BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

3.1 Definition
3.2 Properties on Limits
3.3 Limits at Infinity
3.4 Discrete and Continuous Variable
3.4.1 Property of Continuity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about properties on limits, limits at infinity,
discrete and continuous variable and how each of these could be used to
solve problems.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 State the properties on limits,
 obtain limits at infinity,
 identify the variables that could affect limits,
 solve problems involving limits.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition

Limits describe what happen to a function f(x), as its variable x

approaches a particular number, say c. If the value f(x) is k as x
approaches c, then, the number k is said to be the limit of the function
f(x) as x approaches c.

This statement can be written mathematically as:

lim = k, or lim f(x) = f(c)

xc xc

 f(c )= k.

The symbol x  c means as x tends to c.

It should be note that, if the function f(x) does not get closer and closer
to a number as x gets closer to c, then, it means that the function f(x) has
no limit as x  c .

102
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

Example 1
 x 2  9 
Consider the function: f(x) =   as x  3 .
 x  3 
 x 2  9   32  9  0
 lim =  =  = .
x3
 x  3   3 3  0

Here the function f(x) is undefined as x = 3.

Mathematically speaking, the function is not defined as x = 3, but

defined as x ≠ 3.
To obtain the limit, we go thus:

 x 2  9   ( x  3)( x  3) 
f ( x)   
    ( x  3)   ( x  3)
 x 3   


lim f(x) = lim (x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6
x3 x3

 x 2  9 
 lim   =6
x3
 x  3 

Considering values < 3 and > 3:

2 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3 3 3.0 3.3 3.5 4

x3 x3

From Left From Right

x3 F(x) x3 F(x)

2 5 4 7
2.5 5.5 3.5 6.5
2.8 5.8 3.3 6.3
2.9 5.9 3.001 6.001

103
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

2.9999 5.9999 3.00001 6.00001

5.9999  6 and 6.00001  6.

In conclusion lim (x + 3) = 6.
x3

Example 2

x
Find the lim
x0 x

x is called modulus of x or absolute value of x.

-x for x < 0
Definition x =
0 for x = 0

0 for x ≥ 0

If x > 0, that is positive x.

x x
 f ( x)    1, positive sense
x x

If x < 0, that is negative x.

x  x
 f (x)     1, negative sense
x x

If x = 0

x 0
 f ( x)    0, zero.
x x

x
Consider the graph of f(x) =
x

1
104
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

105
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

3.2 Properties on Limits

Let f(x), g(x) and h(x) be functions of x such that f, g and h are defined.

Let:
lim f(x) = L
xc

lim g(x) = K
xc

lim h(x) = P
xc

Then:

1. lim [f(x) + g(x) + h(x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x) + lim h(x)
xc xc xc xc

= L + K + P

2. lim [Mf(x)] = M lim f(x) = ML, where M is a constant.

xc xc

3. lim [f(x) + g(x) + h(x)] = lim f(x) . lim g(x) . lim h(x) = L. K. P
xc xc xc xc

lim f ( x)
 f ( x)  L
4. lim    xc  , Provided K  0
xc
 g ( x)  imf ( x) K
xc

Example 1

Evaluate the following limits:

2
1) lim (3x + 1)
x2

105
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

 x  3 
2) lim  2 
x 3
 x  5x  7 


3) lim
x 6
 2(x 2
 4) 
4) 
lim (x 2  1)(x  1)
x 1

Solution
2 2
1) lim (3x + 1) = 3(2) + 1 = 3(4) + 1 = 13.
x2


 x 3   3 3  6  6
2) lim  2  =   6
x 3  x  5x  7  ( 3)  5( 3)  7 9  15  7
2
1

3) lim
x 6
 2( x 2
 4) =  2(6 2  4)  2(36  4)  2(32)  68  8.

4)  
lim (x 2  1)(x  1) = ( 12  1)( 1  1)  (1  1)( 1  1)  2( 2)   4.
x 1

Example 2

Find the limit as x  to zero o the following:

x4  1
1.
x2 1

(x  1) 3  3x  1
2.
x2

( x  2) 3  8
3.
x

2
(1  x)  1
4.
x

9  2x  3
5.
x

Solution
 x 4  1  0  1   1
1. lim   1
x0  x 2  1 
   0  1  1

106
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, it could be solve analytically:

 x4  1  ( x2 )2  (1)2   ( x2  1)( x2  1)

lim   lim   lim   lim( x 2  1)  0  1 
 1 2
x0 x  1   x2 1   x2 1 
  x0
  x0
 x0


 ( x  1) 3  3x  1  (0  1) 3  3(0)  1  1  1  0
2. lim    , Undefined
x
x0  2  
   0  0 0


