FM - HT - Unit 2
FM - HT - Unit 2
TRANSFER
Unit II
Compressible and Incompressible flows
Incompressible flows : Constant density
It is true for liquids
(i) Density of liquid decreases slightly with temperature
(ii) Moderately with pressure over a broad range of operating conditions
Gas dynamics is the study of fluid flows where the compressibility and the temperature
changes become important
Entire flow field is dominated by Mach waves and shock waves (Most of the flow properties
change across these waves from one state to other)
Laminar & Turbulent flow
•Laminar – Smooth streamline and highly ordered motion
•Turbulent – More velocity fluctuation and highly disordered motion (chaotic
flow)
Laminar & Turbulent flow
Inertia force ud ud
•Reynolds number Re
Viscous force
uD h 4A c
for non-circular ducts, Re , where D h
P
Pipe : Circular (fluids)
Duct : Non circular (gas) , Building less delP,
Manufac & Install cost low, Less space
Hydraulic radius?!
Relationship b/w pressure and velocity field for an inviscid fluid flow is found by Newtons
second law of motion.
The resulting equation in differential form is Euler equation.
Typical Applications
• Design of a building/tower to withstand winds,
• High speed flow of air over cars/trains/airplanes
Gas dynamics is the study of fluid flows where the compressibility and the temperature
changes become important
Entire flow field is dominated by Mach waves and shock waves (Most of the flow properties
change across these waves from one state to other)
Forces acting on Fluid in motion
The various forces that may influence the motion are due to gravity, pressure,
viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
Alike mechanics of solids, dynamics of fluid is also governed by Newton’s
second law of motion. It states that the resultant force on any fluid element
must be equal to the product of mass and the acceleration of the element. In
Mathematical form the law is expressed as
F ma
Therefore if the mass of fluid is influenced by all the above mentioned forces
then we can write the equation as
Fg Fp Fv Ft Fs Fc ma
By resolving the various forces and acceleration in x, y and z directions, the
following equations of motion may be obtained
Cont..
Fg x Fpx Fvx Ft x Fs x Fcx ma x
Fg y Fp y Fv y Ft y Fs y Fcy ma y
Fg z Fpz Fvz Ft z Fsz Fcz ma z
In most of the fluid flow cases, the surface tension forces & the compressibility
forces are not significant. Hence they may be neglected. Then the equations
becomes
Fg x Fpx Fvx Ft x ma x
Fg y Fpy Fvy Ft y ma y
Fgz Fpz Fvz Ft z ma z
Fg x Fpx Fvx ma x
Fg y Fp y Fv y ma y
Fg z Fpz Fvz ma z
The above equation are known as Navier stoke’s equation which are useful in
viscous flows.
Further if viscous forces considered as little significant, then the equations can
be modified as
Fg x Fpx ma x
Fg y Fp y ma y
Fgz Fpz ma z
The above equation are known as Euler’s equation of motion.
Navier-Stokes equations
•The differential eqns. of motion of an ideal, inviscid fluid
were derived by presuming that the fluid element is
acted upon by body forces, and Surface forces
(hydrostatic pressure force).
•However, the tangential (shear) stresses arise during
the motion of a real viscous fluid.
•Accordingly the viscous tangential forces also need to
be considered along with pressure and gravity forces
while setting up the differential eqns. of motion for a
viscous liquid.
Cont..
Let Tx, Ty, Tz be the components of shear force per unit mass set up by the
viscous effects. Then considering the elementary parallelopiped of fluid dx dy dz,
we can rewrite the equation of motion as
Cont..
(3.1)
Shear force
•Consider the free body diagram of any fluid element having the form of an
elementary parallelopiped of length dx, thickness dy and width dz as shown in fig.
•Because of viscous effects, the velocity distribution is non-uniform, i.e., there
exists a relative velocity between any two adjacent layers.
•These velocity gradients across the 2 layers setup shear stresses.
Cont..
d dp
=
dy dx
Evidently the pressure gradient along the direction of flow equals the shear
gradient in the direction normal to flow. This aspect is applicable to both laminar
and turbulent flows, and holds good for all types of boundary geometry.
