POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS LAB EQUIPMENTS

Objective:

Introduction to the power systems laboratory equipments.

Introduction:

Transmission Line Module:

Transmission lines are signal lines whose electrical characteristics must be controlled by the
PCB designer. One critical parameter is the characteristic impedance of the PCB trace (that
is, the ratio of voltage to current of a wave moving down the signal transmission line).

In practice that means you'll have to control trace impedance when designing for digital edge
speeds faster than 1ns or analog frequencies greater than 300mhz. Roughly, designers will
need to consider controlled impedance boards when the electrical length of the signal line
exceeds thirty per cent of the signal rise time.

 Differential transmission lines:

Controlled impedance PCBs are usually produced using micro strip or strip line transmission

lines in single-ended (unbalanced) or differential (balanced) configurations. The differential
mode of operation is shown in Figure .The differential configuration is used when better
noise immunity and improved timing are required in critical applications. This configuration
is an example of a balanced line  the signal and return paths have similar geometry.The lines
are driven as a pair with one line transmitting a signal waveform of the opposite polarity to
the other. Fields generated in the two lines will tend to cancel each other, so EMI and RFI
will be lower than with the unbalanced line and problems with external noise are reduced.

 Single-ended transmission lines

The circuit in Figure is an example of a single-ended  transmission line. The single-ended

transmission line is probably the commonest way to connect two devices. In this case a single
conductor connects the source of one device to the load of another device. The reference
(ground) plane provides the signal return path. This is an example of an unbalanced line. The
signal and return lines differ in geometry the cross-section of the signal conductor is different
from that of the return ground plane conductor.
Generation Module:

An electrical power system is made up of many components connected together to form a

large, complex system that is capable of generating, transmitting and distributing
electrical energy over large areas. This is a document for everyday use of electricity in a
household. Many circuits are a mixture of electrical, mechanical, and electronic components,
which interact in different ways to produce strange and useful effects. Topics include
commercially generated AC as well as AC generated from inverters for alternative power use
(such as off-the-grid homes, cabins or recreational vehicles.) Electricity has become an
integral part of life and difficult to imagine to be without it.

 Generating setup for AC

AC can be produced using a device called an

alternator. This device is a special type of
electrical generator designed to produce
alternating current.A loop of wire is spun
inside of a magnetic field, which induces a
current along the wire. The rotation of the
wire can come from any number of means: a
wind turbine, a steam turbine, flowing water,
and so on. Because the wire spins and enters a different magnetic polarity periodically, the
voltage and current alternates on the wire.

 Generating setup for DC

DC can be generated in a number of ways:

1. An AC generator equipped with a device called a “commutator” can produce direct

current
2. Use of a device called a “rectifier” that converts AC to DC.
3. Batteries provide DC, which is generated from a chemical reaction inside of the
battery

Using our water analogy again, DC is similar to a tank of water with a hose at the end. The
tank can only push water one way: out the hose. Similar to our DC-producing battery, once
the tank is empty, water no longer flows through the pipes.

Ferranti effect Module:

In electrical engineering, the Ferranti effect is an increase in voltage occurring at the

receiving end of a long transmission line, above the voltage at the sending end. This occurs
when the line is energized, but there is a very light load or the load is disconnected. The
capacitive line charging current produces a voltage drop across the line inductance that is in-
phase with the sending-end voltage, assuming negligible line resistance. Therefore, both line
inductance and capacitance are responsible for this phenomenon. Illustration of the Ferranti
Effect: addition of voltages across the line inductance. The Ferranti Effect will be more
pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage applied.  The relative voltage rise is
proportional to the square of the line length and the square of frequency. The Ferranti effect
is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths, because of their high
capacitance.
Bus Bar Module:

In electric power distribution, a bus bar (also bus bar) is a metallic strip or bar, typically
housed inside switchgear, panel boards, and bus way enclosures for local high current power
distribution. Bus bar is available in round, rectangular, cross-sectional and many other
shapes. In the power system, the rectangular bus bar is mostly used. Typically composed of
copper, aluminum and brass, a wide range of bus bar arrangement is used for power
distribution.