 ( x  1) 3  3x  1   x 3  3x 3  3x  1  3 x  1   x 3  3 x 2 

 lim 
x2
 lim
 x0  x2
 lim
 x0  x 2 
x0
    

 x 2 ( x  3 
 lim  2   lim( x  3)  0  3   3
x0
 x  x0

 ( x  2) 3  8   (0  2)3  8  0
3. lim     
x0
 x   0  0
 ( x  2) 3  8   x 3  6 x 3  12 x  8  8 
 lim   lim 
x x
x0   x0 
   
 x( x  6 x  12 
2 
 lim    lim( x 2  6x  12)  {0  6(0)  12}  12
x0
 x  x0



 (1  x ) 2  1   (1  0) 2  8   0
4. lim  
x0
 x   0  0
 (1  x ) 2  1   1  2 x  x 2  1 
 lim   lim 
x x
x0   x0 
   
 x( x  2  
 lim    lim( x  2  0  2   2
x0
 x  x0

3.3 Limits at Infinity

1
Consider the function f(x) = as x  :
2x

 When x = 0,  
  When x = 1, 
107
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

1 1
 1
20 1

1 1
  0.5
21 2

108
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

1 1
 When x = 2,    0.25
 22 4


1 1
 When x = 3,    0.125
23 8

1 1
 When x = 4,  4
  0.0625
 2 16


1 1
 When x = 5,    0.03125
2 5 32

1 1
 When x = 10,  10
  0.0009766
2 1024

We can see from above that as x tends to infinity, f(x) is getting to zero.

 1  1 1
 lim  x     0
  2
x 0 2


Because 2 =  



Example 1

 6x 
Find lim  
x
 x  1 

To evaluate this, divide by the highest power of x, the numerator and
denominator respectively, then carry out the limit operation.

Solution

 6x   
    
 6x  = lim  x  = lim  6 
lim  
x
 x  1  x x 1 x 
1 
1
   
   
 
x x  x 

   6 
 6   
=  =  (1  0)  = 6
 1 
 1    

  

Example 2

109
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

Evaluate the limit as x  of the following functions:

3x 4  4x  1
1.
5x 2  3x  2

2
2. 7-
x
5x  4x 3  2x 2  6
4
3.
2x  15x 2  7 x 5

15x 4  12x 2  7
4.
6x 4  3x 2

Solution

 3x 4 4x 1 
 4  4  4
 3x 4  4x  1   x x x 
1. lim  2  = lim
x
 5x  3x  2  x   5x 2
3x 2 
 4   4  4 

  x x x 
 4x 1   4x 1 
 3  3  4   3  3   4  3  0  0 3
= lim  x x  =  x x  =   
   5 3 2  0  0  0 0
  3  4   3  4 
x x x     



 2   2 
2. lim  7     7  7 07
x  x   


  5x 4 4x 3 2x 2 6 
      
 5x 4  4x 3  2x 2  6    5
= 
5 5
x 5 
3. lim   lim = lim x x x
x
 2x  15x  7 x  x
2 5 x   2x 15x 2 7x 5 

   5 

 x 5 x5 x 

 
 5 4 2 6  5 4 2 6
   
    
   
= lim      3
 5 2
 
= x x2 x3 x5 =
x
 2 15
 3 7   2 15
 3 7 
   
  4
   x4 x 

 0 0  0  0  0
  0
 0 07  7

110
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

 15x 4 12 x 2 7 
  4  4 
 15x

4
 12x 2  7    x 4
 x x 
4. lim   = lim
x
 6x 4
 3x2  x  6x 4
3x 
  
 x4 x4 
 
12 7   12 7 
 15   4   15   4 
= lim  x 2
x  = x 2
x 
x     
3 3
 6    6 3 
 x3    
 15  0  0  15 5
=  
 60  6 2

3.4 Discrete and Continuous Variable

We shall consider the idea of limit and continuity to the concept of a

function y = f(x).

Consider a function f(x); f(x)is said to be continuous at the point x = c if

the following holds:

1. f(x) exists as x  c
2. If lim f(x) exists
xc

3. lim f(x) = f(c)

xc

Example
x 2  25
Show that f(x) = is discontinuous at x = 5
x 5

Solution

x 2  25   (x  5)(x  5) 

lim    lim   lim (x  5)  5  5  10
x5
 x  5  x5  (x  5)  x 5
5 2  25 0
But f(5) =  ,undefined
5 5 0

Recall lim f(x) = f(5)

x5

 f(x) is not continuous at x = 5.

