information already held within the reader’s store
of prior knowledge. This is also called concept- driven
processing.

 Supporters of the TOP- DOWN MODEL of reading,

according to Dechant (1991), put forward that:

A. Even though readers do not recognize each word, they may

be able to comprehend a selection;

B. Meaning and grammatical cues primarily assist readers to

identify unrecognized words;

C. The mastery of a series of word- recognition skills takes a

back sea: in comparison to the use of meaning activities;

D. The reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole selections

should be the principal focal point of instruction

E. Reading for meaning is the central objective of reading

rather than the mastery of letters, letter/sound relationships,
and words; and

F. The amount and kind of information obtained through

reading is the most important aspect of reading.

Developmental Reading 3
Theories on Reading Process

3. Interactive- depicts reading as the process of constructing

meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s
existing knowledge, the information suggested by the written
language, and the context of the reading situation.

The third model of reading, which is the INTERACTIVE

MODEL, neither accepts nor rejects the pure and extreme
beliefs of the two earlier models. The advocates of this mode
put forward the idea that:

A. Readers process letters and words at the same time as they

formulate hypotheses about the meaning of what is on the
printed page ( Dechant, 1991);

B. Meaning simultaneously comes from a combination of

different sources like logographic knowledge, graphemic
knowledge, phonological knowledge, orthographic
knowledge, morphemic knowledge., grapheme- phoneme
correspondence, lexical knowledge, semantic knowledge,
syntactic knowledge, and schematic ( Dechant, 1991); and

C. Instruction should give a balanced emphasis to the teaching

of whole texts and phonics…

A Reading teacher should be…

A. Aware of one’s thinking process

B. Careful in examining one’s thinking process and the

thinking process of others

C. Practicing one’s thinking abilities

Developmental Reading 4
Theories on Reading Process

References

Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of reading. Q.C: University of

the Philippines Open University
Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for
teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University

Developmental Reading 5
Reading for Specific Purposes

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

It is assumed that learners read for a variety of purposes like keeping

themselves informed in a general way on matters of current importance,
finding answers to their specific questions or those raised by others,
gathering information, and others.

This module will look into the specific purposes of reading. Ways on
developing students into critical, creative, and metacognitive readers
will also be discussed.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Enumerate and describe specific purposes of reading.

B. Illustrate different reading situations where reading for specific

purposes apply or manifest

C. Compare and contrast the different purposes of reading.

D. Draw implications from the specific purposes for reading

instruction.

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Developmental Reading 1
Reading for Specific Purposes

Resources/ Materials

Learn to speed read in 15 minutes! Check this video through the link
provided below.

http://youtu.be/PZqXBhGR_W8

Reading for Specific Purpose

1. Skimming
- reading for a general impression
- skimming the text you are about to read should give you an
idea of the usefulness of the text for your purposes and also a
general idea of what it is about. This information helps you to
decide how well you should read it.

2. Scanning
- reading for specific details
- one may need to find answers to certain questions you have
set beforehand (what, who, when).

Developmental Reading 2
Reading for Specific Purposes

3. Reading for main points in general

- the main points could include information like why the text
was written, what the purpose of the writer was, how the text is
organized and what the main arguments are.
Example: reading for an exam

4. Reading for selected main points

- one may look for information about a specific area or answers
to certain questions.
- one reading will probably then aim at finding that information
only.
Example: reading for a thesis.

5. Critical or evaluative reading

- also known as “intensive reading”
- If you read a text with a critical or evaluative attitude, you
probably compare the writer's views with your own or some
other writers' views.
- Making a difference between facts and opinions of the writer
is also important.
Example: reading for a thesis or an exam.

6. Reading for pleasure

- done usually without having the content in mind

Image 4.1
Reading for Pleasure

Developmental Reading 3
Reading for Specific Purposes

Developing students into critical, creative and metacognitive

readers

The reading teacher should bear in mind that a CRITICAL

reader….

 Must carefully examine his/her thinking and the thinking

of others, in order to clarify and improve own
understanding
 Should examine test suggested solutions to see whether
they will work
 Need to test ideas for flaws or defects and must not be
inhibited by fear of being aggressive and destructive, nor
have fear of retaliation, and over- evaluation
 Should engage in critical thinking activities such as
thinking actively, carefully exploring situations with
questions, thinking for oneself, viewing situations from
different perspectives, and discussing ideas in organized
ways.
Critical Thinkers are. . .
 Skeptical ( Just because it’s in print doesn’t mean it is
right)
 Fact- oriented ( Give me the facts and convince me that
they are the relevant ones)
 Analytic (How has the work been organized? What
strategies has the writer used?)
 Open- minded ( Be prepared to listen to different points
of view; do not be restricted by personal biases)
 Questioning (What other conclusions could be supported
by the evidence?)
 Creative (What are some entirely different ways of
looking at the problem or issue?)
 Willing to take a stand (is the argument convincing?
What is my position on the issue?)
 Those who show the ability to separate fact from
opinion; recognizes propaganda techniques, compares
different sources of information; recognizes important
missing information; draws inferences that are not
explicitly stated, and identifies the author’s background
or purpose.

