Contents

CHAPTER 1 Function & testing of drilling fluids

CHAPTER 2 Flow characteristics & Gel strength

CHAPTER 3 Hydration of clays and Shale problems

CHAPTER 4 Filtration Control

CHAPTER 5 - Composition & properties of drilling fluids

CHAPTER 6 Loss of circulation

CHAPTER 7 Stuck pipe

 FUNCTION AND TESTING OF DRILLING FLUIDS

DRILLING FLUIDS HAS TEN IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS.

1. To remove the cuttings from bottom of the hole and carry them up to surface.

2. To cool & lubricate the bit &. drill string

3. To wall the hole with an impermeable cake.

4. To control subsurface pressures

5- To hold cuttings & weight material in suspension where circulation stops.

6. To release sand & cuttings at the surface...

7. To support part of the weight of drill string also casing.

8. To insure maximum information about formation drilled.

9. To reduce to minimum any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the hole

10. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit.

Functionally, drilling fluid components provide

< Density or Weight

< Viscosity

< Filtration control

< Rheological Control or thinning/Dispersing

< Alkalinity or pH control

^ Lubrication

< Shale stabilization

< Flocculation

< Protection from toxic and/or Corrosive Agents

< Miscellaneous Specialty Functions

* Microbiocidal Control

* Scale Inhibition
Weight Materials or Densities

Weight materials arc compounds that, when dissolved or suspended in a drilling

fluid, increase the density of the fluid .Weighted fluids are used to control formation
pressures and to help to combat the effects of sloughing or heaving shale in stressed
areas.
Any substance that is denser than water that does not adversely affect the properties
of the drilling fluid can be added to raise its density.
Materials Used. to Increase the
Density of Drilling Mud

Hardness
Principal Specific Moh's
Material Component Gravity Scale
Galena PbS 7.4 - 7.7 2.5 - 2.7
Hematite Fe2O3 4.9 - 5.3 5.5 - 6.5
Magnetite Fe2O3 5.0 - 5.2 5.5 - 6 . 5
Iron 4.7 —
(manufactured)
Illmenite FeO +TiO2 4.5 - 5.1 5.0 - 6 . 0
Barite BaSO4 4.2 -4.5 2.5 - 3.5
Siderite FeCO3 3.7-3.9 3.5 - 4 . 0
Celesite SrSO4 3.7 - 3.9 3.0 - 3 . 5
Dolomite CaCO3-MgCO3 2.8 • 2.9 3.5 • 4.0
Calcite CaCO3 2.5 - 2.3 3.0
Viscosifiers

Viscosifiers are added to the drilling fluid to improve the fluid's ability to remove
cuttings from the wellbore and to suspend cuttings and weight material during
periods of non-circulation. Clays and natural or synthetic polymers are the material
most commonly used as viscosifiers

Materials is Used as Viscosifiers

Material Principle Component

Bentonite Sodium/Calcium Aluminosilicate
Asbestcs Hydrous Magnesium Silicate
Sepiotite Hydrous Magnesium Silicate
Attapulgite Hydrous Magnesium Aluminum
Silicate
CMC Cellulose derivative
Xanthan Gum Cellulose derivative
HEC Cellulose derivative
Guar Gum Hvdrophilic Polvsaccharide Gum
Filtration control material

Filtration control agent are compounds which reduce the amount of filtrate that will be
lost from the drilling fluid into a subsurface formation due to the differential between
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid and the formation pressure. Bentonite, various
manufactured polymers, starches and thinners all function as filtration control agents.

Rheology Control Agent

Basic rheological control is achieved by controlling the concentration of the primary

viscosifiers used in the drilling fluid system. However when efficient control of
viscosity and gel development cannot be achieved by control of viscosifier
concentration, materials called "thinners, dispersants and or/ deflocculants are added.

Alkalinity and pH control Materials

pH is a measure of the basicity of a water solution. Alkalinity and pH control additives

are compounds that are used to attain a specific pH and to maintain optimum pH and
alkalinity in water base fluids.
pH which is a measure of the basicity of a water solution also affects the solubility
of many thinners and divalent metal ions such as calcium and magnesium, and
influence the dispersion or flocculation of clays.
NaOH(Caustic Soda), KOH ( Potassium Hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (Lime) and Mg(OH)2

Lubricating Material

Raw materials and blended products that designed to reduce torque and drag caused
by contact between the drill pipe and formation being drilled.
Lubricants are usually formulated but they are contain some or all of the following
types of materials; oil (diesel, mineral, vegetable), surfactants, fatty alcohols, graphite,
asphalt, gilsonite and polymers or glass beads.

Shale Stabilizing Materials

Shale stabilization materials are used to inhibit the hydration and swelling of water
sensitive clays, sloughing or heaving of fractured shale incorporated while drilling.
Among the materials usually classified as shale stabilizers are certain high molecular
weight natural or synthetic polymers, asphaltic hydrocarbons, potassium salts and
certain surfactants and lubricants.
Laboratory evidence indicates that polymers alone are not sufficient to prevent
swelling, and the soluble salts must also be present in the aqueous phase to stabilize
hydratable shale.
Flocculating Materials

These materials designed to cause coagulation of solids to aid in their removal from a
water base mud system, or to change the viscous properties of the drilling fluid. Salt,
hydrated lime, gypsum and synthetic polymers such as PHPA are often used to
promote flocculation and the subsequent removal of colloidal size drilled solids. Lime
and gypsum are also used to increase the carrying capacity of water base spud mud by
flocculating the bentonite and drilled solids.

Protection from Toxic agents and / or Corrosion

Corrosion of tubular may occur because of Oxygen, Acid gases (CO2 or H2S )
Which may also be toxic, and/or other chemicals that create a spontaneous
electromotive potential.

Pitting, rust and scale is characteristics of Oxygen corrosion.

Oxygen Scavengers are used to (soluble sulfite salts, Chromate salts and organic
materials).when it is not practical to remove oxygen, chemicals may be added to coat
the steel tubular to minimize the attack by Oxygen.

Removal of H2S is accomplished with Iron or Zinc materials, which form insoluble
sulfides which are not easily decomposed to reform toxic H2S.

Miscellaneous Specialty Functions:

Biocides
Microbes (bacteria, fungi and algae) may exist in the pH range 2-13 and since almost
all drilling fluid systems contain organic material addition of biocide can be important
in controlling drilling fluids parameters, filtration and viscosity are the most
properties affected by the activities of microbes in mud.
Aldehydes are the most widely used biocides, however because paraformaldehyde is
considered to be carcinogenic, more use is being made of less toxic and less persistent
biocides.

Scale Inhibiting Material

Any material added to the drilling fluid to remove a scale causing compound or to
interfere with scale formation fits the description of Scale inhibitors. These inhibitors
may be either organic or inorganic in nature, typical scale inhibitors are organic
phosphates or phosphonates.
 CHAPTER ( 1)
FUNCTION AND TESTING OF DRILLING FLUIDS

DRILLING FLUIDS HAS TEN IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS.

1. To remove the cuttings from bottom of the hole and carry them up to surface.

2. To cool & lubricate the bit & drill string

3. To wall the hole with am impermeable cake.
4. To control subsurface pressures
5. To hold cuttings & weight material in suspension when circulation stops.
6. To release sand & cuttings at the surface..
7. To support part of the weight of drill string also casing.
8. To insure maximum information about formation drilled.
9. To reduce to minimum any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the hole
10. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit.

FIELD TEST ON DRILLING FLUIDS

It is necessary to perform certain test to determine if the mud is on proper condition to

perform the functions previously mentioned.

1-MUD WEIGHT
Reported as Ib/gal or Ib/cu ft (pcf) or psi/1000 ft
mud weight is important factor when adjusting the hydrostatic head pressure,
N.B usually the hydrostatic pressure must be set higher than the formation pressure.

There are three cases

Case I HP > FP → no problem
Case II HP >>> FP→ loss + differential stuck

Case 111 HP <<< FP→ gain + flow +caving.

N.B In Case III you could notice that cutting size will become bigger in size and
amount, which may lead to stuck pipe.
Hydrostatic head (psi) =M.wt (ppg) X 0.052 X True Vertical Depth in ft
Units & Conversion
M.wt (ppg) X 0.052 → psi/ft
M.wt (ppg) / 8.33 → SPGR
M.wt (ppg) X 7.48 → pcf
(pcf) X 0.132 → ppg
i

N.B Calibration of mud balance could be done using fresh water (8.33 ppg) or using diesel (7
ppg).

2. VTSCOSTY
It is a measure of the resistance of the mud to flow"

A) Marsh Funnel Viscosity (sec/quart)

One quart = 946 cc
N.B. calibration of the marsh funnel is done by water, which takes only 26 sec. to fill one
quart.

B) Plastic Viscosity (cps)

It is measured using the V.G meter under dynamic condition.
θ 6 0 0 -θ 3 0 0 = PV

N.B usually (PV) increase while drilling due to increase in solid percentage, also it could
increase even if drilling rate is slow but in this case is due to increase of surface area of
drill solids particles due to the effect of grinding action of the bit splitting drill solids into
more fine particles. Generally PV increase of solid content which may be from drilled solid,
or introduced to system as weighing material such as barite.

C) Yield Point: LB/100 SQ FT

It is measured by the V.G meter under dynamic condition
θ 300 - PV —> YP
N.B. Yield Point is important parameter since it is responsible for carrying drilled cutting
from bottom of hole to surface
D) Gel Strength Lh/100 Sq Ft
It is measured by the V.G meter under static condition
θ3 in 10 seconds
θ3 in 10 minutes
It is a measure of the structure developed as result of the attraction between particles when
the mud is stationery.

N.B Gel properties of the mud determine the swabbing effect on pulling the drill pipe,
pressure required to break circulation, ease of release of gas & setting of the solids in the
mud pits.

3- SOLIDS WATER & OIL CONTENTS DETERMINATION

This is achieved using the retort, which is simply composed of a cell 10 ml capacity, a
condenser, a measuring cylinder to collect the water or water and oil if any is present if we
are using oil mud or coming from formation if we are using water base mud.
Example 1
S% =20
W% = 80
Example ?.
S% =10
W% =30
0% =60
*O/W RATIO
O% = O
O+W
O% = 6 0 = 66%
60+30
*O/W = 66/34
N.B Water % is 34 by subtracting 66 from 100

4 - API FILTRATE (ml/30 min) "WATER LOSS" [W.L]

It is measured by filter press. Where the cell is 3/4 filled with mud (W.B.M) only not O.B.M
pressure of 100 psi is applied for 30 min or 7.5 min then multiplying the collected filtrate by
2 v/ill give you the water loss value, which has an important role.
WE HAVE TWO CASES

CASE I
W.L is high → thick filter cake, which is not accepted.

CASE II

W.L is LOW → Thin filter cake, which is favorable & accepted

In case (I) tendency for stuck pipe increase

5- HIGH TEMPERATURE - HIGH PRESSURE FILTER PRESS (HT-HP)

This test is done both W.B.M. & O.B.M systems in which the cell is 3/4 filled with
mud. Then imposed to high temp. of 250 of to 300 of and a differential pressure of 500 psi.
This device help to find out the amount of filtrate and if these is a good emulsion in case of
O.B.M. since if we find free water in the filtrate that means the emulsion is weak and we have
to add emulsifiers to emulsify the water in the oil phase (external phase)

N.B. if we leave the water and not treat it a lot of problems will be encountered such as
sagging and also great tendency for stuck pipe.