Because  f (s)  lim f ( x)
x5

111
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

3.4.1 Property of Continuity

If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = c, then:

1. f(x)  g(x);
2. f(x). g(x) are continuous at x = c;
f ( x)
3. Also ' quotient function is continuous at x = c,
g ( x)
provided g(x) ≠ 0 at x = c.

Example 1
kx + 3 for x < 2
Given the function H(x) =

3x2 – x + 3 for x ≥ 2

Find the values of „k‟ for which H(x) is continuous for all real values of
k.

Solution

(kx + 3), (3x2 – x + 3) are polynomials, then H(x) is continuous every

where except at x = 2.

 lim H (x)  kx  3  2k  3
x2

 lim x)  3x 2  x  3  3(2) 2  2  3  13
x2

lim x) exists if and only if lim H ( x) = lim x)

x2 x2 x2

 2k + 3 = 13  2k =13 - 3 2k = 10  k =5

 H(x) is continuous at x = 2 if k = 5.

Example 2

OFN pig farms bid for the production and supply of 550kg piglet to
U.A.C Nigeria Limited as follows:

The fixed cost of producing the first 50 piglets is N25,000.00 and the
variable cost, each is N500.00.

112
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

However, the variable cost per piglet of producing the next 50 piglets is
N250.00 with a fixed cost of N30,000.00, while the variable cost per
piglet for producing between 100 and 200 piglets is N 20.00 with a fixed
cost of N35,000.00.

If a provision of N5,000.00 is made fro casualties and other necessities,

find:

i. A functional model that describes the cost of producing the

piglets;
ii. The points of discontinuity of the cost function; and
iii. The average cost of producing 50, 100 and 200 copies
respectively.

Solution

You will recall that the fixed cost is the cost that does not vary with the
level of production.

Now, let y be the number of the piglets to be produced and supplied.

The cost of producing / supply of the first 50 piglets is:

300y + 25,000 ………………………………………………… (1)

The cost of producing / supply of the next 50 piglets is:

250y + 30,000 …………………………………………………… (2)

The cost of producing between 100 and 200 piglets is:

120y + 35,000 ……………………………………………………. (3)

300y + 25,000 for 0  y  5 0

f(xy) = 250y + 30,000 for 50  y  100

120y + 35,000 for 100  y  200

Therefore, the points of discontinuity are 50 and 100, since the points
break the domain of the C(y) into three (3) intervals.

Thus (i):

 lim C( y) #300(50)#25,000 #40,000

y50

113
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

 lim C( y) #2500(50)#30,000 #42,500

y50

 lim C( y) #250(100)#30,000 #55,000

y50

 lim C( y) #120(100)#35,000 #47,000

y50

Note that lim C( y)  lim C( y), also lim C( y)  lim C( y),

y50  y50 y100  y100

(ii) Therefore, the function is discontinuous at y = 50 and y = 100.

Total Cost
(iii) Average cost =
Number of Piglets

 Average cost of producing 50 piglets

Total Cost of producing 50 piglets
=
50
300(50)  25,000 40,000
= 
50 50
= N800

 Average cost of producing 100 piglets

Total Cost of producing 100 piglets
=
100
250(100)  30,000 55,000
= 
100 100
= N550

 Average cost of producing 50 piglets

Total Cost of producing 200 piglets
=
200
120 (200 )  35,000 59,000
= 
200 200
= N295

4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, all polynomial functions are continuous, as are all
rational functions, except where undefined, i.e. where their
denominators are zero. Consequently, for any function to be
continuous, the limit must exist.

114
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

5.0 SUMMARY
We discussed about limit, if the functional values f(x) of a function f
draws closer to one and only one finite real number L for values of x as
x draws closer to a from both sides, but does not equal a, L is defined as
the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is written

lim f (x)  L
xa
Furthermore, we discussed continuity. A continuous function is one which has
no breaks in its curve. It can be drawn without lifting the pencil from the
paper. A function is continuous at x = a if the three properties mentioned
above exists.
Practical examples related to business were illustrated.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Evaluate the following limits:

2
1) lim (5x - 21)
x2

 x7 
2) lim  2 
x7
 x  4x  21 


3) lim
x7
 2( x 2
 17) 

4) 
lim ( x 4  1)
x 1

Evaluate the limit as x  of the following functions:

3x 5  4x 2  x  1
1.
5x 4  3x  2

5x 7  4x 3  2x 2  6
2.
2x  15x 7  7 x 5

x 2  81
3. Show that f(x) = is discontinuous at x = 9
x 9

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1) Pure Mathematics for Advanced Level By B.D Bunday H

Mulholland 1970.

115