Recalling that for a Newtonian fluid
du
, the pressure gradient can also be exprressed as
dy
dp d du dp d 2u
2 (3.3)
dx dy dy dx dy
Laminar Uni-Directional flow between stationary parallel plates
Consider the flow field between two stationary (fixed) parallel plates separated
by a small gap b. The flow investigations shall be made here by assuming that:
* there is no variation in the fluid properties in the y-direction, i,.e.,
( ) y 0
* for the flow to remain parallel, the plates are of infinite extent in the
z-direction and long enough in the x-direction
* the flow has a zero velocity relative to an adjacent solid surface giving
the boundary conditions: (i) u=0 at y=0; (ii) u=0 at y=b
Substituting the b.c’s in the above eqn, the integration constants are obtained as
(3.4)
The –ve sign for pressure gradient is indicative of the fact that there is pressure drop
in flow direction.
Evidently the velocity profile is parabolic with its vertex at the centre line of the flow
passage [refer fig. (a)].
This type of flow is generally referred to as Plane Poiseuille flow.
Cont..
Shear stress: The shear stress distribution is closely linked to the velocity distribution;
to determine the shear stress distribution substitute eqn (3.4) in Newton’s law of
viscosity.
Cont..
Pressure drop in terms of average velocity: Rewriting Vav in terms of pressure
gradient, we have:
R P
P x dx Vmax
P
Flow Flow
r
u
y
dx
Vmax
Vav
2
For equilibrium, the summation of the pressure and viscous forces in the x direction
must be equal to zero.
pr 2 p p x dx r 2 2r dx =0
p x dx r 2 2r dx =0
dp du
2 (3.5)
dx r dr
Velocity Distribution across the pipe
Eqn. 3.5 rewritten as
du r dp
( );
dr 2 dx the eqn to get 'u'
1 dp 2
u r C; apply the B.C u=0 at r=R
4 dx
1 dp 2
C R , and hence
4 dx
Cont..
1 dp 2 1 dp 2 1 dp 2
u
4 dx
r
4 dx
R
4 dx
R r 2
(3.6)
du
Position of max. velocity obtained by putting the derivative 0
dr
du 1 dp
( 2r) 0; r=0
dr 4 dx
Thus the max. velocity occurs at the centre of the pipe, its value is given by
1 dp 2
Vmax = R (3.7)
4 dx
Fromeqn. 3.6 and 3.7
u Vmax 1 r R
2
Cont..
For estimating the volume flow rate, consider the flow dQ through an elementary ring
area
Q = 2 dp dx r dr = dp dx (3.8)
0
4 8
The average velocity is defined as the flow divided by the area through which it
occurs: Flow rate,(Q)
Vav
C.S.Area,(A)
Cont..
Q Q 1 dp 2
Vav R (3.9)
A R 2
8 dx
1
Comparison of eqn. (3.7) and (3.9) reveals that Vav Vmax
2
Let ‘r’ determine the location where the local velocity u equals the Vav , now
u Vmax 1 r R
2
1
and Vav Vmax
2
Since u=Vav we have: Vmax 1 r R
2 1
V
2 max
or
1 r R 2
1
2
or r = 0.707 R
Evidently the average flow Vav occurs at a radial distance 0.707 R from the
centre of pipe
Cont..
Shear stress distribution:
max
dp 2 r dp
=
2 dx
w.k.t
R dx r
The above eqn. reveals that value of shear stress
at the pipe centre is zero and that it varies
Shear
linearly to a max. value of max at the pipe wall
stress
where r=R
R dp
max =
2 dx
(3.10)
R 0.025 20 103
o dp dx 250 N/m 2
2 2 1
Frictional drag for 100 m length of pipe,
FD o ( dl) 250 0.05 100 3925 N
(iii) Power required to maintain flow, P=FD Vav
= 3925 1.95 = 7654 Nm/s=7.66 kW
Alternatively: P=QP =3.83 10-3 (20 1000) 7.66 kW
(iv) The velocity at any radius r is given by
u=
1
4
dp dx R 2 r 2
At 1 cm distance from the wall, r = R-y = 2.5-1 = 1.5 cm
Cont..
u
1
4 0.8
(20 103 ) / 1 0.0252 0.0152 2.5 m/s
Shear stress varies linearly with radial distance from the pipe axis;
o 1.5
= 250 150 N/m 2
r R 2.5
Problem 2:
An oil having viscosity of 7 poise and sp.gravity 0.85 flows through a
horizontal 50 mm diameter pipe with a pressure drop of 18 kN/m2 per metre
length of pipe. Determine: (i) the flow rate of oil and the centre line velocity,
(ii) the total friction drag over 100 m length of pipe and the power needed to
maintain the flow, (iii) the velocity and shear stress at 8 mm from the wall.
