ESAS

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
1. What is the formula for Newton’s Law of Gravitation? F= where: G = shift 7:39
𝑟2
𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2. What is the formula for work? W = F cos 𝜃 unit: Joules =
𝑠2
𝑘𝑔𝑚
3. What is the formula for Force? F = ma unit: Newton =
𝑠2
𝑑 𝑚
3. What is the formula for velocity? V= unit :
𝑡 𝑠

𝑣2 −𝑣1 ℎ𝑟
4. What is the formula for the coefficient of restitution? e= or e=√
𝑣1 −𝑣2 ℎ𝑜

note: e = 0 (Perfectly Inelastic) e = 1 (Perfectly Elastic)

𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝐹𝑠 𝐽
5. What is the formula of Power? P= or P= unit: W =
∆𝑡 𝑡 𝑠
where:
𝑓𝑡.𝑙𝑏
1hp = 746 w = 550
𝑠
𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠
1w = 10. 7
𝑠

6. Potential Energy formula

 Gravitational PE  𝑃𝐸𝐺 = mgh unit: J
1
 Elastic PE  𝑃𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2

7. Kinetic Energy formula

1
 Translational KE  𝐾𝐸𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2 unit: J
2

1
 Rotational KE  𝑃𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝑤 2
2

Where: l - Polar Moment of Inertia

w - Angular Speed
Conversion : 1 N = 0.225 lb.f
1 Nm = 0.74 ft.lb

8. Impulse and Momentum Formulas

 I = Ft unit: Ns
𝑘𝑔𝑚
 P = mv unit:
𝑠
1
𝑚𝑣 2
 Impulse Momentum Ft = 𝑚𝑣2 - 𝑚𝑣1 ------ F=2 unit: N
∆𝑡
 Conservation of Momentum 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
9. Collisions
 Elastic Collision :  𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
 Inelastic Collision  𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣

In the x – direction: 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑥

In the y – direction: 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑦
10. Thermal Expansion
∆𝑳 𝑳𝒇 −𝑳𝒐
 Coefficient of Linear Expansion  𝛼=𝑳 =𝑳
𝒐 ∆𝒕 𝒐 (𝒕𝒇 −𝒕𝒐 )

∆𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉𝑜
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion 𝛽 = 𝑉 ∆𝑡 = 𝑉 (𝑡𝑓
𝑜 𝑜 𝑓 −𝑡𝑜 )

∆𝐴 𝐴𝑓 −𝐴𝑜
 Coefficient of Area Expansion 𝛼𝐴 = 𝐴 =𝐴
𝑜 ∆𝑡 𝑜 (𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑜 )

11. Periodic Motion : Mass Spring System

𝑚
 Period  T = 2𝜋 √ unit: s
𝑘

𝐿
 Simple Pendulum  T = 2𝜋 √
𝑔

 Force  F = kx
 Doppler Effect
𝑣+𝑣𝑜
• Towards  f’ = f
𝑣−𝑣𝑠
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
• Away  f’ = f
𝑣+𝑣𝑠

12. Light
sin 𝑖
 Reflection  𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃𝑖 or n=
sin 𝑟

 Refraction  Snells’s Law : 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

𝑐
 Index of Refraction  n =
𝑣

Where: c - velocity of light in a vacuum

v - velocity of light in a medium
1 1 1
 Mirror Formula  (±) = +
𝑓 𝑜 𝑖

note: if focal length is positive --- CONVERGING

if focal length is negative --- DIVERGING
ℎ𝑖
 Magnification  m =
ℎ𝑜
𝑛
 Critical Angle  𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑛2 )
1
1 1 1
 Lensmaker’s Equation  = 𝑛 − 1[𝑟 + 𝑟 ] where: r – radius of curvature
𝑓 1 2

note: if r is positive --- CONVEX

if r is negative --- CONCAVE
if r is 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 --- FLAT
13. Subatomic Particles
 Electron (1897) – JJ Thompson