6- FILTRAT ANALYSIS:

(1) Test For Chloride (Cl - )

1 ml sample + 3 - 5 drops K2Cr2O7 then titrate versus AgNO3 (silver nitrate) while stirring till

the color. Changes from yellow to buffer redish color

0.0282 N ml of Ag NO3 x 1000 = Cl ppm .
0.282 N ml of Ag NO3 x 10000 = Cl ppm

CHEMICALS REACTION OCCURING

AgNO3 + NaCl --------- ► AgCl ↓+ NaNO3 white ppt

AgNO3 + K2Cr2O7 ------ ► Ag2Cr2O7↓+ KNO3 buff PPt

N.B in salt saturated mud the (Cl) should be at least 1 7 5 - 1 85k.

(II) Test For Calcium (Ca2+)

1 ml filtrate + 2 - 3 drops 8% NaOH or KOH then add few crystals of meroxide indicator
powder, titrate versus EDTA (0.02N) while stirring till color change from Pink to Violet
V EDTA X400 = Ca 2+ PPM -------- ► V A

(III) Test For Total Hardness (Ca 2+ &Mg 2+ )

1 ml filtrate + 2 -4 drops buffer solution + erichrome black-T solution then titrate

versus EDTA (0.02 N) while stirring till color changes from PINK to Blue
 VEDTA =(Ca2+ + Mg2+) =VB

VB-VA=VC ×243 = Mg2+ ppm

N.B Calcium ion concentration could be decreased by S. ASH or S. Bicarbonate addition.

Ca 2+ + Na 2 CO 3 ------- ► CaCO3 + 2 Na+

N.B Calcium will flocculate up the mud as it will be discussed latter.

What is EDTA ?
Ethylene diamine tetracitic acid

The EDTA will trap the Ca 2+ ion, any excess of Ca2+ ion will combine with meroxide to
give Pink color.

(IV) Test for Alkalinity

(A) Filtrate Alkalinity (P f )
1 ml filtrate + 2 - 3 drops Ph-Ph then titrate versus H2SO4 (N/50) sulfuric
while stirring till color changes from Pink to colorless.

(B) Mud Alkalinity (P m )

1 ml mud + 2 0 - 3 0 ml D.W + 4 - 5 drops Ph - Ph then titrate versus H2S04
(N/50) sulfuric while stirring till color changes from Pink color until color
disappear (same as filtrate)

N. B.: in the filtrate and mud alkalinity if the color change of the indicator is
masked, the end point is taken when the pH drops to 8.3 as measured
with the glass electrode.

(C) MF Test:
On the same sample of the Pf , add two to three drops of M.O (methyl orange)
indicator then titrate versus H 2 S0 4 (N/50) until color changes from colorless to.
pink or dark orange. At the end point the pH must be 4.3.

(D) Lime Content:

F W = % water by volume
100
(F W )from retort

Excess lime (Lb/bbl) = 0.26 (Pm – PfFW)

N.B. Test for Alkalinity is very important to determine the pH is due to OH - or OH -

&CO 3 2- or CO32-&HCO3- or finally to only HCO3- which is the worse case.
7 - METHYLENE BLUE TEST (MBT)

1 ml mud + 10 ml D.W + 15 ml H2O2 (3%) + 0.5 ml H2SO4(5N) heat gently for 10

minutes, complete to 50 ml by D.W i.e. 23.5 ml only of D.W then add 0.5 ml of Methylene
Blue and check for end point, repeat this until you get the end point which is around the dark
blue spot it will be surrounded by greenish blue color which means the unabsorbed M.B on
the Bentonite.

BENTONITE CONTENT (LB/BBL) = ml of M.B X5

M.B.C = ml of M.B
ml of MUD

8 - DISCUSSION IN DETERMINATION OF ALKALINITY

There are mainly three ions in water base mud that contribute to Alkalinity

(I) OH- OH- + H+ —► H2 O

(II)CO32- 2- +
CO3 + H → HCO3-
(III) HCO3- - +
HCO3 + H → CO2 + H2O

SOURCE OF ALKALINITY

(I) Hydroxide ion (OH-)

Hydroxyl ion could be found in nature in the form of Mg (OH)2 and Ca (OH)2
which are found in the earth crest, in addition NaOH & Ca(OH)2 are added to mud
for pH control also for CO2 gas or H2S gas it is prefer to used Ca(OH)2 to treat out
these two gases.

(II) Carbonate ion (CO32-)

The carbonate ion has several interesting sources, it could be found in the
formation, also could be the product of a chemical reaction as following :

CO2 + H2O -------------------→ H2 CO3

H2 CO3 + OH- -------------------→ HCO 3 - + HOH
HCO3 + OH- ------------------→ CO3-- + HOH

N.B.: CO2 gas exists in many formation.

(Ill) Bicarbonate anion

The bicarbonate ion occurs generally as a result of CO2 gas in the mud. The
presence of HCO3-depends upon the pH of the OH-.

HCO3- + OH- -------- ► CO32- + HOH

This reaction occurs at PH = 10.3, which means HCO3- doesn't exist at high pH
values, since the OH- always reacts with HCO3- to produce CO32-.
9- KCL CONCENTRATION TEST

(I) Put 7 ml of API filtrate in centrifuge tube.

(II) Add 3 ml of Sodium Perchlorate solution.
• (HI) Centrifuge at constant speed (1800 RPM) for one minute.
.(IV) Read the ppted volume immediately.
(V) Determine the KCL concentration by comparing the measured ppt
volume with standard curve.
(VI) Report K+ cone. As KCl Ib/bbl.

10 - POLYPLUS TEST

(I) Put 10-ml API mud filtrate in centrifuge tube.

(IT) Add 6 drop's cresol red solution.
(Hi) Titrate with 0.2 N HCl drop by drop, the end point from purple red to Yellow.
(IV) Back titration with 0.2 NaOH.
(V) Add 2-ml flock developer, invert tube gently 3 times.
(VI) Allow standing 3 minutes.
(VII) Centrifuge for 1 minute at 1400 RPM.
(VIII) Read the precipitate as ml.
Each I ml = 1 Ib/bbl Polyplus

11- DETERMINATION OF PHPA CONCENTRATION MATHEMATICALLY

Based on empirical calculations from field data, two consumption - factors were calculated
for the different formation categories familiar in the Oil Well Drilling. Knowing that polymer
is usually consumed" while drilling on cuttings and on wellbore, we can use these factors to
approximately calculate how much polymers was discarded and/or consumed. In other
words; the present concentration of PHPA - polymer in the fluid could be determined.

CALCULATION:
On daily basis, the cone. Is calculated by the following equation:-
PHPA cone. = { ( A * B) + C}- (D * B) - (F * X)
A+E-D
Where A = Previous mud volume, bbls.
B = Previous polymer cone.
C = Pounds of polymer added to the mud, lbs.
D = Mud volume dumped, bbl's.
E = Total dilution added, bbl\s.
F = Drilled hole volume, ft.3 (= bbls /0.1781)
X = Formation Consumption Factor,
2.6 For Limestone, Sandstone, Sand. Anhydrite, ..etc.
3.5 For Shale, Clays, Mudstone, Highly Argillaceous formations, ..etc

The value obtained is reported and used the next day as B in the same equation.
OIL BASE MUD TESTS

(I) Valk (To Determine the Excess Lime)

1 ml mud + 12 V2 ml isopropyl + 37 V2 ml Xylene + 100 ml DW + drops of pH.
Shake very well for 5 - 10 min. Titrate versus H2SO4 (0.1 N) while shaking until the
Pink disappear (color of mud).

(II) VEDTA (VOLUME OF EDTA)

10 ml mud + 12 V2 ml isopropyl + 12 V2 ml Xylene + 210 ml DW stirr the above
mixture for 15 min. then take 1 ml of mixture (emulsion) + 50 ml D.W + drops of
NaOH (8%) add then clavier II (meroxide indicator), Titrate versus EDTA until the
color changes from Red to Blue.
/V.B titration should be slow not fast.
i
(III) TEST FOR CALCIUM CHLORIDE (CaCl 2 )
To the same sample of (I) add K2Cr2O7 ( 6 - 1 0 drops) shake very well the mixture
for 5 - 1 0 minutes, then Titrate versus AgNO3 (10,000 PPM) until color changes
from yellow to buff.
CaCl2% = ml of AgNO3X 31.3 _______________________ X 100
ml of AgNO3X 31.3 + (2000 X water fraction)
 CHAPTER (2)

FLOW CHARACTERISTICS & GEL

STRENGTH
Two of the most important properties to control are Viscosity & Gel Strength.

Viscosity & Gel Strength Are Related To:

A) Removal of cuttings.
B) Holding cuttings & weight materials in suspension during static periods.
C) Releasing cuttings at the surface.
D) Providing information's about formations penetrated.

Viscosity & Gel strength increase during drilling. Penetration of the formations by the bit
contributes active solids, increase solids and contaminates to the system. This can cause
increased viscosity & or gel strength to levels which may not be acceptable. water or
chemicals or both may be added to control them.

Problems When Abnormal Viscosities & Gel Strength Develop:

A) Use of excessive pump pressure to break circulation.

B) Loss circulation as a result of pressure surges.
C) Entrapment of gas in the mud which may promote a blowout.
D) Swabbing of gas or salt water into the hole.
E) Swabbing of shale into the borehole.
F) Sand & cuttings being carried in excessive amounts contributing to abrasive
action on rig parts.

Plastic Viscosity:

"It is the shearing stress in excess of yield point that will induce a unit rate of shear."

Plastic Viscosity is that part of flow resistance caused by mechanical friction.

This Friction Occurs:

A) Between the solids in mud.

B) Between the solids and the liquid that surround them.
C) With the shearing of the liquid itself.

However PV, depends upon the concentration of solids in mud.

The solids present in mud fall into two classes:

1) Active Solids :
Those which are added to the mud to perform specific functions, such as Bentonite,
or from the formation as Clay.

2) Inert Solids :
Which contribute little or no value to the mud, such as Sand, Limestone, Dolomite
and barite. The incorporation of these inert solids into the mud is one of the main
factors causing the apparent viscosity.

• As the concentration of inert solids increase the friction between the

particles, under this condition PV increases with an accompanying increase in
apparent viscosity.
• Decreasing the size of solids at constant volume also increases PV.

Remarks:

• There is a net effect of increasing surface area and consequently friction.

• In all drilling fluids, there is an increase in surface area of the particles due
the grinding action of the bit consequently increase in Plastic Viscosity.

Methods of Lowering the Solid Concentration Which in Turns Lowers PV & AV:

1) Dilution :
By water addition, which decrease the solid concentration and consequently lowers
PV and AV, since the friction between the solids decreased.

(2) Shale Shaker Screens :

Running the mud over the shaker screen removes the larger particle size.

N.B: Washing screens by water washes fine cutting into the mud, and it
should be avoided.
(3) Centrifuge Separator :
These mechanically separate ultra fine solids up to 5 micron, which intern reduces
solids concentration.

(4) Desander or Desilter :

They mechanically remove solids or sands from the mud reducing solids
concentrations.
Finally: the control of solids is very important in controlling viscosity. High (PV)
reflects increased friction due to the introduction of solids to the system and or
grinding of particles to smaller size causing increase in surface area of solids.
High viscosity, however is not caused only by (pv) but also by yield point (yp).