Answer:
(i) Q= 0.00394 m3/s, Vmax = 4.02 m/s (ii) FD = 3532 N, Power= 7.1 kW
(iii) Velocity at 8 mm from the wall = 2.16 m/s,
Shear stress 8 mm from the wall = 153 N/m2
Laws of Fluid Friction
The frictional resistance offered to the flow depends on the type of
flow. As such different laws are obeyed by the frictional resistance in
the laminar and turbulent flow.
Based on the experimental observations, the laws of fluid friction for
the two types of flows may be narrated as follows:
4 d
4f l 16Q 2
hf 2 4 (3.15) Eqn. (3.14) & (3.15) represent the major loss
2g d d of head due to friction in pipes
Cont..
Forces on C.V in a pipe flow
Flow v P1 P2
Refer the above figure, an equilibrium between the accelerating force due to
pressure difference and the retarding force due to shear stress on the wall
gives
(p1 p 2 )R 2 o 2 R l
2 R l 2 o l p1 p 2
p1 p 2 o ; w.k.t hf head loss
R 2
R w
Cont..
2 o l 2 o l
hf (i)
w R g R
4flV 2 4flV 2
From Darcy eqn. hf (ii)
2g d 2g 2R
From expressions (i) and (ii)
2 o l 4flV 2 8o o 4f
4f= or V (3.16)
g R 2g 2R V 2 8
This fundamental eqn. relates the wall shear stress, the coefficient of
friction and the average flow velocity. This relationship holds good for any
type of pipe whether smooth or rough
o
The quantity has the dimensions of velocity;
it's called the friction shearing velocity and is denoted by u ,
4f
u V
8
Empirical correlations for Coefficient of Friction
•A number of empirical formula have been suggested for the friction coefficient f.
•It has been experimentally found that, f=function (Re, relative roughness of pipe
surface)
•The ‘f’ decreases with increase in Re, however, beyond a certain value of relative
roughness it becomes independent of Re.
•For a constant Re, the ‘f’ goes on increasing with relative roughness.
•For a given roughness, the variation of ‘f’ with Re. has been prescribed by the
following relations:
64
(i) 4f= for laminar flow
Re
This follows directly from the following two relations:
32Vl 32Vl
(a) For laminar viscous flow through a pipe, hf
wd 2
gd 2 refer eqn. (3.11)
4f l V 2
(b) If Darcy eqn. is thought to hold good for viscous flow, then, hf
2gd
From (3.11) and (3.14)
Cont..
4f l V 2 32Vl 64 16
or 4f= or f=
2gd gd2 Re Re
Thus the Darcy eqn. is valid for both laminar and turbulent flow; the difference lies
in the value of friction coefficient
Rough pipes
Solution:
2 o l 2 o l
(i)The head loss, hf
wR gR
gRhf (1000 9.81)0.15 15
the shear stress at the wall is, o 31.53 N / m 2
2l 2 350
(ii) The shear stress varies linearly from centerline to wall. Therefore, stress at 5 cm
5
from the centerline of the wall is, = o 31.53 10.51 N/m 2
r R 15
Cont..
o 31.53
(iii) Friction velocity u 0.177m / s
1000
(iv) The average velocity from Darcy eqn.
4f l V 2 4 0.0125 350 V 2
hf 15 V 2.246 m / s
2gd 2 9.81 0.3
Minor Head Losses
When the velocity of the flowing liquid changes, either in magnitude or
direction, there is a large scale turbulence generated.
The change in the magnitude of the velocity of flow of liquid is due to the
change in the cross sectional area of the flow passage, and the change in the
direction of the velocity of flow of liquid is due to change in the direction of the
flow passage.