Developmental Reading 4
Reading for Specific Purposes

The reading teacher should take into consideration that a

CREATIVE reader. . .
A. Uses his/her cognitive processes to develop ideas that
are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration
B. Discovers a new or improved solution to a problem, or
a set of new ideas
C. Organizes ideas in different ways, and makes unusual
comparisons
D. Is not inhibited by conformity, censorship, rigid
education, and desire to find an answer quickly
The reading teacher should also remember that a
METACOGNITIVE reader
 Is aware of one’s mental processes such that one can
monitor, regulate, and direct them
to a desired end
 Has the ability to think about and control own learning
 Practices self- regulation and monitoring
comprehension by answering the following questions:

1. Are there any words I don’t understand?

2. Is there any information that doesn’t agree with what
I already know?
3. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I
can’t tell who or what is being talked about?
4. Are there any ideas that do not fit together because I
can’t tell how the ideas are related?
5. Are there any ideas that don’t fit together because the
ideas are contradictory?
6. Is there any information missing or not clearly
explained?

Developmental Reading 5
Reading for Specific Purposes

Figure 3.1
A Reading Model for Deeper Understanding of the
Material

References

Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of reading. Q.C: University of

the Philippines Open University
Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for
teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University
Parke,M. (1964). Elementary English. National Council of Teachers of
English. Retrieved from
www.scholarhabit.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/02/021713_1730_Rea
dingIsNo1.png

Developmental Reading 6
Reading for Specific Purposes

Developmental Reading 7
Building Vocabulary Skill

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

This module is concerned with reading words. However, the focus will
be on dealing with words whose meanings are unknown. In
preparation for reading this module, you may want to explore your
knowledge of this topic by asking yourself the following questions:

 How many words would you estimate are in your vocabulary?

 Where and how did you learn them?

 Have you ever read a book or taken a course designed to

increase your vocabulary?

 If so, how well did the book or the course work?

 What strategies do you use when you encounter an unknown

word?

 How would you go about teaching vocabulary to an elementary

or middle school class?

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Enumerate and describe different tasks for word knowledge.

B. Demonstrate an understanding of principles for selecting words for

instruction.

C. Demonstrate an understanding of principles of developing

vocabulary.

D. Generate student activities for vocabulary skills development.

E. Draw implications of vocabulary development and skills for reading

instruction.

Developmental Reading 1
Building Vocabulary Skill

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Resources/ Materials

Here are some great tips for remembering your vocabulary and learning
new words. This video lesson will show you how to learn more than one
new word at a time and how to practice learning and remembering
words that will improve all areas of your English quickly.

http://www.engvid.com/how-to-increase-your-vocabulary/

Developmental Reading 2
Building Vocabulary Skill

Building Vocabulary Skill

Word Knowledge Tasks (Graces, 1987)

Task 1: Learning to read known words

Task 2: Learning new meanings for known words
Task 3: Learning new words that represent known concepts
Task 4: Learning new words that represent new concepts
Task 5: Clarifying and enriching the meaning of known words
Task 6: Moving words from receptive to expressive vocabulary

Seven Principles of Developing Vocabulary

1. Building Experiential Background

- a teacher can take to build vocabulary by providing students
with a variety of rich experiences

Example: The teacher takes the children to an apple orchard,

supermarket, zoo, museum, or office.

2. Relating Vocabulary to Background

- this involves relating vocabulary to students’ background

Example: The teacher teaches the word “compliment”. The

teacher mentions some nice things that were said as
complimentary. Working in pairs, students compose
compliments for each other.

3. Building Relationships
- showing how new words are related to each other.

Example: The teacher discusses how autobiography and

biography are two similar types of nonfiction, and students
describe the subject’s accomplishments and some of the
obstacles that he or she had to overcome.

Developmental Reading 3
Building Vocabulary Skill

4. Presenting Several Exposures

- found to be essential to comprehension because of limitations
of attention and memory

Example: Third graders were shown a model of a brain where

words “lobe” and “hemisphere” were mentioned during the
discussion. They were asked to read a selection where those
two words are included. The activity involved the use of the
words “lobe”
and “hemisphere”

5. Creating an Interest in Words

- generating interest in words can have a significant impact on
vocabulary development

Example: In their experiential program, Beck and McKeown

(1983) awarded the title “Word Wizard” to any student who
noted an example of taught word outside of class and reported
it to the group. Children virtually swamped their teachers with
instances of
seeing, hearing or using the words as they worked toward
gaining points on the Word Wizard Chart.

6. Developing Depth of Meaning

- the most frequent method of teaching new words is to define
them

The teacher provides the following contexts for the word

“persistent” persistent detective, persistent salesperson,
persistent pain, and persistent rain

7. Teaching Students How to Learn New Word

- entails promoting independent word- learning skills

Example: The teacher shows to the class tools for vocabulary

instruction such as context clues, morphemic analysis, and
dictionary skills.

Developmental Reading 4
Building Vocabulary Skill

Techniques for Teaching Words

1. Graphic Organizers- semantic maps, pictorial maps, webs, and

other devices that allow students to view and construct
relationships among words.

Figure 5.1
Graphic Organizer
2. Dramatizing- putting words in the context of simple skits,
which adds interest and reality.
3. Creating Memorable Events- create events that lead to the
introduction of a new word and provide contextual clues to its
meaning
4. Determining Shades of Meaning- semantic gradients, or
differentials, can be used to help students note differences in
shades of meaning (Greenwood & Flanigan, 2007).
5. Exploring Word Histories- knowing the histories of words
helps students in three ways: it sheds light on their meanings and
helps students remember them better and longer; it “can function

Developmental Reading 5
Building Vocabulary Skill

as a memory device by providing additional context” (Dale &

O’Rourke, 1971, p.70); and it can spark an interest in words.
6. Discovering Sesquipedalian Words- students enjoy the
challenge of sesquipedalian words (Dale & O’Rourke, 1971).
Composed of the Latin form sesqui (“one and one-half”) and ped
(“foot”), sesquipedalian means “foot and a half”, or very long
words.
7. Word of the Day- a good way to begin the day is with a new
word. The word might tie in with the day, the time of year, or
some special or national event.
8. Labeling- provides greater depth of meaning to words by
offering at least second- hand experience and, in some instances,
helps illustrate relationships.