Yield point (yp) lb/100sq.ft

"
It is the second component of resistance to flow in a drilling fluid"
It is a measurement of the electrochemical or attractive forces in a drilling fluid. These
forces are a result of negative and positive charges located on/or near the particle surface.
Yield point is a measure of these forces under flow condition and is dependent upon:

1-Surface properties of mud solids.

2-Volume concentration of the solids.
3-Types of ions in the fluid phase
Generally (YP) is the force of attraction between ions.

Reasons of increase (YP)

1- Introduction of cement, anhydrite or gypsum they will flocculate the mud

causing increase in (YP).
2- Breaking of clay particles by grinding action of bit and drill pipe creates new
residual forces, these forces pull the particles together in disorganized from
leading to increase in (YP).
3- Introduction of new solids to the mud system cause increase in (yp).
4- Drilling through hydratable shale or clay introduce new active solids into the
system increasing attractive force by bringing the particles close together and by
increasing the total number of charges.
5- Insufficient or over treatment with chemicals increases the attractive forces.

N.B. as the attractive forces are reduce by chemical treatment, the YP will decrease &
AV decrease .
HOW TO LOWER THE (YP)

1- By addition of legnin, complex phosphates or lignosulphonate which make the

solid particles (- )vely charged and hence repel each other and tends to decrease the
attraction forces.

2- By precipitating Ca2+ & mg2+ since they cause increase of yp not an any kind of
drilling fluid.

3- water could be used to lower the (yp),

Gel-strength lb/100 sq ft

Denote the thixotropic properties of the mud they are a measure of the attractive
forces under static condition.

Gel strength is clarified as:

1-Progressive

2-Fragile

3-Flat

1. PROGRESSIVE GEL

It occurs due to high solid content, in mud they are undesirable because they may
create problems such as excessive pump pressures to break circulation, increase in
ECD, giving tendency of loss circulation and hole swabbing.

7 FRAGILE GEL

This type of gel is very easily broken, this would indicate lower pump pressures to
break circulation and fewer problems.

3. FLAT GEL

It is recommended to achieve this type of Gel while drilling high formation pressure
zones, polymer is the best chemical to give flat gel.

Q ID 20 30 *0 SO 60 70 80

Fugite and Progressive Gel Strangtn

 RHEOLOGY

"It is the science of deformation and flow of matter"

Shear stress- Shear rate

When a fluid is flowing, a force exists in the fluid, which opposes the flow. This force is
known as the shear stress. It can be thought of as frictional for which arises when one
layer of fluid slides over the other since it is easier for shear to occur between lavers of
fluid than between the wall of a pipe. The fluid in contact with the wall does not flow.
The velocity of each successive layers progressively increase from the wall to center of
the pipe. The rate at which one layer is moving past its neighbor is the shear rate.

• As shear rate is increased the shear stress decrease.

• Shear stress is a function of pressure.
• Shear rate is a function of geometry & average velocity of the fluid.

Newtonian fluids

The most simple class of fluids is called Newtonian water glycerin and light oil are
examples of Newtonian fluid in these fluids the shear stress is directly proportional to
sheer rate .

(N.B)

Shear stress : >s defined as force per unit area

(Dyn/cm")
Shear rate : is defined as the rate one fluid layer Moving past an adjacent

fluid layer (cm/sec)

Non-Newtonian fluid

When a fluid contains clays or colloidal particles, these particles tend to "bump" into
one another increasing shear stress or force "necessary to maintain a given flow rate

As the shear rate is increased, the particles will line in the flow stream and the effect of
particle interaction is decreased, this causes the velocity profile in a pipe to be different
from that of water. In the center of the pipe, where the shear rate is low the particle
interference is high and the fluid tends to flow more like a solid mass.
The flattening of the velocity profile.

A) Increase the sweep efficiency

B) Increases the ability of fluid to carry larger particles

Shear stress X 1

Shear rate

Note: at low shear rates the particles link together increasing the resistance to flow,
but at high shear rates the linking bonds are broken and the fluid becomes
more like water.

Differences between plastic, pseudo plastic & dilatant fluids

The mud engineer is concerned with the flow patterns of non-Newtonian fluids.
There are three types of fluid flow:-

1. Plastic flow
2. Pseudo plastic flow
3. Dilatent flow

As illustrated in fig (8) the pseudo plastic fluid gets thinner at increasing shear rate,
whereas the Dilatent fluid gets thicker and more viscous, for the plastic fluid a definite
force must be applied before any flow or movement begins. The consistency curve
intersecting the stress line at some point other than the origin.

BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL

" It is that model which has been used most often to characterize the flow properties of
drilling mud.

This model describes a fluid in which a finite force is required to initiate flow and
which then exhibits a constant rate of increase of shear stress with increasing shear
rate.
If a consistency curve for a drilling mud is made with a rotational viscometer, a non
linear curve is formed that does not pass through the origin. The phenomenon
causing the intercept to occur at some point other than the origin is due to the
minimum force required to start the flow because of the gel properties of the mud . as
the force is increased, flow increase and there is a transition from plug to viscous now
up, tu the bingham-yield point. After the bingham yield point is exceeded equal increase
of stress will produce equal increase of shear & the system assumes the flow pattern of a
Newtonian fluid.

POWER LAW MODEL

It is a more versatile approach to describe the flow properties of a non-newtonian

fluid, this model describes a fluid in which the shear stress increases as a function of the
shear rate mathematically raised to some power .

T=Ky n

Where : t - shear stress

k - consistency index ( cps) & Ib-sec/100 ft
y = shear rate , sec-1
n = power index

The k & n are constants representing characteristics of a particular fluid.

(k) indicates the pumpability of the fluid

(n) indicates the degree of non — Newtonian characteristics.

* Example; as the fluid becomes thick the (k) will increase and (n) will also increase.
 CHAPTER(3)

HYDRATION OF CLAYS
- Clays are earthy materials that develop plasticity when wet. This occurs
because some clay adsorbs water these are called hydrophilic Clays, while those,
which will not adsorb water, are called hydrophobic clays.

- Clays used in fresh water consist of hydrated alumina silicates of extremely

fine and variable particle size, they are formed of alternate sheets of silica and
alumina with slightly different arrangements.

■ The clay which is commonly used is the bentonite, which consist of plate like
particles, overlapping of them may have certain co-ordination and a process
named "shingling" which help in fluid loss control.

" The bentonite molecule consists of three layers, alumina layer with a silica layer
from both sides of it.

• There are two kinds of bentonite, if the cations are Na+, the clay is called sodium
montmorilonite, if these cations are Ca+ + the clay is called calcium
montmonrilonite.

■ The thickness of the adsorbed water film is controlled by the type of cation
associated with the platelets of the molecule this could be explained that if the
divalent cations were found , then the attraction forces between the platelets will
increase and thus decreasing the amount of water to be adsorbed, but in case of
monovalent caution as sodium, the attraction forces between the platelets will be
less than in case of divalent hence more water can be adsorbed and consequently
the swelling property of the molecular will increase.

N.B-: The various Linking processes of clay particles are quite important to the
rheology of clay suspensions.

* clay particles can associate in three different ways

1. Face to Face.
2. Edge to Edge.
3. Edge to Face.
In the hydration state there are 4 states

A) Aggregation State :

This lead to formation of thicker plates, thus decreasing the number of plates
I.e. increase the attracts forces between the plates, thus less amount of water
could be adsorbed. This occurs by introduction of divalent caution as Ca2+ or
Mg2+ arising from addition of Lime^ gypsum or by drilling through anhydrite or
cement. After initial increase in Viscosity (Hump), it will tend to decrease to
some values lower than it was originally making

B) Dispersion State :

The reverse of aggregation leads to a greater number of particles and to hi-her

viscosities. Clay parties are normally aggregated before they are hydrated and as
they hydrate some dispersion takes place, which depend upon the electrolyte
content of water.

C) Flocculation State _:

The clay plates stick together forming house-card structure or clump, through edge
to edge or edge to face attractive forces to form more or less loose structure and
cause an increase in viscosity.

D) Deflocculation State :

This is the opposite of flocculation which can achieved by adding certain

chemicals to the mud to neutralize the unsatisfied charges so this particles will
no longer associate edge to edge nor edge to face. These chemicals are called
mud thinners
 SHALE PROBLEMS
KINDS OF SHALES
(a) Sloughing shale .
(b) Heaving shale
(c) Running shale
(d) Bentonite shale
(e) Mud making shale
(f) Plastic flow shale
(g) Gas bearing shale
(h) Pressed shale
Shale are usually Sedimentary Rocks, which were deposited in Marine
Basins, they are composed of compacted beds of mud, slits & clay. There are
three forms

Soft Solid Metamorphic

Mud or clay shale or argillite Slate
N.B. the drilling fluid engineer is much concerned about the degree of
hydration which is influenced by the type of cation involved and the pH of
fluid.
How to Avoid Shale Problems?
(a) Avoid abnormally high annular velocity, this help minimize hole
enlargement caused by erosion.
(b) Keep the hole full while pulling out of the hole.
(c) Low viscosity will prevent swabbing.
(d) keep a thin filter cake by lowering water loss because the thin wall cake
will help to avoid hole swabbing also by lowering the water loss the
amount of free water in the fluid available to react with shale will be
less thus prevent swelling.

(e) Drill shale with proper mud weight to hold the formation pressure.
(f) Use inhibitive drilling fluid.
Why Mud Weight Should Be Increased?
In some shale formation they bear pressure greater than hydrostatic pressure,
hence caving may occur which in turn may create "Tight Hole" problems.
MB. finally, drilling throughout shale formation, the Yield Point should be
decreased before reaching the shale section. This is not always the case, that it
depend upon what kind of fluid you are using also the type of well is it
vertical or horizontal.
 BORE HOLE STABILITY

Bore hole stability can be controlled while d r i l l i n g into shale and unconsolidated
formation by :

1. SHALE INHIBITION :

Since shale hydration will result in :

a) Swelling and expansion due to in take of water, t h i s will cause b i t
balling, hole wash our and fine solids build up.
b) Disintegration and dispersion due to water contact, this will cause
sloughing shale, bridges, fill on trips and hole cleaning problems.

SHALE STABILIZATION MECHANISM :

The effectiveness of high molecular weight polymers such as Emec Pac or

PHPA in shale i n h i b i t i o n result from polymer adsorption on the
positively charged edges of the clay platelet t h i s will greatly reduce shale
instability and dispersion, also polymers increase the viscosity of filtrate
(water phase) and consequently reduces filtration entry into shale
fractured planes. PHPA is highly effective in reducing b i t and stabilizer
balling and will minimize the dispersions of shale cuttings into mud
system by encapsulation.

2. COMPACT LOSS OF CIRCULATION :

By using viscous pills containing various sizes of LCM (Please refer to loss of
circulation).

3__MECHANICALLY :
Avoid swap or surge pressures by reducing pipe running or pulling speed
and adjustment of Gel Strength.

Avoid under balanced hydrostatic pressure by controlling mud weight at

the proposed value to balance the formation pressure.

Avoid mechanical erosion by using the optimum pump out put for each
interval to ensure laminar flow.
 •CHAPTER(4)
FILTRATION
Formations encountered during drilling can behave like the screen. Mud solids are
deposited on the walls of the hole, and filtrate invades the formation. The filtration process
must be properly controlled to insure the successful performance of the drilling mud. This
involves control of the filtration rate, the thickness and texture of the cake, and the
chemical properties of the filtrate.