• Charge  −1.6 x 10−19 C

• Mass  9.109 x 10−31 kg

 Proton (1911) – Ernest Rutherford

• Charge  1.6 𝑥 10−19 C

• Mass  1.6725 𝑥 10−27 kg

 Neutron (1932) – James Chadwick
• Charge  0

• Mass  1.6749 𝑥 10−27 kg

14. The Standard Temperature and Pressure
 Temperature  T = 0 °c
 Pressure  P = 1 atm (shift 7:40)
 Volume  22.4 Liters = 1 mol
14. Gas Laws
 Boyle’s Law  𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑉2
 Charle’s Law  =
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
 Combined Gas Law  =
𝑇1 𝑇2

 Ideal Gas Law  PV = nRT

 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures  𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
15. The formula for the Percentage By Mass.  % Mass = x 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
15. The formula for the Percentage By Volume.  % Volume = x 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑛𝐴
16. The formula for Mole Fraction.  𝑋𝐴 =
𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵 +𝑛𝐶 +⋯

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
17. The formula for Molarity.  M=
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
17. The formula for Molality.  m=
𝐾𝑔 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

18. The Power of Hydrogen formula.

pH = - log (element)
* If pH <7 ----- ACID
* If pH >7 ----- BASE
19. Formula of friction.
f = 𝜇𝑁
N = w = mg
where: N – normal force
20. Moment ot Torque formula.  M = Fd note: if F⊥d
21. Equations of Rectilinear Motion.
1
 Horizontal Motion  S = 𝑣𝑖 t ± 2 𝑎𝑡 2

 v = 𝑣𝑖 ± 𝑎𝑡

 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 ± 2𝑎(𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖 )
1
 Vertical Motion  S = 𝑣𝑖 t ± 2 𝑔𝑡 2

 v = 𝑣𝑖 ± 𝑔𝑡

 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 ± 2𝑔ℎ
Note: (+) – accelerating
(–) – decelerating
𝑣𝑖 = 0 if from rest
1
22. Projectile Motion Equations.  𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦𝑡 2
2

 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑖𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡

 𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑎𝑦(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 )
23. Analysis of the Motion of Projectile
 At any time
𝑥
• Horizontal:  t =
𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
• Vertical :  h = y = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 − 2g𝑡 2
1
= 𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 Time of flight  t = 2t =
𝑔

𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
 Range  𝑣𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (T) =
𝑔

(𝑣𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
 At Max Height  ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔

𝑔𝑥 2
 Gen. Equation of Projectile  ±𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 2𝑣 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛽
𝑜

 Projectile Range
R
2𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃cos⁡(𝜃+𝛽)
• Case 1  R =
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛽

•
R
2𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃cos⁡(𝜃−𝛽)
• Case 2  R =
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛽
23. Dynamics Equations
𝑤
 Motion along the Horizontal  REF = a = ma
𝑔

 Motion along the Vertical  REF = T – W

 Motion Along the Incline  REF = mg sin𝜃 - 𝑓𝑘
note: REF – Reverse Effective Force
24. Rotational Dynamics
𝑚𝑣 2
 Centripetal Force  𝐹𝑐 = = mr𝜔2
𝑟
𝑣2
𝐴𝑐 = = r𝜔2
𝑟

𝑣2 r𝜔2
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝜇 = = ; 𝑣 = √𝑟𝜇𝑔
𝑔𝑟 𝑔

where: 𝜙 – angle of friction

r – radius
𝜔 – angular velocity
 Banking of High Curves
𝑣2 𝑣2
• Ideal Angle of banking  𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) or tan⁡(𝜃 + 𝜙) =
𝑔𝑟 𝑔𝑟

• The conical pendulum

𝜔
* Tension  𝑇=
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

ℎ
* Period  𝑡 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

 Rotational Motion
• Uniform Angular Motion  𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
• Uniformly Accelerated Angular Motion
1
 𝜃𝑡 = 𝜃𝑖 + 𝑤𝑖𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2