Figure 5.1
Labelling
9. Feature Comparison- through questions that contain two
newly learned words, students can compare major meanings
(Beck & McKeown,1983)
10. Wide Reading- the most productive method for building
vocabulary-- wide reading—requires no special planning or
extra effort (Nagy & Herman, 1987)
11. Speaking and Writing- the ultimate aim of vocabulary
development is to have students use new words in their speaking
and writing. In- depth study of words and multiple exposures

Developmental Reading 6
Building Vocabulary Skill

will help students attain sufficient understanding of words and

how they are use so that they will be able to employ them in their
speech and writing.
12. Using a Thesaurus- a thesaurus is an excellent tool to help
students use a greater range of vocabulary by seeking out and
using synonyms

Learning How to Learn Words

 Morphemic Analysis
A reading or word learning technique that empowers a
reader to decipher the meaning of words by using the parts of a
word “to approximate meaning” (p. 233 Alvermann)
 Contextual Analysis
A method of deriving the meaning of an unknown word
from the surrounding context.
Clues found within the context include
 antonyms,
 cause and effect associations,
 comparison and contrast associations,
 examples,
 glosses (a brief definition like this parenthetic clarification)
 phrases of contrast,
 phrases of similarity,
 restatements, and
 synonyms

Figure 5.1
A Model on “Why Teacher Vocabulary”

Developmental Reading 7
Building Vocabulary Skill

Figure 5.2
Frayer Model

Developmental Reading 8
Building Vocabulary Skill

Figure 5.3
Vocabulary Development Model

References

Gunning,T. (2012). Creating Literacy Instruction for All Students (8th

Edition). USA: Pearson
Images retrieved from
http://ci5451literacystrategiescollective.pbworks.com/w/page/6064036
/Vocabulary%20Morphemic%20Analysis
http://00.edu-cdn.com/worksheet-image/560230/vinnie-volcano-
vocabulary-earth-science.gif

Developmental Reading 9
Building Vocabulary Skill

Developmental Reading 10
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

This module begins with a discussion of the nature of comprehension

and goes on to describe and suggest how to teach strategies for
obtaining meaning from reading. Comprehension is very much a
matter of bringing your knowledge to the task. What is
comprehension? What strategies must a reader use to understand what
is being read? What must a reader do when he fails to comprehend
something?

This module also deals with tips for comprehension that a reading
teacher can share to his class.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Enumerate and describe the stages of comprehension process.

B. Demonstrate an understanding of approaches to teaching

comprehension

C. Generate student activities for developing comprehension skills.

D. Draw implications of comprehension theories and strategies for

reading instruction.

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Developmental Reading 1
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

Resources/ Materials

Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

Comprehension is a constructive, interactive process involving three

factors—the reader, thetext, and context in which the text is read.

I. The Process of Comprehending

A. Schema Theory
- A schema is the organized knowledge that one has about
people, places, things, or events (Rumelhart, 1984)
B. Situation Model Theory
- Comprehension can also be taught of as the construction of a
material or situation model.
C. Role of Reasoning
- Reasoning and background knowledge interact.
Comprehension relies heavily on the reader’s ability to use
background knowledge to make inferences.
D. Role of Attention
- Constructing meaning is hindered if the student is not reading
actively and purposely: “ Successful comprehension depends in
part on readers’ ability to allocated their limited attention
efficiently and effectively to the most relevant pieces of
information within the text and within memory” ( van den
Broek& Kremer, 2000, p.7)
E. Role of Surface Features
- Although background knowledge is an essential element in

Developmental Reading 2
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

comprehension, decoding and related skills are also important.

Students who lack adequate vocabulary or have difficulty with
syntax will experience difficulty understanding the more
complex message.
F. Developmental Nature
- As children’s background knowledge increases and their
reasoning ability matures, their ability to comprehend improves.

II. Comprehension Strategies

Preparational Organizational Elaboration Metacognitive
Strategies Strategies Strategies Strategies
Previewing Comprehending Making Regulating
the main idea inferences
Activating Determining Imaging Checking
prior important
knowledge details
Setting Organizing Generating Repairing
purpose and details questions
goals
Predicting Sequencing Evaluating
( critical
reading)
Following
directions
Summarizing

III. Steps in a Strategy Instruction

A. Introducing the strategy

B. Demonstrating and modeling the strategy
C. Guided practice
D. Independent practice and application
E. Assessment and reteaching
F. Ongoing reinforcement and implementation

IV. Effective Comprehension

 Before Reading- activities that can activate students’ prior

knowledge while extending, refining, and sometimes building

Developmental Reading 3
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

the schemata

1. Overview- a strategy in which teachers tell students about

the selection or assignment prior to reading, serves to
activate relevant schemata that students hold in long- term
memory and often enrich and refine those schemata.
Advance organizers and structured overviews are examples
of this strategy.
2. Vocabulary Preview- a strategy that starts from identifying
and selecting words that may cause problems, then
proceeds to explaining in advance these unfamiliar words
to students. Teaching problem words provides “anchors for
new information”, provides opportunities to relate
unfamiliar concepts to familiar ones, and is one aspect of
developing the general background knowledge necessary
for comprehension.
3. Structural Organizer- a strategy that teaches students to
focus attention on ways passages are organized. Before
students read an assignment, teachers should point out the
basic rhetorical frameworks underlying the discourse
(enumeration, time order, cause-effect, problem- solution,
comparison- contrast), call attention to specific plans of
paragraph organization, signal words, main idea sentences,
headings, and subtitles.
4. Student-Centered Study Strategies- PQRST Triple S
Technique, OK5R, PQ4R, S4R, PQ5R are some strategies
that provide for previewing, student- centered questions,
and establishment of purpose, as well as during and post-
reading activities.
5. Teacher- directed Lesson Frameworks- Directed Reading
Activity (DRA) Directed Reading- Thinking Activity
A(DRTA), Guided Reading Procedure, Reciprocal
Questioning (ReQuest) are examples of strategies that give
teachers a plan on which they can build lessons while some
give students strategies for approaching the texts.