The objective of proper fluid-loss control is to form a thin, tough filter cake on the surface
of permeable formations and to prevent excessive loss of filtrate. Also, the filtrate
should be compatible with both the formation and the formation fluids. This helps
maintain a stable wellbore and minimizes formation damage. The following benefits can
be gained from proper attention to and control of fluid loss:

1. Reduced danger of stuck pipe.

2. Increased protection for producing formations.
3. Increased interpretability of wireline logs and
4. Improved wellbore stability.

REQUIREMENTS FOR FILTRATION:

In order for filtration to occur in the wellbore, there must be a positive differential pressure
between the mud and the formation, and the formation must be permeable. Differential
pressure is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure of the mud and the formation
pressure. The differential pressure is considered positive if it tends to force nitrate into the
formation.
A permeable formation has the ability to allow fluid to pass through it. The permeability is
related to the size and configuration of the passages connecting the pore spaces in the rock.
If fluid cannot pass through the rock, the rock is considered impermeable or impervious.
There can be no fluid loss nor cake formed on an impermeable formation. Sand is good
examples of permeable formation shale are generally impervious.

EFFECTS OF FILTRATION:

If filtrate invasion of a permeable formation is high, a thick filter cake generally will be
deposited on the walls of the wellbore opposite the formation. This may cause
differentially stuck pipe, and also may aggravate surge and swab problems on trips and
problems associated with cementing of casing.

-If the permeable formation is productive, or possibly productive, the filtration

characteristics of the mud can be extremely important. Potential passages for hydrocarbons
can be blocked by adverse reaction between the filtrate and the formation, or by the entry
of mud so lids back in the formation. This damage can be minimized by keeping the
filtration rate low, by using mud whose filtrate reacts minimally with the formation, and by
controlling the type and quantity of solids in the mud.
Fluid- loss control may be important even if formations are non permeable. Field results
indicate that mud whose fluid loss is strictly controlled have a superior performance
record in the drilling of some troublesome shale formations. Although technically there is
no filtrate lost to impervious shale formations, it is believed that filtrate can enter some
shale through micro fractures or joined planes. This could cause the walls of the hole to
slouch or cave into the wellbore.

MEASUREMENT OF FILTRATION:

Two types of filtration occur in the hole: static filtration and dynamic filtration. Static
filtration occurs when the mud is not moving. The filter cake grows thicker with time.
Since the thicker cake restricts the flow of filtrate, the rate of filtration decreases with time.
Dynamic filtration occurs when the mud is circulating or the drill string is rotating- Either
form of movement erodes the filter cake. An equilibrium state is reached when the rate of
deposition of the cake equals the rate of erosion. At this point both the cake thickness and
the filtration rate remain constant. Ordinarily, the dynamic cake is thinner than the static
cake, but the fluid loss is higher.

Static filtration is measured by two standard API tests: a low-pressure filtration test and a
high temperature-high pressure nitration test. The low-pressure test is commonly called the
API test, while the latter is referred to as the HT-HP test. The primary differences are that
the API test is ran at 100 psi pressure at ambient temperature, and the HT-HP test usually
is run at 500 psi differential pressure and temperature and temperatures in excess of 200°F.
Generally, the two static filtration tests cannot be correlated directly because chemicals in
the mud behave differently under high temperature and pressure, in low-temperature wells.
the API' test is sufficient.

FACTORS AFFECTING FILTRATION:

There have been extensive studies on the factors affecting filtration. The results have
improved the development and understanding of fluid-loss additives. Time, "temperature.
pressure, and solid characteristics all are important.

Time. The filtration rate is directly proportional to the square root of time after the initial
spun loss. This relationship of the filter cake is constant. However, studies have shown this
relationship to be realistic for nearly all mud. The equation is written in the following
form:

q2 = q1 V t2/t1

Where q1 = measured fluid loss at time t1t cm3

q2 = calculated fluid loss at time t2, cm3
t1 = time interval for fluid loss q 1 , min, and
t2 = time interval for fluid loss q2, min
 For example, if a fluid loss of 6 cm3 is measured after 7.5 min. the calculated fluid loss
after 30 min is

q2 = 6 V 4

q2= 12 cm3

The API specifies that fluid loss be reported in cm3/30 mm. The above example shows that
when the fluid loss is high or not critically important, the test can be run for 7.5 mm. The
results then must be multiplied by two to obtain the equivalent of the 30-min test. Note:
If a 7.5 mm test is am on a mini-press, the answer must be multiplied by four to obtain the
correct results, since 30 min test results on a mini-press must be doubled.

Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the filtration rate because generally the
viscosity of the oil or water in the continues phase of the mud is reduced and because the
higher temperature produces chemical changes in the mud. In particular, the solubility of
flocculation inducing contaminant increases, and the effectiveness of many fluid-loss
additives and dispersants decreases at high temperatures.

Pressure. Pressure effects on filtration rate depend greatly on the characteristics of the
filter cake. If the cake is compressible, increasing pressure reduces the permeability of the
cake and lowers the fluid loss. If the cake is incompressible, the filtration rate varies with
the square root of the pressure. An incompressible cake implies that the permeability of the
cake is not affected by pressure. The compressibility of the filter cake depends on the type,
size, shape, and distribution of the solids in the cake. The relative compressibility of the
filter cake can be estimated by modifying the API static fluid-loss tests. Run the standard
low-pressure test (100-psi at ambient temperature) and record the results. Then increase the
pressure to 200 psi and compare the results. If the filtration rate increases more than 10
percent, the filter cake is considered incompressible and the probably requires treatment.

Mud Solids Characteristics. The most effective way to control filtration rate is to control
the permeability of the filter cake. Low filtration rates require 'low cake permeability,
especially under temperature and pressure. The permeability is largely a function of the
size, shape, and distribution of the mud solids.
Small particles form lower permeability filter cakes than large particles because they can
form a more tightly packed unit. Generally, colloidal size particles (less than 2 microns)
provide the majority of the fluid loss control. Optimum control, however, is obtained best
from having a range of different particle sizes. Smaller particles can wedge themselves,
between larger particles to form a low-permeability cake.
Thin flat particles are more effective than spherical or irregularly shaped particles, flat
particles can form a filter cake that resemble a single roof on house. Under pressure the
particles will pack more tightly, resulting in a compressible filter cake.
Distribution of the solids in the filter cake is directly related to the degree of dispersion of
the mud.Proper dispersion of colloidal particles allows for a uniform, overlapping texture
in the cake In flocculated systems, the fluid passes easily between the nonuniform flocks or
aggregates, resulting in high filtration rates. The removal of free calcium ions improves
solids distribution in many mud by increasing dispersion.

MUD ADDITIVIES FOR FILTRATION CONTROL

Broad classes of fluid-loss control additives are discussed here. Details regarding specific
products and mud types are presented elsewhere in this book.

Montmorillonite clay. Bentonite (sodium montmorillonite ) is the primary fluid-loss

control additive in most water-base mud. The colloidal size bentonite particles are thin
and flat and form a compressible filter cake. Moreover, it is believed that the surface water
of hydration surrounding the bentonite platelets can provide an effective seal when the
platelets are wedged between larger particles in the cake. _
Calcium montmorillonite does not exhibit the same fluid-loss characteristics as
bentonite because of its relatively low yield and larger and thicker particles. However, it
can help reduce the filtration rate. Calcium montmorillonite can be used with bentonite
when larger "size clay particles are required to improve particle size distribution.

Dispersants The use of dispersants. or thinners, improves fluid-loss control (in addition to
reducing viscosities). By dispersing or deflocculating colloidal particles, dispersant,
promote the formation of a thin, tough filter cake with a uniform, overlapping texture.

Starches. Starches long have been used as fluid-loss control additives in water-base mud
particularly those in which bentonite will not hydrate properly. The starch particles expand
in the water to form sponge-like bags that wedge into openings in the filter cake, thereby
reducing fluid loss.

Polymer. Some long-chain polymers have proved effective as fluid loss reducers in
water-base mud. The polymers are thought to wrap around solid particles in the mud
creating a film that behaves much like a pressure gasket. Also, in some cases the long
chains may wedge directly into openings in the filter cake.
Diesel Oil and Asphaltic Compounds. Diesel oil emulsified into a water-base mud lowers
API fluid loss, but has less effect on HT-HP fluid loss and is of dubious value in
controlling downhole filtration under dynamic conditions. On the other hand, some
asphaltic compounds are quite effective in lowering fluid loss on all tests and perform well
downhole. They, evidently, plug open spaces, creating an effect perhaps similar to paving
the walls of the borehole.

Oil Base Mud Additives. Filtration control normally is good in oil-base mud, but can be a
problem a: high temperatures. The water emulsified in oil-base mud should not come out
in the' filtrate; instead it serves to lower fluid loss. Asphaltic compounds and specially treated
clays are used when greater control is required.
 FILTRATION OF DRILLING FLUIDS
I. Types of filtration
A. Static Filtration
B. Dynamic Filtration
II. Problems Associated With Improper Filtration Control
A. Deposition of thick filter cake.
1. Tight hole
2. Differential pressure sticking.
3. Primary cementing problems due to poor displacement of
dehydrated mud and excessively thick wall cake.
4. Formation evaluation problems from excessive filtrate invasion
and thick wall cake.
5. Formation damage from mud filtrate (water blocking);
IH. Factors which affect static filtration
Vf = │ A 2 k ( C c - 1 ) d p t 1 / 2 │
Cm
u
Vf = Volume of Filtrate
A = Filtration Area
k = Cake permeability
Cc - Volume fraction of solids in cake
Cm = Volume fraction of solids in mud
dP = Filtration pressure
t = Filtration time
u = Filtration Viscosity
IV. Parameters Effecting Filtration
A. Time - filtrate volume is directly proportional to √ T.
B. Pressure - directly proportional to Vdp , if no effect on filter cake.
C. Amount and Type Solids
1. Poor quality clay
2. Bentonite
3. Other - Lignite solids, etc.
D. Permeability - directly proportional to √ k
1. Type solids effect on permeability
2. Effect of Oil on k.

E. Viscosity of filtrate - inversely proportional to √ u

F. . Temperature effect on u , thus its effect on filtration rates.

V. Control of Static Filtration

A. Filter cake permeability - best way to control filtration
1. Bentonite.
2. Chemical treatment.
 CHAPTER(5)
COMPOSITION & PROPERTIES OF DRILLING
FLUIDS
The compositor of drilling fluid will depend upon the requirements of the particular drilling
operation. Hole must be drilled through different types of formations requiring different
drilling fluid.

THERE ARE MAINLY TWO KINDS:

I) Water Base Mud.

II) Oil Base Mud.

A) WATER BASE MUD

WATER BASE MUD HAVE THREE COMPONENTS:

1) Water phase.
2) Reactive solid phase.
3) Inert solids.

I) WATER PHASE:

It is the continuous phase of mud, this may be fresh water brackish water, sea water, salty
water or salt saturated water.

N.B.:

Before using any water in formulation your mud, you should analyses the water to find out
the salinity & the hardness.
One of the main reasons to make this test is to be sure that the water is of low ( cl-) in case
you are going to prepare Bentonite mud.