Current Transformer Module:

A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to reduce or multiply

an alternating current (AC). It produces a current in its secondary which is proportional to the
current in its primary.
Current transformers, along with voltage or potential transformers, are instrument
transformers. Instrument transformers scale the large values of voltage or current to small,
standardized values that are easy to handle for measuring instruments and protective relays.
The instrument transformers isolate measurement or protection circuits from the high voltage
of the primary system. A current transformer provides a secondary current that is accurately
proportional to the current flowing in its primary. The current transformer presents a
negligible load to the primary circuit.

Current transformers are the current-sensing units of the power system and are used at
generating stations, electrical substations, and in industrial and commercial electric power
distribution.

Power Transformer Module:

The Power transformer is a one kind of transformer, that is used to transfer electrical energy
in any part of the electrical or electronic circuit between the generator and the distribution
primary circuits. They are small power transformers, medium power transformers and
large power transformers. The skeleton of the power transformer is designed with metal
which is laminated by sheets. It is fixed into either a core type or shell type. The skeletons
of the transformer are wound and connected using conductors to make three 1-phase or
one 3-phase transformer. Three 1-phase transformer requires each bank isolated from the
additional and thus offer continuity of service when one bank flops. A single 3-phase
transformer, whether the shell or core type, will not function even with one bank out of
service. The 3-phase transformer is inexpensive to make and it has a smaller footprint,
and functions comparatively with higher efficiency.

Potential Transformer:

Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a parallel connected

type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply
being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate
secondary connected metering.
Power Factor Correction Module:

Power Factor Correction (PFC) is the process of improving a low power factor present on

a power system by means of installing Power Factor Correction (PFC) capacitors and in so
doing, increase the ratio of active power to apparent power.

Over Current/Under Current Module:

An over current relay is a type of protective

relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a pickup value. The ANSI device
number is 50 for an instantaneous over
current (IOC) or a Definite Time Over
current (DTOC). In a typical application the
over current relay is connected to a current
transformer and calibrated to operate at or
above a specific current level. When the
relay operates, one or more contacts will
operate and energize to trip (open) a circuit
breaker. The Definite Time Over current Relay has been used extensively in the United
Kingdom but its inherent issue of operating slower for faults closer to the source led to the
development of the IDMT relay.

Over Voltage/Under Voltage Module:

Under voltage occurs when the average voltage of a
three-phase power system drops below intended levels,
and is sometimes referred to as a brown-out.
Electromechanical devices, including three phase
motors and pumps, are designed to be operated at very
specific voltage levels. If these devices are allowed to
operate at reduced voltage levels they will draw higher
currents. The increase in current causes increased heat
in the winding and coils of the equipment damaging the
critical insulation protecting them. Operating in Undervoltage conditions can drastically
reduce the life of the electromechanical equipment and lead to premature failure .Under
voltage conditions are usually be caused by undersized or overloaded utility and facility
transformers. During peak demand periods and/or when the utility is experiencing problems,
the demand for power exceeds the capability of the transformer and as a result the voltage
drops. These conditions can occur without warning and provide no obvious indications. To
protect motors and equipment, use a three-phase monitor relay, also known as a phase failure
re lay, as a cost-effective solution to prevent costly damage from under voltage. A three-
phase monitor relay, with under voltage protection, can shutdown equipment when under
voltage occurs preventing damage. A clear indication of the fault present is provided by these
relays for rapid troubleshooting and reduced downtime.
Resistive Load:

Resist current flow linearly and cause heat and light (potentially desirable or undesirable).
For example, an incandescent light bulb produces light (desirable) but also heat (undesirable).
A space heater's element produces heat (desirable) but may also glow. Resistance is measured
in ohms for resistive loads, and power is measured in watts.

Inductive Load:

Resist changes in current and as such, when you measure the current, it lags (is behind) the
voltage. Electromagnetic fields are the key to inductive loads, and as such all motors (fans,
pumps, etc), solenoids, and relays are inductive in nature. Inductance is measured in Henrys.
The important thing to remember about inductive loads is that they have two types of
power, real power and reactive power. The real power is based on the work done by the
device (such as what a motor is spinning). The reactive power is that which is drawn from the
source to produce magnetic fields.