The change in in the velocity of flow of liquid may be either gradual or sudden
and in both the cases the energy is lost in the form of heat.
The loss of energy is much more when the sudden change of velocity takes
place.
(a) Sudden Enlargement
The loss of energy that occurs when a pipe of certain diameter suddenly
expands to a large diameter.
The loss of energy can be determined by applying the impulse momentum
eqn. in addition to the Bernoulli’s eqn. and the continuity eqn.
Cont..
2
1
1
2
From continuity Q=A1V1=A2V2 ; V2 < V1 and hence a change of
momentum takes place as the liquid flows from the narrower pipe to the
wider pipe.
This change of momentum per second will be equal to the net force
acting in the direction of flow on the liquid .
V2 V1
wQ
From momentum
considerations:
p1 A1 p(A2 A1 ) p2 A2
g
It’s experimentally found that the pressure p’ is equal to pressure p1.
g 2g 2g
Since by continuity A1 V1 A 2 V2 V2 A1 V1 A 2 or V1 A 2 V2 A1
2
A1 V12 V12
hexp 1 k exp or
A 2 2g 2g
2 Borda-Carnot equation
A 2 V22 V22 for head loss
hexp 1 k exp
A1 2g 2g
Note: 1)To avoid head loss due to sudden enlargement, diffusers can be
employed.
2) Low divergence angle θ (6 to 8 degrees) of diffuser preferred to delay
the flow separation in diffuser.
Problem
At sudden enlargement of a pipeline from a diameter of 0.3 m to 0.6 m, the
hydraulic gradient line rises 0.125 m. Estimate the discharge if the pipe is
horizontal.
Solution:
Let V1 and V2 be the velocities of flow in 0.3 m and 0.6 m pipes
respectively. Then by continuity equation
(0.3) V1 (0.6)2 V2 ; V1 4V2
2
4 4
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the points 1 and 2 lying on
either side of the enlargement, we have
p1 V12 p 2 V22
z1 z 2 hL
w 2g w 2g
p 2 p1
From the given data, z1 z 2 and 0.125 m
w w
V1 V2 4V2 V2
2 2
9V22
hL
2g 2g 2g
Cont..
Thus by substitution, we have
Acceleration Deceleration
Cont..
•Flow leaves the surface at the corner of the junction and
attains a minimum cross-sectional area at the vena-contracta
•At v-c, the effective flow area is lesser than the cross-sectional area of the small-
diameter pipe.
•After the v-c the stream expands and ultimately assumes uniform flow over the entire
cross-section of the narrow pipe.
•During this expansion, vortices are formed between the mainstream and the wall of
the pipe
•The loss of head in a pipe contraction is thus caused mainly by the turbulence
created by abrupt expansion of the flow just after it has passed through v-c
Vc V2
2
A2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
A1
69 7.587 2 p 4 1.895 2
1.651
10 2 9.81 w 2 9.81
p4
8.1 m of water
w
Pressure at the 50 cm enlarged section = 8.1 10 = 81 kN/m 2
Problem 2
Cont..
Cont..
In series arrangement, two or more pipes of different diameters are connected with
one another to form a single pipeline.
For such an arrangement, discharge through all the pipes is same and continuous
and the loss of head through the entire system is the sum of the losses in all the
individual pipes and fittings.
Q=Q1=Q2=Q3=……
hf=hf1+hf2+hf3+…… (neglecting minor head losses)
Cont..
When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream and continue as a main line as shown in fig. the pipes are
said to be in parallel.
The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing
through the main.
Q=Q1 +Q2+Q3+……
hf=hf1=hf2=hf3=…… (neglecting minor head losses)
Problem
Solution:
Cont..
(a) Parallel Arrangement
The head loss for each branch is same
4fLQ12
Head loss for pipe AB
2g( 4)2 D5
4fLQ 22
Head loss for pipe AC
2g( 4)2 d 5
2
Q1 D
2 2 5
4fLQ 4fLQ
1
2
or
2 5
32
2g( 4) D
2 5
2g( 4) d
2 5
Q2 d
Q1
5.657; w.k.t in parallel Q=Q1 Q 2
Q2
Q
Q 5.657Q 2 Q 2 6.657Q 2 Q 2 0.15Q
6.657
Q1 Q Q 2 Q 0.15Q 0.85Q
85% of the total discharge flows through the big diameter pipe and
remainder 15% flows through the small diameter pipe.