 While or During Reading- activities that can guide reader-

text interactions, while reading is taking place

o Question Answering
o Inserted Questions

Developmental Reading 4
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

o Immediate Oral Feedback

o Time Lines and Charts
o Listing Main Ideas
o Outlining
o Paraphrasing
o Summarizing

 After or Post Reading- activities that help students remember

new ideas and information, while providing teachers with
feedback on how will texts have been understood

1. Follow- up pre and during- reading activities

2. Have students talk about what they read
3. Have students write about what they read
4. Have students make up tests on their reading
5. Encourage students to respond to reading “ creatively”

V. Effective Comprehension

A. Vocabulary Previews

Developmental Reading 5
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

1. Check the assignment and list words that may be

important for students to understand.

2. Arrange these in a schema that shows the

interrelationships particular to the
learning tasks.

3. Add to this schema words students probably already

understand in order to highlight relationships
between the new and the known.

4. Double- check the overview to make sure that major

ideas are clearly sown and in a way that students
will understand.

5. Share the structured overview with students, telling

them why words were placed where they were and
asking them to contribute other words.

6. As students read, have them relate other new words

and information to the graphic overview.

B. Directed Reading- Thinking Activity (DRTA)

1. The teacher has students survey an assignment

using titles, headings, and pictures to get a general
idea of what the author is discussing. The teacher
regularly asks, “What do you think this section will
be about? Why?

2. The students read up to a point predetermined by

the teacher.

3. The teacher asks similar questions but posed to

reflect the reading that is, “What was it about? Were
you correct? Why did you predict incorrectly?”

Developmental Reading 6
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

4. The group then reads on to the next stopping point,

once again reading to find answers to their
questions.

5. The process continues until the completion of the

assignment.

C. Guided Reading Procedure

1. Prepare students by explaining important concept,

building appropriate background knowledge, and
providing directions for the actual reading.

2. Students read, trying to remember all they can.

3. Students turn their books over on their desks and

repeat all they can remember while the teacher
records this on the board.

4. The teacher calls attention to information not

remembered and suggests that students reread to
discover more.

5. Students reread.

6. Their new recollections are now recorded on the

board but now in outline form.

7. The teacher asks more questions to help students

recall more from their reading and tries to
synthesize the new information with the information
obtained by the first
reading.

8. Immediate feedback is given to students through a

quiz.

D. Request

Developmental Reading 7
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

1. Teacher and students read together a section of the

text, usually the first sentence.

2. The teacher closes the book and invites questions

from the group.

3. Next the students close their books, and the teacher

asks them questions about what they have read.

4. When the teacher believes that students understand

that much of the text, the next section is read and
steps 1 and 2 are repeated.

5. Once students become familiar with ReQuest and

with the text, the teacher incorporates predictions
(as in DRTA).

6. The group now reads the remaining sections.

7. The teacher checks out the predictions: “ Were your

guesses right? Where do you think you went
wrong?”

E. Encouraging Students to Talk About What They Read

1. Have students pretend to be television reporters

who must sum up a “story” in two minutes. After
allowing few minutes for preparation they can have
individuals tell the central idea to the group.

2. Students can be encouraged to explain what an in-

class reading was all about to another student absent
the day it was read.

3. Teachers can ask, “What do you think are the (four)

main important ideas of this text?”

4. Students can be asked to use the “5W’s plus H”

model for some selections.

Developmental Reading 8
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

Figure 6.1
Comprehension as Making Meaning from Text

Figure 6.2
Spider Diagram

Developmental Reading 9
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

 Dual coding refers to the process of mentally representing a

text in words and images.
 Chain diagram best fosters understanding steps in a process.
 Causal connections are the glue that primarily holds a piece of
expository text together.
 According to research, summarizing is the most useful reading
strategy.
 Readers metacognition has the most impact upon
comprehension.

References

Gunning, T. (2013). Creating Literacy Instruction for all students.

U.S.A: Pearson
Hermosa, N. (2002). The Psychology of reading. Q.C: University of
the Philippines Open University
Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for
teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University

Images

Retrieved from

http://www.thegrid.org.uk/learning/english/ks1_2/framework/reading/i
mages/comprehension.jpg

Retrieved from
http://www.edrawsoft.com/images/examples/spiderdiagram.png

Retrieved from
http://literacy324.wikispaces.com/file/view/Metacognition_Strategies.
png/299353810/Metacognition_Strategies.png

Developmental Reading 10
Comprehension: Theory and Strategies

Developmental Reading 11
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

This module also explores comprehension. The focus of the first portion of the
chapter is on using story grammar and text structure to enhance
comprehension. In Comprehension: Text Structures and Teaching Procedures,
a variety of techniques is offered, including questioning, responsive
elaboration, guided reading, directed reading-thinking activity, and cloze. The
principles of accountable talk are presented as an approach for developing
deeper understanding. The final portion of the chapter provides suggestions
for introducing and reinforcing a variety of critical (evaluative) reading skills.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Enumerate and describe different text structures.