REMARK:

Bentonite will not hydrate at high water salinity,

( maximum Cl- salinity 10,000 ppm ), in case you haven't any source of fresh water, then
you can use Salt Gel instead of Bentonite or Guar Gum but in case of Guar Gum be sure
that the water is free of pH>7.

2) REACTIVE SOLIDS PHASE:

Composed of commercial clays, incorporated hydrarable clays and shale from drilled formation
and help in suspension in the fluid phase which are subjected to chemical treatment to
control the properties of drilling fluid.
3) INERT SOLIDS:

Refers to those solids in suspension which are chemically inactive which are drilled solids
as limestone. Dolomite or sand.
Inert solids has to be removed or minimized as much as possible using solids control
equipments.

B) OIL BASE MUD:

It is composed of two component oil & water. There

are two kinds:

1) Water in oil emulsion.

2) Oil in water emulsion.

1) WATER IN OIL BASE EMULSION:

This means water droplets are dispersed in oil phase, that is the oil is the external or
continuous phase, and the water is the internal or the discontinuous phase.

2) OIL IN WATER EMULSION:

This means the oil droplets are uniformly dispersed in a continuous water phase.

REMARK:

* Invert system may contain as much as 50 % by volume water. This water is

broken up to small droplets and dispersed in the oil phase The higher percentage
of water in an emulsion, the greater the chances of the water droplets coming
together and coalescing also a greater concentration or emulsifiers & wetting
agents will be required.
 TYPES OF MUD
I) EXAMPLE OF WATER BASE MUD II)EMULSION MUD
l)Spud mud 1)Oil base mud
2)GeI/Starch mud 2)Water oil emulsion
3)Gel/FC-8mud
4)LSND mud
5)LSND/PHPA mud
6) Salt saturated mud
7) KCL/Polymer mud
8) Glycol mud
9) Non damaging fluids

I) WATER BASE MUD

1)Spud mud

This type of mud is used to drill surface hole only.

FORMULATION

Bentonite 25 -40 lb/bbl

Caustic Soda 0.5 - 1 lb/bbl
Soda Ash 0.2 -0.5 lb/bbl
THERE ARE TWO METHODS TO DRILL SURFACE HOLE USING SPUD
MUD:

A) WATER / GEL SLIPS

This means they will drill out using just water and sweep the hole every 2 - 2
connections to enhance fast drilling using the Hi -Vis Bentonite mud stored in the reserve
pits.

N.B.:

You can use Lime instead of C. Soda to reduce the cost also to flocculate the mud and achieve
Hi - Vis by lower concentrations of Bentonite to be used.

B) SPUP MUO

That is using Bentonite mud while drilling, in this case you have to bund enough volume
for circulation as above mentioned you can use Lime instead of C.Soda.

N.B.:

Don't add the Lime to the mud pit unless the Bentonite has been prehydrated for @ least 4
hrs.

REMARK:

If you have not enough time, add higher concentration of Bentonite ( 30 - 50 Ib/bbl) to
achieve Hi - Vis fast.

3) GEL /STARCH MUD

This kind of mud is used in a deeper section of the surface hole, where the water loss must be
controlled.

FORMULATION
Bentonite 20-25 Ib/bbl

C.Soda 0.5- 1 Ib/bbl

S.Ash 0.2-0.5 Ib/bbl
Strach 2-6 lb/bb!

Starch work best when ( Ca + +) is less than 600 ppm and it is preferred to lower the (Ca + +) to
400 ppm, by Soda Ash addition.
Starch can be mixed direct in active system or mixed in water in a separate tank
then transferred to the system slowly over circulating time.
3)Gel/FC-8mud

FORMULATION

Gel(bentonite) 10-15 lb/bbl

Caustic soda 0.5-1.5 lb/bbl
Soda ash 0.2-0.5 lb/bbl
Fc-8 4-6 lb/bbl

Dispersed mud system is used when viscosity and fluid loss are essential. The
importance of these system in the deflocculant that used to control the build up of
solid to solid interaction which can give rise to excessively high viscosities and gels.
Deflocculation will also reduce the fluid loss. In these systems bentonite must be
hydrated in water containing less than 120 ppm calcium ion.

4)LSND MUD

Gel(bentonite) 10-12 lb/bbl

Polymer(xc-polymer) 0.5-1.5 lb/bbl
Caustic soda 0.2-0.5 lb/bbl
Starch 3-6 lb/bbl

In non dispersed systems, the absence of thinner and a chemically dispersion

environment will provide a level of inhibition. The high molecular weight (bio
polymer) is used to extend the rheological properties of bentonite. The system can be
formulated to include salt. Care should be taken to limited the solid build up so that
the viscosity does not become high.

5)LSND/PHPA MUD
It is exactly as LSND mud but in this case we add polymer of high molecular weight which
is PHPA "partially hydrolyzed poly acrylamide" in this mud, the inhibitive mechanism is
entirely dependent on the PHPA polymer which envelopes the cuttings and form a viscous
layer reducing the rate of migration of water due to filtrate attempting to hydrate the clays.

REASONS TO ADDING PHPA:

1) It reduce the permability of porous strata which in turn will delay the build up of pore
pressure in strata adjacent to the wellbore and prevent it's sloughing.
2) It agglomerate drilled solids within the system and thus improve solid separation
equipment performance along with reducing the need for dilution.
3) It is control the solid build up in the fluid allowing higher drilling rates.
FORMULATION

Gel 4-8 Ib/bbl

C.Soda 0.25-0.5 Ib/bbl
Soda Ash 0.25 Ib/bbl
XC-Polymer 0.25-0.5 lb/bbl
Pac-R -1.0-1.5 Ib/bbl
Pac-SL 1.0-1.5 Ib/bbl
• PHPA 1.0-2.0 Ib/bbl
REMARKS:
* Maximum concentration of PHPA to be added to the system before circulation
starts preferably to be 0.5 - 0.7 Ib/bbl only and to have good shearing in the
" mud pits, otherwise you will lose over the Shakers at displacement time.

* To add the rest of the required concentration while drilling usually 1 sx/hr not
over the suction pit but over the intermediate pit in order not to have a
hump in viscosity and increase in pump pressure.

* Usually for every 50 meter of shale formation drill you need to add 1 sx of PHPA.

* PHPA is either in powder or liquid form..

5) SALT SATUATED MUD

This kind of mud is frequently used as worked fluid or for drilling salt formations.

FORMULATION
Prehydrated Gel 10-20 Ib/bbl

or Salt Gel 20-25 " Ib/bbl

C.Soda 0.5-0.75 Ib/bbl
S.Ash 0.2-0.25 Ib/bbl.
Pac-R 1.0-1.5 Ib/bbl
XC-Polymer 0.5-2 Ib/bbl
Starch 2-4 Ib/bbl
Salt(NaCl) 110 Ib/bbl

CONVERSION OF FRESH WATER MUD TO SALT SATURATED MUD'

Is simply done, by addition of salt to the system over one circulation after computing the
amount of salt required to saturate tins mud, that is a check of ( Cl) of mud to find out
exactly the amount needed of salt.

lb/bbl of Salt to be 125[315000-Measured (Cl )]

added to saturate the mud =
315000
REMARKS:

* On addition of Salt to the system, the mud may thicken considerably &
extensive water dilution may be required to maintain a pumpable mud.

* On addition of Salt to the system, foams may occur, this could be stopped by
addition of defoamer slowly while addition of Salt, or torq trim will solve out
the problem.

* If you are going to use Gel, it is preferable to add 0.1 - 0.25 lb/bbl of Fc-8
which is an organic thinner to coat the Bentonite and extend its life, that is
delays it from being dehydrated. This is explained, that the salt will squeeze the
Bentonite plates and compress them over each other leading to a decrease in the
number of plates causing a decrease in viscosity.

* This mud is highly inhibitive system, drilled shale do not readily disperse or
increase viscosity, consequently abnormal viscosity problems are rare.

Try to keep pH between 9 - 10 to reduce foaming and to remove the free

Calcium to achieve a more stable mud.

* If abnormal viscosity and / or Gel strength becomes a problem, the addition of

saturated salt water is an effective treatment also spersene will help thin up this
mud.

* When reporting volume percents in salt saturated mud, the percent solids
should be corrected for the volume of salt.

Corrected solids = 100- ( 1.13 Vw + Vo )

Where:
Vw = volume of water from retort.
Vo = volume of oil from retort.
6) KCL / POLYMER MUD

* The KCl Salt is added to introduce the [ K+ ] that has the special property of
exchanging with ( Na +) or (Ca 2+)already present in certain clay minerals to
produce a non expanding stable form.

* A higher level of KCl is required when sea water is used in order to overcome
the effect of the additional Na+, also is dependent on the level of exchangeable
ions in the formations.

" KCl mud system are usually used in combination of the hydrolyzed poly-
acrylamid shale drill to make a fully inhibited system.

* The shale drill will concentrate @ the surface by adsorption to form a highly
viscous solution that will slow the invasion of water into the shale.

* The role of Bentonite is diminished because the chemical environment is

designed to collapse & encapsulate the days which are water sensitive
formations, the clay may be used in the initial mixing. The drilled solids will
play the role of Bentonite while drilling.

FORMULATION
KCL 10-50 lb/bbl
KOH 0.75 -1.0 lb/bbl
S.Ash 0.2-0.5 lb/bbl
Starch 3 -4 lb/bbl
Polymer 1-2 lb/bbl
Shale Drill 1-2 lb/bbl

7- GLYCOL WATER BASE MUD

• This kind of mud supply a degree inhibition in excess of that gained by

KCl/Polymer mud.

• It is added to standard polymer system between 4-8% by volume.

DESCRIPTION

Kinds Of Glycol —> Low molecular weight ethylene

oxide/propylene oxide-Co-polymer ( EO/PO )
Example: surdyne L116,BP DCP 101
-» Fractionated ethylene Glycol
oligomers.
Example: surdyne , BP DCP
N.B.:

Both products are Linear, Polar, non ionic molecules.

DIFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO KINDS OF GLYCOL

The main difference is their water solubility

REMARK:

These products are not true "Glycol" since this impulse a dialcohol (diol) whereas
these products only have one hydroxyl group. should be more accurately referred to as **
Alkoxylates". But for simplicity is referred to. as " Glycols".

CHEMISTRY OF ETHOXYLATE

* It is known that Glycol materials adsorb from aqueous solutions and

coat out on solid surfaces.

* These materials are water soluble due to

(H-bonding) between the fluids.

N.B.:

* This solubility only exists at low temperatures.

* Cloud point is the temperature at which they are no longer soluble.

Hence these products are known as cloud point Glycol.

MECHANISM OF INHIBITION

* Using infra red spectrophotometer suggest that these short chain polar organic*
interact with exchangeable cations and compete more effectively with water
and displace the same from co-ordinate cations. These adsorption forces are
stronger with the lower Mol WT products due to higher hydroxyl functionality.
* A contributory factor may be also the adsorbed layer acting as a semi -
permeable membrane and allowing slight de-watering of the shale by the
bulk fluid through osmosis.
Cloud point and borehole stability

Polyglcols dissolve in water at lower temperatures, but when the water increases in
temperature they will separate from the water into a separate phase. When this happens small
bubbles are formed. This will give the liquid a turbid/cloudy appearance, the temperature at
which this starts is the Cloud Point Temperature (CPT). A glycol will never cloud. out
completely at the cloud point. As the temperature is increased further, the volume of clouded
out glycol will increase. Approximately 50% of the glycol will beclouded out at 10 degrees C
above the CPT.