 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑤𝑖 + 𝛼𝑡
 𝜔𝑡 2 = 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑖 )
where: 𝛼 – angular acceleration
25. Strength of Materials
 Stress
𝑃
• Normal/Axial Stress  𝜎= ; Pa
𝐴

where: P – applied force

A – cross sectional area
𝑃
• Shear/Tangential Stress  𝜏= ;P
𝐴

where:

P – Shear Load
A – area of material
 𝑃𝐵
• Bearing Stress  𝜎𝐵 =
𝐴𝐵

where: 𝑃𝐵 – Compressive Load

𝐴𝐵 – area ⊥ to 𝑃𝐵
𝑃 𝜋
• Thickness of plate  Use: 𝜏= at A = 𝑑 2
𝜋𝑑𝑡 4

where:
d – diameter
𝑙𝑏
psi =
𝑖𝑛2

• Shearing Stress  𝜎𝑠 = G𝜃 where: G – modulus of elasticity

 Strain
𝛿 𝛥𝐿
• Simple/Axial Strain  𝜀= = ; unitless
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜

𝛥𝐴
• Lateral Strain  𝜀𝐿 = 𝐴

−𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
• Poisson’s ratio  𝑉=
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

* Specific Poisson’s ratio

Cork : V=0
Concrete : V = 0.2
Steel : V = 0.27 – 0.30
Aluminum : V = 0.23
Rubber : V = 0.5
𝜏
• Shearing Strain  𝜃=
𝐺

𝑃𝐿
• Modulus of Elasticity  𝐸=
𝐴𝛿
𝑃𝐿
• Elongation  𝛿= ;m
𝐴𝐸
𝑚𝑔𝐿
* for rod suspended vertically  𝛿= ;m
2𝐴𝐸

𝐸
• Shear Modulus/Modulus of Rigidity  𝜏 = 𝐺𝜃 ; Pa where: G =
2(1+𝑉)

• Thermal Expansion
* Linear : 𝛥𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿𝑜 𝛥𝑡
* Volume : 𝛽𝑉𝑜 = 𝛥𝑡

where: 𝛽 = 3𝛼 (if solids)

26. Pressure Vessel Formulas
 Cylindrical Tank
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑑)
• Tangential/Circumferential  𝜎𝑇 = ; Pa
2𝑡

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑡 −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑑)

• Longitudinal Stress  𝜎𝐿 = ; Pa
4𝑡

 Spherical Tanks
𝑃𝑑
• Tangential  𝜎𝑇 = ; Pa
4𝑡

27. Common Formulas for Torsion.

𝑇𝑟𝑜
 General Formula  𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽

Where:
𝜋
𝐽= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 )
32

𝑟𝑜 = outer radius
16𝑇
 Solid Circular Shafts  𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐷2
16𝑇𝐷
 Hollow Cylindrical Shafts  𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )

28. Deformation formulas

 General Formula  𝛿𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝜀𝐿𝑜

 Power Transmitted by the Shaft  P = 𝑇W
= 𝑇2𝜋𝑓 ; watts
𝑇𝐿
 Angle of twist  𝜃 = 𝐽𝐺 ; radians

Where: T – Torque
G – Shear Modulus
J – Moment of Inertia
29. Helical Spring Formulas
 Light Helical Spring

16 𝑃𝑅 𝑑
• Torque Maximum  𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + 4𝑅) ; Pa
𝜋𝑑3

64𝑃𝑅 3
• Spring Deformation and Hooke’s Law  𝛿= 𝐺𝑑4
𝐺𝑑4
 𝑘 = 64𝑅3 𝑛
1−𝐹𝑙
= 𝑥

 Heavy Helical Spring

1 𝑃2 𝐿
• Work Done/Energy  𝑊 = 𝑈 = 𝐹∆𝐿 𝑈= ; Joules
2 2𝐴𝐸
𝐹
• Compressional Strain  𝜀𝑐 = 𝐴𝐸
∆𝑃
• Bulk Modulus Volume  𝑘 = −𝑉 𝐴𝑉 ; Pa
30. Thermodynamics Formula
 Temperature
• Temperature Change  ∆𝑇𝑘 = ∆𝑇𝑐
 ∆𝑇𝑅 = ∆𝑇(°𝐹)
5
 ∆𝑇𝑐 = ∆𝑇𝐹
9
9
 ∆𝑇𝐹 = ∆𝑇𝑐
5