B. Demonstrate an understanding of teaching procedures to teaching

text structures.

C. Generate student activities for developing comprehension skills, with

focus on the text structures.

D. Draw implications of comprehending through text structures for

reading instruction.

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Developmental Reading 1
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Resources/ Materials

Graphic organizers are a pictorial way of constructing knowledge and

organizing information. They help the student convert and compress a lot of
seemingly disjointed information into a structured, simple-to-read, graphic
display. The resulting visual display conveys complex information in a
simpleto-understand manner. Check the link below for more examples of
graphic organizers:

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/

Comprehension: Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Comprehension is a constructive, interactive process involving three

factors—the reader, the text, and context in which the text is read.

I. Nature of Text

 Content
- Students are prepared for the content when the teacher
activates a schema or builds a background; however, they also
have to interact with the structure.
 Propositions
- combined. deleted, and integrated to form a macrostructure
 Macrostructure
- A running summary of the text.
 Narrative Text and Story Schema
• Setting
• Characters
• Plot
o Story problem
o Main character’s goals
o Principal episodes
o Resolution
A story grammar is a series of rules designed to show how the parts
of a story are interrelated.

Developmental Reading 2
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Figure 7.1
Story Map

II. Expository Text

 Schema for expository text develops later

 Greater variety of patterns
 Less predictable
 May be more difficult

Developmental Reading 3
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Types of Expository Text Structures

1. Enumeration-Description
 Lists details about a subject without giving any cause-
effect or time relationship among them. Included in this
category are structures that describe, give examples, and
define concepts.
 for example, for instance

2. Time- sequence
 Similar to enumeration; however, time order is specified.
 after, today, afterward, tomorrow, before, first, next,
second, then, third, and then, finally, earlier, dates, later

3. Explanation-Process
 Tells how something works, such as how coal is formed,
how a diesel engine works, or how a bill becomes law.
 (includes some of the same signal words as those found
in a time- sequence structure)

4. Comparison-Contrast
 presents differences and/or similarities
 although, but, however, similar, different, different
from, on the one hand, on the other hand

5. Problem-Solution
 followed by a possible solution or series of solutions
 problem, solution

6. Cause-Effect
 Presented along with a single cause or a series of causes.
 because, cause, effect, therefore, since, as a result,
thus for this reason, consequently

Developmental Reading 4
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Figure 7.2
Graphic Organizer for Enumeration-Description Structure
 Using Narrative and Expository Text for Mutual Support
o Read narrative piece first before complex
expository topics
o Can read expository first to introduce novels

III. The Role of Questions in Comprehension

 Develop Concepts, Background, Reasoning, Higher-Level

Thinking
 Fosters Understanding & Retention
 Planning Questions
 Placement of Questions
o Before reading: activate schema, set purpose
o During reading: help process text
o After reading: help organize & summarize
o Embedded questions: help summarize, reflect, &
monitor
 Types of Questions
o Comprehending
o Organizing
o Elaborating
o Monitoring
 Accountable Talk
o Accountability to learning community
o Accountability to knowledge
o Accountability to rigorous thinking
 Think-Pair-Share
o Turn and talk is simplified version

Developmental Reading 5
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

IV. Frameworks for Fostering Comprehension

 Guided Reading (Directed Reading Activity)

- Introducing the Text
 Developing background, concepts,
vocabulary, strategies
 Setting purpose
 Building interest
 Silent Reading
 Discussion
 Revisiting
 Extending

 Guided Reading
- ELL students may need more support
- Advanced students may need less support
- Teachers must complete content analysis
- Use story elements map with fiction

 Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DRTA)

- More student-directed than guided reading

V. The Cloze Procedure

 Nature & purpose of Cloze

– Assessing readability
– Testing
– Developing comprehension
 Classic Cloze
– Teacher deletes words at random
 Scoring Cloze
Discussion for comprehension
 Constructing Cloze exercises
– Number of deletions
– Types of deletions
– Location of deletions
 Variations
– Oral
– Word masking
– Modified

Developmental Reading 6
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

VI. Critical Reading

 Nature & importance
– Affective and cognitive skill
 Uses of language
 Understanding factual statements and opinions
 Recognizing author's purpose
-Inform
-Entertain
-Persuade
 Drawing logical conclusions
 Judging sources

VII. Tools for the Classroom

Figure 7.3
Expository Text Structures

Developmental Reading 7
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Figure 7.4
The Elements of Fiction

References

Gunning, T. (2013). Creating Literacy Instruction for all students.

U.S.A: Pearson
Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for
teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University

http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_gunning_creating_6/0,14128,4854915-,00.h
tml

Images

Retrieved from
http://mediacacheak0.pinimg.com/236x/d9/02/d2/d902d201babfb3488980
92c5e7932 9b.jpg

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Developmental Reading 8
Comprehension- Text Structures and Teaching Procedures

Developmental Reading 9
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

This module focuses on applying comprehension strategies to improve

literacy in the content areas. Additional aids to comprehension are
introduced, and some special difficulties inherent in reading are
explained. This also explores study skills and techniques for
remembering content- area information and other material.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Explain the concept of content- area literacy.

B. Demonstrate an understanding of content- area literacy by

pointing- out its importance and the challenges it posits

C. Develop skills in using content area textbooks

D. Develop skills in metacognition E. Draw implications of

content- area literacy for reading instruction.