If the cloud point temperature is (close to or) equal to the BHCT(bottom hole
circulating temperature ) the following will happen:

As always the mud filtrate will invade into the shale formations driven by the pressure
overbalance. Because the temperature in the drilled formation is higher than the
BHCT,the glycol will cloud out to a separate glycol phase.
This clouded out glycol phase will act as a barrier that restricts1 furthers fluid invasion
and mud pressure penetration, which will improve the borehole stability.
From this one can conclude that it is important to monitor the CPT and the BHCT.
Since the BHCT is difficult to estimate, the temperature gradient can be used as well.

Adjusting CPT to the BHCT

The CPT is influenced by the type of glycol, the salt concentration and the glycol
concentration .Increase in salt concentration will decrease the CPT. Not only the CPT but
soluble salts do. Polyglycol mud can use for borehole stability in shale, the fact that there is
glycol in the mud does not mean that the mud will stabilize the shale. To set this cloud
point of the glycol.and the glvcol concentration must be checked regularly, if the cloud
point is equal to the BHCT the mud will perform the best. Changing the % KCl and the
glycol concentration can change the cloud point of the
glycol.

.An increase of the glycol concentration will decrease the CPT. These two parameters can be
used to change the CPT when the depth increases i.e. the formation temperature increases.
The KCL concentration can then be decreased and /or the glycol concentration decreased.
Glycol concentration determination

Based on the inverse solubility of Glycol (DCP-208) in water a dose approximation of its
concentration in a mud system can be obtained as follows:

■ Take a sample of active mud, which has been allowed to cool at ambient
temperature and then homogenized in the Ham. Beach mixer, at medium speed for
1 minute.
■ Run an HTHP fluid loss test at ambient temperature to collect filtrate for
analysis. " Saturate the filtrate with NaCl. This will decrease the CPT so that all the
glycol -
will cloud out in the next step (Only a small percentage of the glycol clouds out at
the CPT, the temperature needs to be several tens of degrees C higher to cloud out
all the glycol). " Using at least 10 ml of filtrate (more if possible, as this will
increase the
accuracy) place the measuring cylinder in hot water (80 degrees C).
■ A phase separation will occur and the quantity of glycol (DCP-208) can be read
from the top from the measuring cylinder. Add a few ml of light oil after the
separation, this will create a smoother border of the glycol phase, and will improve
the accuracy. The quantity measured can then be expressed as a volumetric
percentage of the INITIAL filtrate volume. (Note that the filtrate volume
increased, because of the addition of the NaCl).

Glycol % v/v = Glycol volume(ml)/initial filtrate volume (ml) * 100 N.B.:

This method lacks accuracy, report the glycol to the nearest 0.5%.

CPT Determination

■ Collect the filtrate from a fluid loss test.

■ Put the measuring cylinder (with a thermometer in it) in a beaker of water on a
hot plate and slowly heat it until it becomes turbid/cloudy. Record the temperature.
Take the beaker/cylinder from the hot plate and check whether the turbidity
disappears if it cooled down slightly. If this does not happen, the turbidity is caused
by precipitation (e.g. CaCO3) not by clouding of the glycol. Heat the solution
again until it becomes really cloudy.

N.B.: If CPT's get close to 900 C deg. or more, add some salt to the water in the
beaker to increase it's boiling point.
8) NON DAMAGING FLUIDS

Non damaging fluid are classified as either free or minimal solids systems. Generally,
Non damaging fluid designed especially for production, zones are those that provides
a kill-weight density with a minimal amount of solids.
The solids content is limited to bridging agents, which plug pore spaces at the bore face,
thereby restricting the invasion of solids and fluids into the formation.
Non damaging bridging agents must be sized to formation properties and comprise
acid-soluble calcium carbonate.

Impairment by mud solids would be much greater were not for the fortunate
circumstance that a filter cake forms rapidly on the face of the we!! bore. Once
established, this cake acts as a very efficient bottom hole filter, and thereafter only clear
filtrate enters the formation.
The quicker the cake is formed the smaller the mud spurts will be. The rate of filter cake
formation depends primarily on the amount of particulate solids in the mud. The critical
bridging size depends on the size and shape of the pores in the rock, it is therefore very
difficult to specify critical bridging size precisely. To be effective, the primary bridging
particles must be not greater than the size of the pore opening and not less than 1/3 that
size, and there must be a range of successively smaller particles down to the size of the
largest particles in the colloidal fraction.
The greater the amount of bridging particles and the lower the permeability of the rock, the
quicker the particles will bridge, and the smaller will be the mud spurt.
In more permeable rocks, the permeability of the invaded zone beyond the first centimeter
may be reduced to 70-80% of the original permeability.

Unconsolidated sands often required particles larger than 50 microns to bridge,

because of the wide range of particles and pore size and shapes, it is difficult to
specify sizes and amounts for bridging , but about 5 to 10 lb/bbl of bridging particles
should be suffice for all formations
except for gravel beds and formations with open fractures or channels.

Particle size distribution should be therefore to be watched closely when drilling in

unconsolidated sands, and mechanical separators should be adjusted to maintain enough
coarse particles for bridging A part from the productivity damage caused by deep mud
particle invasion, lack of sufficient bridging particles causes slumping of unconsolidated
sands and hole enlargement .It is essential '.hat a mud cake be formed quickly , because
the turbulent flow around the bit creates highly erosive condition and hole enlargement is
rapid . Failure to establish a mud cake quickly will result not only in productivity impairment
but also will lead to production problems associated with hole enlargement.
 (I) EMULSION MUD

DEFINITION OF EMULSION

It is a system containing two immiscible liquids one liquid being dispersed in the other in the
form of small droplets.

KINDS OF EMULSIONS

A) Water in oil [O.B.M.] ↔ ( Invert. Mud )

B) Oil in water

A) OIL BASE MUD

INTRODUCTION

Since crude oil was not a satisfactory drilling fluid due to the following reasons;

I) . It has no Gel strength and can't be weighted up.

II) Viscosity is limited to that of available crude.
III) Filtration rates are high.
IIII) Crude oil often contains volatile fractions, which give it a low flash point and create
a serious fire hazard. They may also be high in benzene type compounds that affect
Rubber parts.
* The liquid phase of an oil mud consist of oil & water.
* The continuous phase is oil & water is the discontinuous phase.

THERE ARE TWO TYPS OF OIL MUDS

I) Oil Base Mud [W %=3% to 5%]

II) Invert Mud [W& =may reach up to 5 0 % ]

DISCUSSION & INFORMATION!

* Oil Mud have shown special Economic Advantages when used:
1) To drill troublesome shale.
2) To drill deep high temperatures wells
3) To drill & core pay zones.
4) To drill salt, Anhydrite & potash Zones.
5) As a direction drilling fluid.
6) Drilling formations bearing H2S & CO2 gas.
7) As a perforating & completion fluid.
8) To free stuck pipe.
9) As a packer fluid.
10) As a workover fluid.
11) For corrosion control.
* To emulsify the water in oil, there must be sufficient chemical emulsifier to
completely form a film around each water droplet. If there is not sufficient
emulsifier the emulsion will be unstable.

* From the standpoint of stability, the smaller the droplet the more stable the
emulsion.

* Uniform droplet size also makes the emulsion more stable, to obtain small
droplet of uniform size, energy or work must be applied as shear. This is done
by agitation using mud guns and centrifugal, pumps.

* The water droplets help support weight material and aid in the reduction of
fluid loss in invert mud. In addition, the droplet size also contributes to
viscosity & gel strength.

* When oil is added, the emulsion becomes more stable because the distance
between droplets increase and will help to decrease
viscosity. The reverse is also true.

* The addition of oil or water will affect viscosity; oil will decrease viscosity
while water will increase the viscosity.

WHAT IS MENT BY WETT ABILITY*

* Oil mud system contain certain surfactants which alter the contact angle
(wettability) of solid / liquid interfaces, these materials will cause a solid to
become preferentially oil wet or totally oil wet if used in excess.

* In oil mud system it is desirable to maintain the solid totally oil wet becuse if
not the solid will be water wet and tends to clutter together and settle out of
suspension known as " SAG" if this happens wetting material should be added.

REMARK:

As the concentration of solid (Active or inert) are introduced to oil mud, the emulsion becomes
weaker, since the solids soak up part of the oil by becoming oil wet, thus less oil will be
available to keep the water droplets separated.

WHAT DOES HYDRTABLE SOLIDS DO WHEN INTRODUCED TO OIL

MUD?

1) It will decrease stability of emulsion.

2) It will prompt an oil in water emulsion rather than water in oil emulsion.
REMARKS:

* When the solids increase either from raising mud weight or

introduction of drilled solids, emulsifier should be added, .also wetting
material together with small stream of diesel or Non-Toxic oil if used.

* When the contact angle of liquid/solid interface is [0 °]this means the solid is
completely wet by this liquid. In our case we need the solid to be oil wet not
water wet to prevent " sag". In another words, wetting agent increase the "
contact" angle between solid/oil phase more than the solid/water phase and
hence the solid will be oil wetted.

What mean by controlled activity!

The term " Activity" is used to define the unit of measure of chemical " potential" for water
of mud , shale studies proved that all clay-containing rocks will adsorb water and become
drastically altered. These shale adsorb water because of the differences in chemical potential .
(AW) of water contained in shale and those present in mud. So, when the chemical potentials
are in balance, the adsorption of water into the shale is reduced to Zero.

N.B:

This is limited strictly to oil mud.

The controlled Activity is not applicable to water base mud.

CHEMICALS USED IN FORMULATING O.B.M AND THEIR FUNCTIONS!

A) Diesel which is the continuous

phase (External phase).

B) Water , which is the discontinuous, phases

(Internal phase).

C) Lime which has mainly three functions.

I) For Alkalinity (the dispersed water in oil ).

II) For emulsion stability.
III) React with H2S & CO2 gas which are acidic gases.
THE FOLLOWING OCCURS WHEN H 2 S OR CO 2 REACT WITH LIME

Ca(OH)2+H2S -> CaS ↓ +H20

BLACK PPT

Ca(OH) 2 +CO2 -> CaCO 3 ↓+H 2 0

WHITE PPT

D) CaCl2 which has mainly four functions"

I) Balance osmotic pressure.

ie prevent migration of fluid into formation and vice versa.
II) Increase stability of emulsion
III) Lowers vapour pressure of water
IV) Reduces hydration of drilled solids.

E) Emulsifier

* To Emulsify water in oil phase. It forms a thin film around each droplet.

* If the concentration of the emulsifier is not enough, the emulsion will be weak
and unstable.

REMARKS:

* Concentration of Emulsifier will be more in O.B.M of lower O/W Ratio than

O.B.M of higher O/W Ratio. This mean that 80/20 needs less Emulsifier than
70/30.

* Also the mud weight must be taken into consideration since the higher
concentration or percentage of solids the higher the concentration of Emulsifier
required as explained before since the solids will be oil wetted, thus less oil
available to keep water droplets separated.

* Emulsifiers can be used to cure differential stuck pipe as it will disintegrate the
wall cake and allow the oil to sweep behind the pipe.

F) Wetting Agent

This was explained in details before its function mainly to disperse water droplets into the
oil phase & will also enhance the solids to be oil wet rather than water wetted.