Capacitive Load:

Are for many purposes, the opposite of inductive loads. They resist changes in voltage, and
as you'd expect, the voltage lags the current (or more commonly said "current leads voltage").
A capacitor is two conductive surfaces separated by a insulator, which store charge. When
power is first applied, current is very high, but drops as the voltage of the charge reaches that
of the applied voltage. Capacitance is measured in farads. Like inductive loads, capacitive
loads also have reactive power, but it's opposite the polarity of an inductive load. Therefore,
a capacitive load has a negative VAR. Capacitive loads are not very common, but things like
a flashbulb or a heart defibrillator might be considered a capacitive load (probably a
combination load, but you get the idea).

Power Metering
Module:

A Power Monitoring System is a network of meters connected to the Internet to provide real
time data on the power system in your facility. The meters feed an on line
software system that allows the owners and service providers to identify potential problems
with the electrical systems.

Real Power:

In an AC circuit, true power is the actual power consumed by the equipment to do useful

work. It is distinguished from apparent power by eliminating the reactive power component
that may be present.
Reactive Power:

Reactive power is the resultant power in watts of an AC circuit when the current waveform is
out of phase with the waveform of the voltage, usually by 90 degrees if the load is
purely reactive, and is the result of either capacitive or inductive loads.

Power Analyzer Module:

A power analyser is a type of electrical test tool that can depending on the model, calculate
the active power, the apparent power, the power factor, the energetic waste, the resistance,
the frequency and both voltage as well as direct and alternating current.

DC Transmission Module:
A DC system would have better transmission efficiencies as it has lower losses, but would be
more expensive and less efficient at the step-up/step-down stages. Underwater cables
however, are a different story. Because of this, National grids uses AC, while inter-country
underwater and long-distance cables use DC.
Question Answers:

1. Describe the importance of power factor correction unit for industrial and
commercial load.

Power Factor Correction aims to improve power factor and hence power quality, utilising

capacitors to offset usually inductive loads. When a load is corrected to a line, its electrical
characteristics determine the amount of current. As the amount of inductive load increases,
the power factor decreases.

2. Differentiate between active and passive power factor correction and also
describe the different location where power factor correction could be
performed.

The main difference is that the active PFC power supply is without manual switch voltage

and support all voltage range. passive PFC power supply is consisted of passive components,
its PF value is between 70%~80% approximately. The more voltage of power supply, the
requirement size of PFC components becomes greater.

3. Describe the reason for over voltages and under voltages in power system.

Over voltages:

 Power system surges. Due to poor regulation of the power source or power utility
company, voltage fluctuations either over or under may occur.
 Insulation Failure.
 Arcing Ground.
 Resonance

Under voltages:
Under voltage occurs when the average voltage of a three-phase power system drops below
intended levels, and is sometimes referred to as a brown-out. Under voltage conditions are usually be
caused by undersized or overloaded utility and facility transformer.
 4. Describe the importance of load flow analysis and short circuit analysis for a
power system.

Load flow analysis:

Load flow study is the steady state analysis of power system network. Load flow study

determines the operating state of the system for a given loading. Load flow solves a set of
simultaneous non linear algebraic power equations for the two unknown variables.

Short circuit:

A Short circuit analysis is used to determine the magnitude of short circuit current,

the system is capable of producing, and compares that magnitude with the interrupting rating
of the over current protective devices . It is a specific kind of current that introduces a large
amount of energy into a power system.

5. Describe the different techniques used to perform load flow analysis and short
circuit analysis.

Load flow analysis:

 Gauss-Seidel technique
 Newton-Raphson technique
 Fast-decoupled technique
 DC power flow technique

Short circuit analysis:

A Short Circuit analysis is used to determine the magnitude of short circuit current the
system is capable of producing and compares that magnitude with the interrupting rating of
the over current protective devices

6. Differentiate between kilo watt meter, KVAR meter and power factor meter and
also draw there connection schemes for single phase system.

kVar meter is used to meter the reactive side of power in an Industrial and commercial
building. The power factor meter measures the power factor of a transmission system.
The power factor meter determines the types of load using on the line, and it also calculates
the losses occur on it. kWh meter is the electric meter that measures the amount of electrical.
energy in kWh that was consumed in the house. The kWh meter has a counter display that
counts units of kilowatt-hour (kWh).