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Resources/ Materials
In this video, Professor Daniel Willingham describes why content
knowledge is essential to reading with comprehension, and why
teaching reading strategies alone is not sufficient that students read with
good comprehension. Check the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RiP-ijdxqEc

Developmental Reading 1
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

Importance of Content Areas and Study Skills

Importance of Content-Area Literacy

“Most ofthe reading required in college and career is informational
rather than literary”
- Thomas Gunning
 Too much stress on early literacy (decoding and fluency)
 Too little stress on science, social studies, and other content
areas

The Challenge of Content-Area Literacy

 Students Unprepared for Content-Area Reading

– Denser text
– Richer vocabulary
– More complex structure
– Different purposes

 Textual Features that Foster Learning

– Extra help
– Audio version
– Publisher aids
– Trade books
– Easier texts

Instructional Techniques

 Help Students Build Conceptual Understanding

 Help Students Make Connections
 Use Effective Reading and Learning Strategies

Developmental Reading 2
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

BEFORE READING
- Structured overview
- Anticipation guides
Using an Anticipation Guide
Step 1: Identification of major concepts and establishing
objectives
Step 2: Determination of students’ background
Step 3: Creation of statements for the guide
Step 4: Introduction of the guide
Step 5: Whole- class discussion of responses
Step 6: Reading of the text
Step 7: Discussion of text and statements and evaluation

DURING READING
- Chapter organization & text structure
- Think-Alouds
- Strategy guides

Figure 8.1
Sample Questions for Pre, During, and Post Reading

AFTER READING
- Analogies, esp. for science
- Graphic organizers
- Applying and extending

Developmental Reading 3
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

KWL Strategy (Know, Want to Know, Learn)

 A technique designed to give students an active role before,

during, and after reading.
 Designed to help readers build and organize background and
seek out and reflect on key elements in a reading selection.

Figure 8.2
KWL Chart

Developmental Reading 4
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

SQ3R: A Theory- Based Study Strategy

 A five- step technique known as SQ3R- Survey, Question,

Read, Recite, and Review.
 Devised in the 1940s, it is the most thoroughly documented
and widely used study technique in English-speaking countries

Applying SQ3R
 Survey
o Survey the chapter that you are about to read to get an
overall picture of what it is about.
o Glance over the title and headings.
o Quickly read the overview and summary.

 Question
o Turn each heading into a question
o Answering the question you created gives you a
purpose for reading
 Read
o Read to answer the question
o Having a question to answer focuses your attention
and makes you more an active reader.
 Recite
o When you come to an end of the section, stop and test
yourself. Try to answer your question.
o The answer should be brief; otherwise, SQ3R takes up
too much time.
 Review
o When you when you have finished the assignment,
spend few minutes reviewing that you read
o The review helps you put information together and
remember it longer.

Developmental Reading 5
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

Metacognitive Study Strategies

Strategy Description
Asking questions: What do I This includes setting up
want to learn? hypothesis, setting aims,
defining boundaries of area to be
explored, discovering audience,
and relating task to previous
work.
Planning: How will I go about This includes deciding on tactics
the task? and subdividing the overall task
into subtasks.
Monitoring: Am I answering my This is a continuing attempt to
questions? see whether the results of one’s
efforts match the questions
posed or purposes set.
Checking: How have I done so This is a preliminary check to
far? assess results and tactics.
Revising: What do I have to Tactics, results, or goals may
change? have to be changed.
Self– testing: How did I do? In this final evaluation, both the
What did I learn? results and the method of
achieving them are assessed.

Figure 8.3
Sample KWL Chart (Science Class)

Developmental Reading 6
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

Figure 8.4
SQ3R Graphic Organizer

References

Gunning, T. (2013). Creating Literacy Instruction for all students.

U.S.A: Pearson
Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for
teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University
Images
http://mcdn1.teacherspayteachers.com/thumbitem/Pumpkin-KWL-
Chart/original- 369303-1.jpg

Developmental Reading 7
Reading in the Content Areas and Study Skills

Developmental Reading 8
Reading Literature

Developmental Reading

LEARNING MODULE RATIONALE

The focus of this module is on having readers construct their own

responses to literature, ones that are based on careful reading but which
reflect the readers' personal backgrounds and perspectives. Suggestions
for presenting major types of literature are also described. The chapter
ends with a discussion of voluntary reading, which includes a variety of
suggestions for promoting free reading.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Name and examine strategies in teaching literature.

B. Use literary texts in developing reading activities for the

learners

TEACHING STRATEGIES/LEARNING ACTIVITIES

 Lecture

 Classroom Discussion

Resources/ Materials

Check these articles on reading literature…

Reading Literature Makes Us Smarter and Nicer

http://ideas.time.com/2013/06/03/why-we-should-read-
literature/

How to Read Literature Critically

http://www.enotes.com/topics/how-read-literature-critically

Developmental Reading 1
Reading Literature

Reading Literature

Reader Response

How does one go about eliciting reader response? Probst (1988)

described the following general steps
1. Creating a reader response environment.
 Establish a setting in which students feel free to
respond and each response is valued so that students do
not worry about rightness or wrongness.

2. Preparing to read the literary piece

 Preparation for reading a literary piece is basically the
same as that for reading any text: A guided reading
framework might be used. In the preparatory stage, a
schema is activated, new concepts and vocabulary
words are taught, interest in reading the selection is
engendered, and a purpose is set. The purpose generally
is open- ended to evoke a response. As an alternative,
the teacher might read aloud and discuss the first
portion, especially if it is a chapter book or novel.

3. Reading the literary piece.

 Students read the work silently. However, if it is a
poem, the teacher may elect to read it aloud, as the
sound of poetry is essential to its impact.