G) Viscosifier

It is a gelling agent used to increase the carrying capacity for hole cleaning. It is an
ORGANICALLY TREATED Bentonite that will hydrate or swell in the presence of oil
allowing it to improve both viscosity and Gel strength.
H) Fluid Loss Control Agent @. High Temp & High Pressure

It is an asphaltic material that is soluble and dispersible m oil , providing a good emulsion
stability and makes a thin strong filter cake to minimize the chance of pipe to be stuck.

TROUBLE SHOOTING & TREATMENT!

1) Excessive viscosity
2) Insufficient viscosity
3) Water present in filtrate
4) Excessive filtrate
5) Increase in Emulsion stability
6) Decrease in Emulsion stability

1) EXCESSIVE VISCOSITY
EXCESSIVE VISCOISTY MAY BE DUE TO:

A) Improper oil/water Ratio.

B) Drilled solids content.
C) Acid gas contamination
D) Chemical overtreatment.
E) Instability @ high bottom hole temperatures.

A) IMPROPER O/W RATIO!

The excessive viscosity is due to the lowering of O/W ratio that, is introduction of water to
the oil mud since water acts as solids the [PV] plastic viscosity will increase to an
unacceptable readings due to the increased frictional forces between them apart.

HOW TO OVERCOME THIS PROBLEM?

I) By Diesel addition slowly to the working mud.

II) Addition of Emulsifier & wetting agent to form a thin film around each drop
and to disperse them in the oil phase.
III) Using mechanical aid such as centrifuge and strong sheering will also help the
emulsion stability to increase since water will be dispersed and coated by thin
film of Diesel.

REMARK:

In case you want to adjust the O/W using only water, you should add the required
concentration of CaCl2 to the amount of water to be added to the system and on addition'
of the Brine water to the system it should be transferee! slowly over 6 - 12 hrs at the same
time adding Emulsifier & wetting agent 1 -2 DR according to the volume of brine water to
be added to the system while circulation otherwise a hump in viscosity will occur.
R) DRILLED SOLIDS CONTROL

There are three kinds

I) EXCESSIVE DRILL SOLIDS

A large number of variables exist which set the limit of practicality on solids control such
as particle size water content, mud weight, bottom hole temperature and many other. Daily
solid content determination is recommended.

II) FINE SOLIDS

The build - up of fine solids may cause increase in PV, YP and Gel strength. Chemical
treatment will not help in this case.
It is recommended to use shaker screen which are high in mesh number compatible with
flow rate ( 150 - 200 mesh ).

N.B
Fine solids build - up can occur when diamond bits are used and also may result due the
grinding effect of the bit.

III) WATER WET SOLIDS

This is the most serious problem occurring in oil mud system. It may at first appear as a dull,
flat look to the mud in the pits without the normal " dispersion rings". This may cause:
* Barite settling & jamming over shakers.
* Internal coating of drill pipe causing abnormally high pump pressures.

The reason is due to a weak emulsion that is free water availability. That means the mud needs
immediate treatment with wetting agent of a higher doze to disperse the water into the oil
phase together with Diesel addition.

ACID GAS CONTAMINATION

The occurrence of acid gas contamination is common and can be easily recognized in an
oil mud system. Both CO2& H2S gas lower the alkalinity ( MP) value of the mud system,
depending on the influx rate. The CO2 gas will cause increase in viscosity , it will turn the
mud to darker colour ( Black ).

The treatment is to load the system by lime to increase the alkalinity.

D) CHEMICAL OVERTREATMENT

Excessive viscosity may result from overtreatment with viscosifier or Lime. To avoid this,
pilot test should be carried out, if there is no availability add small dosages then
check.

E) INSTABILITY @ HIGH BOTTOM HOLE TEMERATURE

Excessive bottom hole temp, may cause increase in viscosity of the mud system is net
stable to that temp.
Treatment with emulsifiers & wetting agents together with Lime addition is
recommended.

2)1NSUFFICIENT VISCOSITY
REASONS FOR INSUFFICIENT VISCOSITY

A) Improper OAV Raito.

B) Rapid Electrolyte Increase
C) Unstable Or New Mud System
D) Chemical Undertreatment

A)IMPROPER O/W RATIO

The higher the O/W ratio the less viscosity it is, that is it needs higher concentration of
viscosifier. Also the viscosity could be increased by water addition containing the
concentration of CaCl2 required together with Emulsifier & wetting agents to Emulsify &
disperse the water droplets in side the oil phase to give good emulsion.

B)RAPID ELECTROLYTE INCREASE

Rapid increase in electrolytes f i.e., salt CaCl2 MgCl2 ) can cause sever reduction in viscosity
especially in relatively new and unstable mud system.

C) UNSTABLE OR NEW MUD SYSTEM

Upon initial circulation the Invert mud is normally thin considerably, but when
circulates the mud while drilling the viscosity starts to rise.
D) CHEMICAL UNDERTREATMENT

That is insufficient viscosifiers, hence it is recommended to pilot test. This drop in

viscosity will happen only @ high O/W Ratio >75/25.

3) WATER PRESENT IN FILTRATE

This means that we have a weak emulsion and probably is followed by water wetting
of solids.
To solve this problem you have to add wetting agent to disperse the water droplets into
the oil phase also add emulsifier to emulsify the droplets of water into the oil phase.

4) EXCESSIVE FILTRATE

This is due to lack of proper solids in the mud. That is when we have high OAV ratio
the filtrate tends to be higher than that of lower O/W ratio .
To solve this problem you have to increase the water content if the program permits
or to add fluid loss reducer ( HP - HT ) with higher concentration in case of high O/W
ratio.

5) INCREASE IN EMULSION STABILITY

Emulsion stability can be increased by increasing the O/W Ratio since the distance
between the water droplets will be increased. Also the emulsion stability may increase
by addition excess amount of emulsifies and wetting agents together with lime
addition. Reasons of increase in emulsion stability also the decrease of water percentage
due to evaporation, thus the oil percentage will increase causing increase in emulsion
stability It is recommended that saturation of the internal phase be avoided if possible.

N.B.:
If the CaCI2% is a bit lower than the required percentage by time it will increase due to
evaporation of the internal phase(water) leading to an increase in O/W Ratio.

6) DECREASE IN EMULSION STABILITY

Addition of water or formation water will cause a decrease in stability & increase in
viscosity. This is due to decreased distance between water droplets, increase in size of
the water droplets and lake of emulsifiers and wetting agents leading to a serious
problem.
Solution to this problem;

* If water is due to water flow mud density should be increased and addition of
emulsifiers, wetting agents together with Diesel addition to adjust back the O/W
Ratio also the CaCl2% should be adjusted after finding out the volume of water
being introduced to the mud which could be determined accurately from the Ratio
value change of O/W. If you have powdered CaC12 you can add it directly should be
added in a separate tank with the highest concentration possible, then transfer
slowly over 6 – 12 hrs to the system together with emulsifier &wetting agents and
not to forget oil addition at the same time. If possible try to decrease the active
system as much as possible and treat out the minimized volume to avoid high cost.
 CHAPTER (6)

LOSS OF CIRCULATION
INTRODUCTION

It is the most trouble some, widespread, and expensive problem encountered in the
drilling industry.

TYPES OF MUP LOSSES

(A) Seepage Losses (1-10 Bbl/Hr)

(B) Partial Losses (10-50 Bbl/Hr)
(C) Complete Losses (No Returns)

OCCURRENCE

* When the formation openings are large enough to allow mud to pass through.

* When the hydrostatic pressure exceeds the formation

pressure.

* High values of gel strength will permit surge pressure which may Leads to
break the formation.

HOW WOULD YOU RECOGNIZE A LOSS CIRCULATION

Loss circulation is recognized by less mud returns at the flow line than being pumped into
the hole. It also results in a reduction of annular velocity. In severe cases no returns will
be observed, this will results in reduction of hydrostatic pressure in the annulus . Also a
decrease in pump pressure & increase in pump strokes will be observed.

MATN PROBLEMS WHICH RESULTS FROM CIRCULATION LOSSES

(A) Stuck pipe or loss of hole, caused either by sloughing in shale sections (due
to a reduction in hydrostatic pressure) or by a reduction in annular velocity
leading to non removal of cuttings.

(B) The well may flow if the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus falls below the
formation pressure in a permeable zone. This is potentially very dangerous. If
the well kicks and loss circulation at the same time. An internal blow-out is
possible.
RESTORING CIRCULATION (A)

PULL UP & WAIT

Pull up and wait is only used occasionally. It is applied in cases of seepage losses or partial
losses. It is not used in cases where total losses of circulation are experienced.

(B)THE USE OF LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS (LCM)

in case of seepage or partial losses, either after or instead of the pull up & wait
technique. A wide variety of material have, been used, the main ones.
* Fibrous as sawdust, leather fiber.
* Flaky as Mica.
* Granular as not shells & cotton
seed hulls.
N.B.:

* It is better to prepare a slug with LCM rather than adding it to the

system.

* A volume-of 50-100 bbl is sufficient with LCM to be pumped and spotted

across the loss zone, of a concentration 20-80 Ib/bbl of LCM, and divide the
quantity to be added between fine, medium and course. If bit nozzle
permit!

Naturally Occurring Loss of Circulation

Circulation in a drilling well can be lost into open fractures, which are pre-existing.
Circulation can be lost into large openings with structure strength such as large pores or
solution channels.

When circulation is lost the first step should be diagnosis, where and why the loss is occurring.

Remedial Measures:

1. Shut down the pump.

2. Observe the annulus and monitor the fluid level if it is in sight.

3. If the, fluid level is out of sight fill the hole with mud and monitor the number
of barrels required. If the hole will not stand full, mix 10-15 lb/bbl LCM in the
Remaining mud in the pits and spot across weak zone if the location of the loss
zone is known, or spot a concentrated LCM pill.

4. Pull the pipe into the casing and rebuild mud volume while waiting for the hole
to heal.
The action taken will depend on knowledge of the area. In many areas when
circulation is lost the drill string can be removed from the hole without danger, while the
hole is healing after spotting lost circulation material across the thief zone. There are other
areas where the drill string cannot be removed when the fluid is out of sight and cannot be
monitored, because of an expected influx of oil or gas. The concentration and type of
lost circulation material will depend on the individual situation.

(C)SOUEEZING TECHNIQUE

In situations where the use of LCM alone to be unsuccessful.

TYPES OF SQUEEZE SLURRY

(I) High filtrate slurries.

(II) Gunk slurries.
(IK) Cement slurries.

(I) HIGH FILTRATE SLURRIES

Use highly packed & substantially dehydrated solids to effect the seal, example
:
* Diacel M
* Altapulgite

(II) GUNK SLURRIES

Rigid materials are typically used for walling off large. Loss zones which would
be costly to fill a plastic gunk.
(III) CEMENT SLURRIES

It is the last we can do if the above didn't succeed.

 LOST CIRCULATION WITH OIL BASED MUD

LOST CIRCULATION IN OIL MUDS

Procedures to attempt to cure loss of returns in an oil mud are essentially the same as in a
water based fluid. The spotting of LCM pills across the suspected thief zone has the same
chance of success as with water based fluid.
Consideration should, however, be given to the selection of LCM. Fibrous or shredded
material such as wood fiber should be avoided as they tend to adsorb emulsifiers and reduce
emulsion stability's. Products such as cellophane flakes tend to dissolve at water wet and
actually affect the emulsification package. Mica and mud plug are suitable for LCM plug
formulations 30 - 50 Ib/bbl is usually adequate with the grade (fine, fine medium and coarse)
being dependent upon severity of losses and bit nozzle sizes and should be for from pay zone.
CaCO3 pill can be used to cure losses without side effect on pay zone.