Cont..
4fLQ 22 4fL(0.15Q)2
h (i)
2g( 4) d
2 5
2g( 4) d
2 5
4f Q 2 L1 L 2 L 3
hf 5 5 5 .....
2g ( 4)2 d1 d 2 d 3
Let Le denote the length and de represent the diameter of the equivalent pipe
which carries the same discharge and experiences the same head loss. Then
4f Q 2 Le
hf 5
2g ( 4) d e
2
L e L1 L 2 L 3
where, 5
= 5 5 5 ..... Dupuit’s eqn.
d e d1 d 2 d 3
The above eqn. can be used to determine the size of an equivalent pipe
Problem
A piping system consists of three pipes arranged in series:
Solution:
Size of the equivalent pipe can be determined by using the relation,
Le L1 L 2 L 3
5
= 5 5 5
d e d1 d 2 d 3
(i) To find Le for de 30 cm
Le 2000 1500 1000
5
= 5
5
5
Le 9568.36m
(0.3) (0.4) (0.3) (0.2)
Cont…
(ii) To find de for Le 4500 m
4500 2000 1500 1000
5
= 5
5
5
de (0.4) (0.3) (0.2)
de 0.4089 m
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
General flow classifications
1. Hydrodynamics
– Low speed, no density change
(incompressible)
e.g. water distribution network, hydraulics, lubrications
2. Gas Dynamics
– High speed, compressible flow (appreciable
density change)
e.g. flow in ram jet, high speed turbomachinery etc
3. Aerodynamics
– Flow pass aircraft, airfoil, drag, lift etc
Distinctions: Solid, Liquid, Gas
Solid : Stress proportional to strain
or E Hooke’s law
Incompressible Compressible
Compressible flow – Equations & variables
The following table compares the variables and
equations which come into play in the two cases.
Variables: V ,p V , p, ρ, T
n2
Cp
Cv n
Laws of Thermodynamics- Review
First Law of Thermodynamics
The SFEE for some process where work transfer is absent and
heat transfer effect also neglected (Expansion of gases and steam
in nozzles or compression of gases in compressor and in diffuser).
1 2
h0 h c
2
Mollier diagram – Total and static state
Physical system
Note
V= 180 m/sec
P=1.013 bar = Pt
T= 30 deg.C = Tt Missile as a frame of reference
Subsonic Flow
0.8 < M
Transonic Flow
0.8 > M > 1.2
Supersonic Flow
M > 1.2
Hypersonic Flow
M > 5
1 2
h c h0 cons ---------- (1)
2
2 p
h c pT RT but RT a and RT
1
Cont..
a2 p
h ---------- (2), using 1&2
1 1
a2 1 2
C cons; ---------- (3)
1 2
At T 0, h 0 and c cmax;Therefore from (1)
1 2
cons h0 cmax; At c 0, a a 0
2
Therefore from (3)
a0 2
cons h0 ---------- (4); combining all
1
2 a 2
a 1 2 1 2 0 h
C cmax 0
1 2 2 1
Problems
Example 1.
The jet of a gas at 593 K ( γ = 1.3 R = 469 J/kg K) has a Mach
number of 1.2. Determine the local and stagnation conditions
velocity of sound and enthalpy.
What is the Maximum attainable velocity of this jet ?
Solution
GIVEN:
T = 593 K, γ = 1.3, R = 469 J / kg K, M = 1.2
a = 601.29 m / s Ans
Cont..
T / To = 0.822 To = 593 / 0.822 = 721.41 K
ho = cp To = 2032.333 x 721.41
= 1466.15 kJ / kg Ans
h = cp T = 2023.333 x 593
= 1205.174 kJ / kg Ans
Cont..
1 2
c max h 0 c p To
2
c max 2c p To 2 2032.333 721.41
=1712.4 m/s
Ans
Problem 2
The temperature, pressure and Mach number at the entry of a
flow passage are 300 K, 3 bar and 1.4 respectively. If the exit
Mach number is 3 determine for adiabatic flow of a perfect gas (γ
= 1.4, R=287 J/kg K):
(i) stagnation temperature (ii) temperature and velocity
of gas at exit, and (iii) the flow rate per square metre of the inlet
cross-section.