4. Small- group discussion.

 The literary piece is discussed by groups of four or five
students. In small groups, each student has a better
opportunity to express her or his response to the piece
and compare it with those of others. Discussion is
essential, because it leads to deeper exploration of a
piece.

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Reading Literature

Questions that might be used to evoke a response include the

following, some of which were suggested by Probst (1988). Four or
five questions should be sufficient to evoke a full discussion.
 Which part of the selection stands out in your mind the
most?
 Picture a part of the piece of your mind. Which part did
you picture? Why?
 Was there anything in the selection that bothered you?
 Was there anything in it that surprised you?
 What main feeling did it stir up?
 What is the best line or paragraph in the piece?
 Does this selection make you think of anything that has
happened in your life?
 As you read, did your feelings change? If so, how?
 Does this piece remind you of anything else that you
have read?
 If the author were here, what would you say to her or
him?
 What questions would you ask?
 If you were the editor what changes might you suggest
that the author make?
 What do you think the writer was trying to say?
 What special words, expressions, or writing devices did
the author use? Which of these did you like best?
Least?
 If you were grading the author, what mark would you
give her or him? Why? What comments might you
write on the author’s paper?

5. Class discussion
 After the small groups have discussed the piece for about
10 minutes, extend the discussion to the whole class. The
discussion should center on the responses, beginning with
those made in the made in the small groups. Ask each
group, “How did your group respond to the piece? How
were the responses the same? Is there anything about the
work that we can agree on? How were the responses
different? Did your response change as your group
discussed the piece? If so, how?”

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Reading Literature

PROCEDURE DESCRIPTION
Book Selection Students choose from among
about five books; each student
might list three choices. Or
teacher might select book.
Formation of Groups Teacher forms groups based on
students’ selections. Reading
ability can be a factor.
Agreement on Procedures Class formulates basic
procedures for completing
assignments and discussing
books.
Group Discussions Groups meet one or more times
a week.
Debriefing Group talks about how
discussions went and decides on
ways to improve discussions.
Whole- class sharing Groups periodically talk with the
rest of the class about the books
they are reading.

Strategic Literature Discussions (Clark and Berne, 2005, 2006)

Summarizing
- There were so any details here. What were the main things that
happened?
- If you had to tell me what this was about briefly, what would
you say?
Analyzing the author’s craft
- What did the author do ti help us understand the text?
- What special techniques did the author use?
Questioning
- Are there parts that were hard to understand?
- As you read, what did you wonder?
- As you read, what questions came to mind?

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Making connections
- This makes me think of another story that we read that had a
mystery in it. How was the mystery in that story like the
mystery in this one?
- How did the main character feel? Have you ever felt the way
the main character did?

Checklist for Choosing Books

 Does the book look interesting?

 Is the book about as hard as other books I have read?
 Can I read most of the words?
 Can I understand what the book is saying?

Figure 9.1
Questions for Close Reading

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Reading Literature

References

Gunning, T. (2013). Creating Literacy Instruction for all students.

U.S.A: Pearson
Image
Retrieved from
http://www.umphrey.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Image.gif

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Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Assessment in Reading

The last module for this course explores the purpose of evaluation and
the use of a variety of formal and informal measures. Portfolios are
presented as a sensible vehicle for collecting data. Objective and
subjective techniques for estimating the difficulty level of materials is
discussed. Stress throughout is on assessment to improve students'
learning, including methods for using continuous progress monitoring
to help all learners but especially those who have fallen behind.

At the conclusion of this learning module, the students are expected to:

A. Explain the uses, strengths, and weaknesses of a variety of formal

and informal assessment measures and techniques in reading.

B. Use portfolios as an assessment tool.

C. Involve students in the evaluation process.

D. Understand the importance of matching students with materials on

the appropriate level of difficulty.

E. Be able to use a variety of techniques and sources to estimate the

difficulty level of materials.

Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

Reading assessment has great power to inform researchers, teachers,

administrators, and policy makers. Assessment practices can

significantly benefit the learning environment or they can inflict great

harm. Reading assessment, therefore, needs to be treated with great

care, attention, and respect. Teachers, especially, have a responsibility

to understand the uses and the impacts of reading assessment and be

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mindful of the consequences of assessment.

Five Purposes for Reading Assessment

1. Reading-proficiency assessment

Assessment of reading proficiency is important as a way to understand

students’ overall reading abilities (based on some assumed construct of

reading) and to determine if students are appropriately prepared for

further learning and educational advancement.

2. Assessment of classroom learning

Assessment of reading improvement in classroom settings involves the

measurement of skills and knowledge gained over a period of time and

is commonly referred to as summative or achievement testing.

3. Assessment for learning

This assessment purpose is intended to support and promote student

learning, in this case, the improvement of reading abilities.

Performance evaluation or a record of outcomes is not the goal;

instead, the goal is to provide immediate feedback on tasks

and to teach students to engage in more effective learning.

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4. Assessment of curricular effectiveness

Assessment of curricular effectiveness and program evaluation is not

specific to reading but is relevant for the development and / or review

of reading curricula. Assessment outcomes that apply to curricular

effectiveness include standardized testing, cumulative records over

years that indicate gains or losses in student outcomes, interviews with

teachers, students, and school administrators on summative test

performance, feedback from institutions that receive graduates from

the program or school, and innovative assessments that highlight

specific school or program goals (e.g., project work, motivation,

extensive reading, writing skills, or collaboration and group work).