• Temperature Scale Conversion

Measurement °𝑪 °𝑭 R K

𝐻2 𝑂 Boiling 100 212 671.67 373.15

Point

Absolute Zero - 273.15 - 459.67 0 0

5
• Formula for Temperature Conversion  °𝑪 = (℉ − 32)
9

9
 °𝐹 = ( ∗ ℉) + 32)
5

 𝐾 = °𝑪 + 273.15

 R = °F + 459.67
 Density
𝑘𝑔
• For Water  𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000
𝑚3

𝑘𝑔
 𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 13.6𝑥103 𝑚3
𝑁
• Weight Density of Water  𝜌𝜔𝐻2 𝑂 = 9810 𝑚3

1 𝑚3
• Specific Volume  𝑣=𝜌 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Specific Gravity  𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. = 𝜌
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 (𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

 Heat

• Standard Heat  𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑡 ; Joules

∆𝑄 𝐽
• Specific Heat  𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑇 ;
𝑘𝑔.𝐾

• Latent Heat  𝑄𝐿 = ±𝑚(𝐻)

where: H : either fusion or vaporization
𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝐹 = 334
𝑘𝑔

Use: (+) – substance melts 𝑘𝐽

𝐻𝑉 = 2260
𝑘𝑔
(-) – substance freezes
 • Sensible Heat (𝑄𝑠 )  Volume: 𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇  Pressure: 𝑄𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝐽
• Molar Specific Heat  𝐶 = 𝑀𝑊 ∗ 𝑐 ;
𝑘. 𝑚𝑜𝑙

• Total Heat  𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑠
𝑘𝐽
 Enthalpy  𝐻 = 𝑢 + 𝑝𝑉 where: pV – flow work ; unit:
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑄 𝐽
 Entropy  𝑆= ;
𝑇𝑘 𝐾

𝑚1 𝑀𝑊 𝑅
 Avogadro’s Law 
𝑚2
= 𝑀𝑊1 = 𝑅1 where: R – gas constant
2 2

 Processes
• Isobaric  ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑢 + 𝑝(∆𝑉)
• Isovolumic  ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈
𝑉
• Isothermal  2.3𝑃1 𝑉1 log⁡( 2)
𝑉1
• Polytopic  𝑃1 (𝑉1 )𝑛 = 𝑃2 (𝑉2 )𝑛
 Cycles
𝑄𝑖𝑛 −𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Thermal Efficiency  𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑄
 Power  𝑃=
𝑡

𝑉
 Work  ±𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln⁡( 2)
𝑉1

note: (+) - if the gas is compressed

(–) - if the gas is expanding
31. Classifications of Interest
 Simple Interest
• Ordinary  𝐼 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛)
𝑑
where: 𝑛 =
360

• Exact  𝑃 = 𝑖𝑛
 𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑖𝑛)
𝑑 𝑑
where: 𝑛 = or 𝑛=
365 366

 Rates of Interest
• Nominal Rate of Interest  𝑁𝑅𝐼 = 𝑖𝑚
𝑁𝑅𝐼
• Effective Rate of Interest  𝐸𝑅𝐼 = (1 + )𝑚 − 1
𝑚

• ERI for Continuous Compounding  𝐸𝑅𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑁𝑅 − 1

 Compound Interest
𝑁𝑅𝐼
• Future Worth  𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + )𝑚𝑡
𝑚