Solution:
For adiabatic flow T01 T02 T0
T01 1 2 1.4 1
1 M1 1 (1.4)2 1.392 T01 1.392 T1
T1 2 2
p1 3 105
T01 1.392 300 417.6 K ; 1 3.484 kg / m 3
RT1 287 300
Ans
Cont..
C1 M1a1 1.4 R T1 1.4 1.4 287 300 486.06 m / s
.
. m
m 1 A1C1 1C1 3.484 486.06 1693.45 kg/s - m 2
A1
Ans
T02 1 2 1 .4 1
1 M2 1 ( 3)2 2.8
T2 2 2
T2 T2 T02 1.392
T2 300 149.14 K Ans
T1 T1 T01 2.8
C 2 M 2a2 3 1.4 287 149.14 734.4 m / s Ans
SONIC VELOCITY
General
1.8
1.6
Po/P
Compressible
1.4 Incompressible
1.2
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mach number
Cont..
po 2 4 (2 ) 6
1 M M M ... Compressible
p 2 8 48
po
1 M 2 Incompressible
p 2
Problem 1
Air (Cp=1.06kJ/kg K, γ =1.385) at p1= 3.5 bar and T1=550 K flows
with a velocity of 210 m/s in a 32 cm diameter duct. Calculate
(a) stagnation temperature (b) mass flow rate (c) mach
number (d) stagnation pressure . Also compute stagnation
pressure assuming the flow as incompressible flow
Problem Cont..
cp cp 1.06
R c p c v & c v R c p 1.06
1.385
R 0.294 kJ / kg K
(a ) Stagnation Temperatur e
2 2
C 210
T0 T1 1
550 570.8 K Ans
2c p 2 x1060
p1
(b) Mass flow rate, m 1A1C1; 1 2.16 kg / m3
RT1
2
2.16 0.32 210 36.5 kg / s Ans
4
Problem Cont..
(c) Mach Number
C1 210
M1 0.444 Ans
RT1 1.385 294 550
(d) Stagnation Pr essure (Compressib le )
1 1.385 0.385
P0 T0 570.8
1.143 P0 4 bar
P1 T 550 Ans
Stagnation Pr essure (Incompress ible flow )
1 1
P0 P1 1C1 3.5 10 (2.16 2102 ) 3.976 bar
2 5
2 2 Ans
Isentropic flow with variable area passages
Introduction
The most important controlling factors that affect the properties
in a flow systems are
Variable
area
Nozzle Diffuser
Distinction Between True 1-D Flow & Quasi 1-D Flow
Flow x
• In “true” 1-D flow Cross sectional
area is strictly constant
Expansion process
Diffuser - Function
From an energy view point : Diffuser is a device that converts
kinetic energy into static enthalpy
Compression process
Application
Ramjet Engine
Combustion
Diffuser(compressor) chamber Nozzle
Application – Cont..
Space Shuttle
1D Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
d dA 2 d dA
dv v dp v
A A
dP
w.k.t a
d
a a
@
1.4
Cont..
We know that
A* c
1
1 2 2
1 M 1
c* a* 1
2 c * 1 2 1 2 2
M
c c M * 1 2 c M 1 1
M
2 (2)
Cont..
1
* 2 1 1
(3)
1 1
Substitute 2 and 3 in 1
1
A 1 2 1 2 2 ( 1)
M (4)
A* M 1 1
In many compressible flow calculations the function A/A* ( p/p0 )occurs frequently.
This can also be obtained as a function of Mach number from the above and
below equation. 1 2 1
1 2
1
p 1 2 A P M 1
1 M (5)
12
p0 2 A P 1
1 M2
0
Using 4 & 5 2
Cont..
Acceleration
Deceleration
Impulse Function (F)
The terms pA (pressure force) and ρAC2 (inertia force) occur
frequently in compressible flow equations. Since both these
terms have same unit, they are defined by a parameter F,
Impulse function or the wall force function
Fnet F2 F1
F2 F1
p 2 A 2 (1 M 22 ) p1A1 (1 M12 )
F p A (1 )
Problem
The entry conditions of air for a nozzle are p₁=1.392 bar,
.