5. Assessment for research purposes

Assessment for research purposes is a topic that is not generally

addressed in assessment chapters, but it is one that is very important

for reading research results as well as for their implications for reading

instruction. Research studies sometimes use standardized assessment

instruments to measure student levels or student instructional

outcomes. In other studies, however, researchers develop their own

reading-assessment measures for a variety of reasons.

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Major Component Abilities for Reading Comprehension

1. Fluency and reading speed

2. Automaticity and rapid word recognition

3. Search processes

4. Vocabulary knowledge

5. Morphological knowledge

6. Syntactic knowledge

7. Text-structure awareness and discourse organization

8. Main-ideas comprehension

9. Recall of relevant details

10. Inferences about text information

11. Strategic-processing abilities

12. Summarization abilities

13. Synthesis skills

14. Evaluation and critical reading

The development of the IELTS (International English Language

Testing System) represents one example of a standardized test built

from construct assumptions and the gathering of appropriate evidence

(Clapham,1996). Similarly, efforts to redesign the TOEFL (Test of

English as a Foreign Language) as TOEFL iBT (internet-based testing)

required the development of an appropriate L2 reading construct

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Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

(among other language skills) as well as evidence to support

assessment tasks that would measure this construct (see Chapelle,

Burns, & Grabe, 1997; Chapelle, Enright, & Jamieson, 2008).

Standardized Reading Assessment Task Formats

1. Cloze

2. Gap-filling formats (rational cloze formats)

3. C-tests (retain initial letters of words removed)

4. Cloze elide (remove extra word)

5. Text segment ordering

6. Text gap

7. Choosing from a “heading bank” for identified paragraphs

8. Multiple-choice

9. Sentence completion

10. Matching (and multiple matching) techniques

11. Classification into groups

12. Dichotomous items (T / F / not stated, Y / N)

13. Editing

14. Short answer

15. Free recall

16. Summary (1 sentence, 2 sentences, 5-6 sentences)

17. Information transfer (graphs, tables, flow charts, outlines, maps)

18. Project performance

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19. Skimming

20. Scanning

Classroom-based Assessment Practices

1. Observations

2. Self-reporting measures

3. Progress charts

4. Performance inventories

5. Participation and engagement records

6. Portfolios

Informal Assessment Formats

1. Have students read aloud in class and evaluate their reading.

2. Keep a record of student responses to questions in class after a

reading.

3. Keep notes on student participation in class discussions on a

reading.

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Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

4. Observe what reading material is read during free reading or SSR.

5. Observe how much time students spend on tasks during free reading

or SSR.

6. Have students do paired readings and observe.

7. Observe students reading with an audiotape or listen to an

audiotaped reading.

———

8. Have students list strategies they have used while reading.

9. Have students list words they want to know after reading and why.

10. Have students keep diaries or reading journals.

11. Have students write simple book reports.

12. Have students recommend books.

13. Ask students about their reasons for choosing certain answers in

reading tasks and activities.

14. Ask students about their reading progress.

15. Ask students about their goals for reading with various texts and

tasks.

———

16. Keep charts of student readings.

17. Keep charts of student reading-rate growth.

18. Record how far a student reads on an extended reading task.

———

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19. Have a student read and then have a discussion on the text (one-on-

one).

20. Have a student read aloud for the teacher / tester and make notes,

or use a checklist or note miscues on the text (one-on-one).

21. Have students do think-alouds while reading (one-on-one).

———

22. Have students enact a scene / episode / event from a text.

23. Note the uses of texts in a multistep project and discuss.

24. Have students fill out simple questionnaires of interests and

engagement levels in various tasks.

———

25. Create student portfolios of reading activities or progress

indicators.

Assessment for Learning Technique

1. Teachers wait for 3–5 seconds after asking a question, without

answering the question when students are silent, or without switching

to a strong student for the answer.

2. Teachers ask students to generate good questions about reading

texts that could be included on a test of some sort. Students learn how

to formulate good questions about the texts they read, and their

questions then appear on quizzes and comprehension checks.

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Reading: A Socio- Historical Perspective

3. Teachers move from more traditional question-and-answer

sequences about reading passages to questions that begin a discussion

with students about their understanding of the text.

4. Teachers withhold grades on student work until students

respond to comments on their assignments (e.g., multiple text

syntheses, filled-in graphic organizers). In many cases, teachers do not

provide grades at all, only comments.

5. Teachers deal with wrong answers or performance difficulties

in ways that engage students in finding good answers and achieving

task success. Teachers provide feedback to encourage student learning.

6. Teachers engage in “why” questions and “why” follow-up

questions to generate discussions about an answer.

7. Students engage in self-assessment, monitoring their

comprehension and their levels of success in carrying out during-

reading and postreading activities.

8. Students work in groups to answer questions and are given

time to work out answers together.

9. Students set learning goals at the outset of instruction.

10. Students assess the work of other students, usually through

comments rather than specific grades.

11. Students select a peer who will answer a question, for example,

by drawing a student’s name from a hat.

12. Students learn to monitor their noncomprehension of a text or

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task and signal for assistance when they have difficulty.

13. Students review their own learning effectiveness.

14. Students redo their answers on a reading task or a quiz, often

with peer support.

15. Students use “traffic-light” discs (green on one side, red on the

other) to silently signal to the teacher that they are doing well or

having trouble when working on their own or in groups.

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References

Gunning, T. (2013). Creating Literacy Instruction for all students.

U.S.A: Pearson

Professional Education: A reviewer for the licensure examination for

teachers. (2013). Manila: Philippine Normal University

Image

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from http://mvillavicencio.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/self-
assessment-for-reading.jpg

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