• Present Worth  𝑃 = 𝐹(1 + 𝑖)−𝑛

• Continuous Compounding  𝑃 = 𝐹𝑒 −𝑛𝑟𝑡
 𝐹 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑛𝑟𝑡
 (1+𝑖)𝑛
32. Inflation formulas  𝐹 = 𝑃[ ]
(1+𝑓)𝑛

where: i – interest rate

f – inflation rate
note: if i > f – inflation decreases
if i < f – inflation increases
33. Annuity formulas
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
 Ordinary Annuity  𝑃 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖[(1+𝑖)𝑛

(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
 𝐹 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
 Deffered Annuity  𝑃 = 𝐴[𝑖(1+𝑖)𝑚+𝑛 ]

(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
 𝐹 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖
(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1
 Annuity Due  𝑃 = [𝑖(1+𝑖)𝑛−1 ]

((1+𝑖)𝑛−1
 𝐹 = 𝐴[ ]
𝑖
𝐴
 Perpetuity  𝑃=
𝑖
note: n = no. of periods is equal to the no. of payments
33. Depreciation formulas
 Straight Line Method (SLM)
𝐶𝑜 −𝑠𝑣
• Annual Depreciation Charge  𝑑=
𝑛

• Total Depreciation Charge  𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜 − 𝑆𝑉

• Book Value  𝐵𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜 − 𝑑(𝑚)

where: 𝐶𝑜 - Future Value

SV – salvage value
 Sinking Fund Method (SFM)
(𝐶𝑜 −𝑠𝑣)𝑖
• Annual Depreciation Charge  𝑑=
[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]

𝑑[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]
• Total Depreciation Charge  ⁡𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜 − 𝑆𝑉 = 𝑖
[(1+𝑖)𝑛 −1]
• Book Value  𝐵𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜 − (𝑑 )
𝑖

 Sum of the Year’s Digits (SYD)

• Annual Depreciation Charge
𝑛
* 1st Year  𝑑1 = (𝐶𝑜 − 𝑠𝑣)(∑ )
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝑛−1
* 2nd Year  𝑑2 = (𝐶𝑜 − 𝑠𝑣)(∑ )
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝑛(𝑛+1)
where:⁡∑ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 =
2
 • Total Depreciation Charge  ⁡𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑜 − 𝑆𝑉
 Declining Balance Method (DBM)
Use: Matheson formula

𝑛 𝑆𝑉 𝑚 𝐵𝑉
* 𝑘 =1− √ or 𝑘 = 1− √
𝐶 𝑜 𝐶 𝑜

• Book Value  𝐵𝑉 = 𝐹𝑣 ∗ (1 − 𝑘)𝑛

• Salvage Value  𝑆𝑉 = 𝐹𝑣 ∗ (1 − 𝑘)𝐿
where:
k – rate of depreciation
L – life
34. Breakeven Analysis
 Breakeven Formula  BE : Income = Expenses
35. Estimating Doubling & Tripling Time of Investment
log⁡(𝑘)
 General formula  𝑛 = log⁡(1+𝑖)

where: k –> 𝑘 = 1, 2, 3, …
log⁡(2)
 Doubling Time  𝑛 = log⁡(1+𝑖)
72
where: estimated n ---> 𝑛 =
𝑖

log⁡(3)
 Tripling Time  𝑛 = log⁡(1+𝑖)

36. Discount formula

𝑝𝑞
 Successive Discount  𝑑 = 𝑖 (1 − 𝑝 + 𝑞 − ) ; %
100

37. Values of “ i ” and “ n ” for modes of compounding.

Modes of Compounding Values of i and n

Annually (every 12 mos.) m=1 i = NR n=t

Semi - Annually (every 6 mos.) m=2 𝑁𝑅 n = 2t

i=
2

Quarterly (every 3 mos.) m=4 𝑁𝑅 n = 4t

i=
4

Bimonthly ( every 2 mos.) m=6 𝑁𝑅 n = 6t

i=
6

Semi - Quarter (every 1.5 mos.) m=8 𝑁𝑅 n = 8t

i=
8

Monthly (once) m = 12 𝑁𝑅 n = 12t

i=
12