This type of LCM pill may be effective for seepage losses to porous formation. However,
should gravel beds or cavernous, fractured formation comprise the loss zone same front of
high filtration squeeze is preferable of this type of squeeze, the EMEC -VIS and the Di-plug
squeeze are both very effective & liquid CSG- on SEAL PLUG.
 CHAPTER ( 7 )

STUCK PIPE

Pipe sticking is one of the most common in drilling, usually stuck pipe can be classified as
Mechanical or differential, such classification is based on the cause of sticking. ,
TYPES OF PIPE STICKING :

1) Differentia! pressure sticking.

2) Cuttings or barite settling.

3) Bridging due to unstable wellbore

4) Key- seating.
5) Soft clay or salt packing off the annulus.
6) Mud or cement solidification.
7) Jamming bit into underguage hole.
8) Junk dropped into the hole.
9) Collapsed casing.

The first 6 ways of pipe becoming stuck are directly or indirectly related to the drilling fluid
being used and its parameters, in addition to drilling practice, the last 3 ways are purely
mechanical if pipe got stuck in salt, pumping drill water will dissolve salt.

PREVENTATIVE ACTIONS FOR SUCKING :

A) Sweeping the hole with high viscous mud periodically, specially when drilling
blind with water.

B) Usage of proper annular hydraulics especially in large hole.

C) Using caution while tripping, and reaming tight spots.

D) Maintaining proper drilling fluid parameters.

E) Usage of drilling jars.

1-DIFFERENTIAL STICKING :

Normally differential pressure sticking (wall sticking) is the most frequent and requires
special attention, and, assistant of mud engineer.
IDENTIFICATION AND CAUSES FOR DIFFERENTIAL STUCK
OCCURRENCE:

A) The hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in the wellbore exceeds that
adjacent formation pressure.

B) The formation at the stuck point is usually porous, permeable (sand, limestone
or dolomite).

C) Almost all cases of differential stuck occur while the pipe is stationary
(tripping, making connection, pumps repair).

D) The hole can be circulated with normal pump pressure (i.e. no pack-off).

E) The drill string cannot be moved or rotated.

F) Due to differential pressure and the formation permeability the rate of fluid loss
to the formation increases, which causes a rapid build up of wall! cake and
increases the area of contact between the pipe and wellbore.

G) The drilling fluid may had high fluid loss and high solids content which caused
the formation of a thick wall cake on the permeable formation, specially, under
static conditions (e.g. : tripping).

H) The drilling fluid weight may be recently raised (e.g. : to kill a flow, or
minimizing caved shale).

PREVENTATIVE ACTIONS :

It is very difficult and sometimes impossible to eliminate ail conditions associated with
differential sticking, but certain can be done to minimize its occurrence. Any thing that
reduce contact area or differentia! pressure will minimize or prevent differential .
sticking.

1) Keeping drilling fluid wt. to a safe minimum.

2) Keeping fluid loss as low as possible.

3) Keeping solids content as low as possible for the running fluid wt.

4) Minimizing the time during which the drill string is not being rotated or
reciprocated to a minimum.

5) Usage of lubricants such as EMEC LUBE or HP LUBE.

6) Using detergents which prevent balling of bits and drill string (EMEC SURF.)-

7) Usage of shorter spiral or square drill collars, and to compensate for loss of
string weight use of heavy weight drill pipe.

8) Usage of drilling fluid system which is compatible with the formation being
drilled.

9) Optimum hydraulics program must be maintained.

10) Drilling jars must be installed in the string (unless there is reason which prevent
their usage).

METHODS OF FREEING DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING:

Time is very important in freeing such stuck, quick determination of the remedial action
and its usage will increase the possibility of getting free, since the area of contact
increases as the filter cake thickens with time, leading to greater sticking forces.

A) Working pipe by moving the jars weight if possible.

B) Reduction of drilling fluid weight if possible.

C) Spotting a soak solution (EMEC SPOT) quickly, which will work on the thick
filter cake and disperses solids and water into very fine particles, and release
differential pressure.

D) Pumping slug of water (or diesel) down the drill string then let it U. tube.

E) Methods (a) and (b) depend on. the presence of jars, and the drilling fluid
weight .reduction is rarely used since it might causes more problems, flow,
caving.

F) Spotting a soak &solution is the most common method and the most save for the
well, and , it has a fair chance of freeing differential sticking if done properly
and quickly.

G) .However we are going to discuss the 3 methods in more

details.
SOAK SOLUTION SPOTTING (EZ- SPOT) :

EZ- spot/oil spotting solution technique is altering the contact area between the mud
cake and the pipe, this is accomplished by creaking the filter cake and dispersing mud
solids and water into very fine particles. The spotting solution must be mixed quickly
and it has to be of the some weight of the drilling fluid (EZ- SPOT paper)

The volume to be mixed must be enough to cover the annular space from the bit to
above the stuck area, leaving inside the string enough volume to pump +/- 1/4 of a
bbl every 15 minutes for at least ten hours.

If possible tripping the jars for few minutes each hour.

In order for EZ- SPOT to react properly, it should be given enough time (at least 6-8
hours)

EZ- SPOT solution can be circulated in the mud, it is not necessary to dump it (either
the pipe became free or not) since it has the same drilling fluid wt., it will only raise
oil percentage in the mud and if dumped oil will cause pollution.

EZ- SPOT

DESCRIPTION :

EZ- SPOT is an Organic Oil-Soluble product that provides significant aid in fearing
differentially stuck pipes when mixed with diesel or crude oil.

APPLICATION :

EZ- SPOT is designed to disperse mud solids and water into very fine particles. As this
occurs, the fluid penetrates the filter cake that built between the drill pipe and formation
which release the differential pressure stuck.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION'S :

The volume of soak solution required is the annular volume of stuck pipe zone plus 50 percent
for error and hole wash-out. Displace EZ- SPOT pill to cover the stuck pipe zone and
allow sufficient time for the pill to perform, on the same time work on stuck pipe. If
weighted spotting fluid is required use EZ- SPOT with the following freeing pipe
calculations.
1) UNWEIGHTED PILL
Mix in clean mud pit 3 Gal per each barrel of EZ- SPOT in diese1 or crude oil.

2) WEIGHTED PILL
Mix in clean mud pit EZ- SPOT (W) with oil then add water and BAR in that
order. Pill formulation for 100 bbls is shown below.

Weight desire (ppg) 7.3 10 12 14 16 18

Oil (bbl) 65 58 58 49 51 44
EZ- SPOT (drum) 6 6 6 6 6 6
water (bbl) 28 26 22 21 11 10
BAR 50 KG 127 227 318 422 517

PACKING :
EZ- SPOT is packed in 55 gal/dr.

HAZARDS:
Avoid contact with eye and skin.

U-TUBING METHODS :

In this way the differential pressure is reduced by lowering the mud level in [he
annulus, and this is done by pumping light fluid (water, diesel) inside the string end
hence heavy mud inside annulus will U-tubing with the string . (through bit
jets),and there resulting in the reduction of mud column in the annulus.

If any reduction of the differential pressure, caution must be always exercised, in

case of U-tubing technique prices calculations of the volume and weight of the fluid
which is going to be pumped inside the string, further more such procedures must
not be used for there is a possibility of plugging the bit (special sub is designed for
this purpose). Formation pressure and productive zone (gas/oil) should be
considered above the stuck point.

It is very important in this process to monitor the fluid movement in annulus

for any indication of upward migration to avoid dealing with a pending
well kick, if the fluid level in the annulus is rising after simulating a
vacuum during period of back flow, it is necessary to stop the operation.
If the string does not come tree, till up the annulus with mud reverse circulation and
empty the string from the light fluid circulate one complete cycle, observing returns
for any formation fluid (gas/oil) instruction. Consider repeating the process with
increasing pressure reduction (if it is safe to do so).
2-KEYSEATING:
A key-seat is caused by the drill pipe cutting or wearing a slot into the side of the
borehole. The drill collars, being larger than the drill pipe, can become wedged into
this slot and stuck. The drill string is usually stuck while pulling out of the hole. The
drill collars are pulled into the key seat and stuck.

Mechanics of Key-Seat Sticking are:

The number and severity of doglegs.

Length of time that the uncased section of the wellbore is left
exposed, Especially in terms of rotating hours and number of
trips.
■ The drill ability of the formation.
■ The relative size between the drill pipe tool joints and the drill collars. Very
Large collars are less likely to pull into a key-seat and become stuck than are less
Likely to pull into a key-seat and become stuck than are collars that are just
Slightly larger than the tool joint outside diameter.
■ Rapid transition from a formation that is prone to wash out to one that remains
Close to gauge, or the reverse. The washed out section no longer provides
Support for the adjacent formation and thereby concentrates the wall
stress exerted by the drill pipe.

Prevention:
Drill with a stiff bottom hole assembly, which tends to minimize the chance of
Severe dog legs.
1
Use key-seat wipers properly positioned in the string.

Remedial Measures:
Sound drilling practices and good, preventive measures are most important.
Working the drill string and attempting to get above the key-seat
without getting lodged too tightly may be the only recourse.
As a last resort, backing off and fishing or sidetracking may be the
only solution.
3-Cuttings Accumulation

Mechanics of Cutting Accumulation- The d r i l l string ear; become stuck when drill
cuttings are not adequately removed from the hole. This type of sticking is usually
accompanied by loss or partial loss of circulation caused by
"packing off".

Prevention- To prevent pipe sticking due to debris or cuttings accumulation and

swelling or plastic movement:

- Maintain drilling fluid properties capable of good hole cleaning and general
wellbore stability.
• For high-angle hole (>35 degrees), rigs should have top drives, three mud
pumps, advanced solids control system, and well trained crews.
• Maximize rotary drilling, especially for high-angle holes (>35 degrees).
- A rough guideline for flow rate is that it should be 60 times the hole diameter in
inches for high-angle holes and about l/2 as much for low-angle holes (<35
decrees). Typical annular velocities range from
120 ft/min. for low-angle wells to greater than 200 ft/min. high-angle
wells.
• Use the highest mud weight consistent with wellbore stability considerations
(lost circulation).
- Both low and high viscosity fluids have provided good hole cleaning in drilling
operations. This provides minimum operating flow rates and corresponding
maximum ROP's with ECD predictions.
- Use routine hole-cleaning prevention methods such as back reaming, drillpipe
rotation and reciprocation, and circulation with bit off bottom. This is especially
important in wells with hole angles between 45 and 75 degrees where bed slumping
is likely and before tripping out of hole.
- Ensure proper selection of casing points to minimize exposure time of
formations to drilling fluids.
■ Maintain sufficient mud density in pressured zones.

Remedial- When the stuck pipe is caused by debris or cuttings accumulation

and swelling or plastic movement, the following measures should be tried:

- With debris or cuttings in the hole, occasionally rotating, reciprocating and

attempting to break circulation may free the pipe.
■ If pack-off is severe and circulation cannot be established, a fishing job, or side
track, or both, may be the only alternatives.
■ If plastic salt flow is sticking the pipe, occasionally attempting to circulate with
a freshwater pill may wash the wellbore enough to get the pipe free.