T₁=333K, M₁=0.40. If the exit pressure is 1.039 bar determine
the exit mach no and maximum specific mass flow ṁmax/A*
Solution:
Given Data
P₁=1.392 bar; T₁=333 K; M₁=0.4 ; P₂=1.039 bar
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A P0
RT 287 286.26
M 1 c a RT
1.4 287 286.26 339.1 m / s
m 2
c 0.999 339.1 338.8 s m kg
A
max
m 2
338.8 kg
s m OR use the below eqn.
A
Problem
The pressure, velocity and temperature of air (γ=1.4, Cp = 1.0
kJ/kg K) at the entry of the nozzle are 2 kPa, 145 m/s and 330 K;
the exit pressure is 1.5 bar.
a) what is the shape of the nozzle?
b) Determine for isentropic flow,
i) the Mach numbers at the entry and exit and exit fluid velocity
ii) the flow rate and maximum possible flow rate
Solution:
Given Data
P₁=2bar; T₁=330 K; C₁=145 m/s ; P₂=1.5 bar
C1 145
M1 0.4
RT1 1.4 287 330
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A P0
T2
0.894 T2 0.894 340.56 304.457K
T02
Cont..
m P1 2 10 5
1C1 C1 145 306 . 2 m2 sec
kg
m max 2 2 ( 1)
P0
A 1 R T0
1.4 1
2 2 (1.4 1)
1.4 2.234 10 5
489.43 m2 sec
kg
1 1
max T0
m R 2 1 2 Fleigners equation
T0
m
A P0 1
0.0404
A P0
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle with High Back Pressure
What Next?!
What happens if back pressure is
further reduced?
• Further pressure reduced at
throat!?!?!?!?
• More Mass Flow Rate!?!?!?!?
Cont..
Answer
Pe < Pb
Cont..
Shock Wave ( curve i, j )
Pe > Pb
Problem
A large supply chamber containing air at 6.0 bar and 300
K is connected to a converging nozzle on the left side
and a C-D nozzle on the right side. Both nozzles share
the same minimum passage area of 100 cm2. The C-D
nozzle has an exit-to-throat area ratio of 1.2
PA>PC>PD
Cont..
b) If the ambient pressure is reduced to 5.0 atm.
What is the mass flow rate in the nozzle?
Pexit 5 10 5
exit 6.12 kg / m 3
0.528
Cont..
What is the mass flow rate at choking condition?
When Pamb = 3.17 atm, the ‘M’ at the exit plane
just reaches unity.
From Isentropic table at M = 1
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F*
A P0
1 1 0.834 0.528 1.000 1.000 0.528
Texit
0.834 Texit 0.834 300 250.2K
To
Cont..
Pexit 3.17 10
5
exit 4.415 kg / m 3
A P
M M* T/T0 P/P0 A/A* F/F* A P0
0.59 0.625 0.935 0.790 1.200 1.113 0.948
P 5.0
0.790
Po 6.0
Cont..
Pamb
0.261 Pamb 1.566 atm
Po
Tamb
0.681 Tamb 204.3 K
To
Pexit 1.566 10 5
exit 2.67 kg / m 3
B. after choking?
Solution:
2 P
2
P
1
m
P0
A RT0 1 P0 0
P
200 103 1.4
287 403
2
0.4
0.5281.4286
0.528
1.7143
402.66 k g/m sec
2
A
(iii) When chamber pressure = 125 kPa
Pb 125
0.625 ( 3)
Po 200
2 P
2 1
m P0 P
A RT0
1 P0 0
P
Cont..
Applications:
Turbomachines (Compressor)
Aircraft engines
Supersonic wind-tunnel
Con-Div. Diffuser
Air Compressor
Combustor
Gas Turbine
Con-Div. Diffuser
Tail Pipe
Aircraft Engine Components
Wind Tunnel
Con-Div. Diffuser
In isentropic
diffusion, there is a
continuous rise in
static pressure.
In irreversible
process, diffusion
occurs through a
shock wave.
Limitations of Gas tables
P – Static Pressure
Pt – Total Pressure
T – Static Temperature
Tt – Total Temperature