AAU DEPARTMENT OF PADM Research Methods for Public Administration

Chapter Six
Sample Design and Procedure
6.1 Some Fundamental Concepts
Sampling is indispensable technique of behavioural research; the research work cannot be
undertaken without use of sampling. The study of the total population is not possible and it is also
impracticable. The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors which are usually operative in
the situation stand in the way of studying the total population. The concept of sampling has been
introduced with a view to making the research findings economical and accurate.
The research design is based on the sampling of the study. A good research design provides
information concerning with the selection of the sample population treatments and controls to be
imposed. Generalization of the research findings is, of course, dependent upon the sampling
procedures followed. An ideally either a representative or random sample would be desirable to
provide maximum information about the generalizability of research data.

Sampling is fundamental to all statistical methodology of behavioural and social research. Bad
sampling vitiates the data at the source and no amount of subsequent statistical findings will
improve its quality. In fact sampling is the part of the strategy of research and has by now acquired
the status of technical job.
In physical sciences there is a no problem of sampling, any fragment or piece of a phenomena is the
true representative, therefore, the generalization based on the sample is true. But, in behavioural and
social sciences sampling is the crucial problem to have a representative sample. Sampling means
selection of individuals from the population in such a way that every individual has the equal
chance to be taken into the sample population.

Population or universe means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed. The sample observations provide only an estimate of the population
characteristics. The term ‘population’ or universe conveys a different meaning than a traditional
one. In census survey, the count of individuals (men, women and children) is known as population.
But in research methodology population means the characteristics of a specific group. For example,
secondary teachers of Addis Ababa, who have some specific features (teaching experience, male
and female, academic qualification. teaching attitudes, teaching aptitude etc). Another example,
high school students of Addis Ababa who have some specific characteristics (age group), boys and
girls personality, scholastic aptitude, academic motivation etc). Thus, secondary teachers from one

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population and high students from another populations, they have different characteristics. In
selecting a sample subjects it is very essential that researcher should define his population and
enumerate its characteristics.

6.2 Why Sampling?

Sampling is needed for the following reasons; because:
 it is less expensive & less time consuming
 it enhances greater level of accuracy and reliability
 It minimizes observation bias and destructive enumeration.
 Has high degree of generalization

6.3 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-
aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not permit prejudices the learning and
preconception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
5. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a sample is closely linked with
true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by
specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not
be a good representative of the population.
7. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and money point of view.
8. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The research tools can be administered
on them and data can be collected easily.
9. The size of good sample is such that it yields accurate results.
10. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
11. A good sample has the practicability for research situation.
6.4 Sampling Procedure

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While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
1. Define the Population/Universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to
clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total
number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like
are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a
specific radio program, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
2. Sampling Unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
3. Source List: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is
not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative
of the population as possible.
4. Size of Sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is
one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population
variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is
needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The
parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of
the sample. Costs also dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary
constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
5. Sampling Procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several

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sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose
one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and
for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

6.5 Types of Sampling Designs/Sampling Techniques

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis and
the element selection technique. On the representation basis, the sample may be probability
sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of
random selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling. On element
selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample element is
drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted
sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’. The
following chart exhibits the sample designs as explained above. Thus, sample designs are basically
of two type viz., non-probability sampling and probability sampling. We take up these two designs
separately.

I. Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
A sampling technique in which samples are selected based on chance and every member of the
population will have a known, non-zero probability of selection. The following are the main
characteristics of probability sampling:
a) In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as the population.
b) In probability sampling every individual of the population has equal probability to be taken
into the sample.
c) Probability sample may be representative of the population.
d) The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for the inferential purpose.
e) Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable.
f) Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability sample.
g) There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability sample.
h) The probability is comprehensive. Representativeness refers to characteristic.
Comprehensiveness refers to size and area.

There are different techniques in this probability sampling as discussed below.

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a. Simple Random Sampling

A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method
is known as simple-random sample and this technique is simple random-sampling. A randomization
is a method and is done by using a number of techniques as :
a) Tossing a coin.
b) Throwing a dice.
c) Lottery method, etc.
b. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This method requires the
complete information about the population. There should be a list of information of all the
individuals of the population in any systematic way. Now we decide the size of the sample.

Let sample size = n and population size = N. Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and
thus we have the desired size of sample, which is known as systematic sample. Thus for this
technique of sampling population should be arranged in any systematic way.

c. Stratified Sampling
It is an improvement over the earlier method. If a population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group. The population is divided into several sub-populations
that are individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-populations are
called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample. Since each
stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more precise estimates
for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component parts; we get a better
estimate of the whole. Stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information.

When employing this technique, the researcher divides his population in strata on the basis of some
characteristics and from each of these smaller homogeneous groups (strata) draws at random a
predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic or criterion which
seems to be more relevant in his research work. Stratified sampling may be of two types:
1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to
the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgement and convenience.

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This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata, which have different error
possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics.
Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure include representativeness with
respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able
to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each
category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method.
These two types are clear from the table as given below:
Disproportionate Proportionate
Levels Population
Sample Size Sample Size
H.G 250 35 25
A.G 400 43 40
L.G 350 22 35
Total 1000 100 100

d. Multi Stage Sampling

This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. Multi-stage sampling is a
further development of the principle of cluster sampling. Suppose we want to investigate the
working efficiency of commercial banks in Ethiopia and we want to take a sample of few banks for
this purpose. The first stage is to select large primary sampling unit such as regions in a country.
Then we may select certain districts and interview all banks in the chosen districts. This would
represent a two-stage sampling design with the ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts. If
instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected districts, we select certain towns and
interview all banks in the chosen towns. This would represent a three-stage sampling design. If
instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, we randomly sample banks from
each selected town, then it is a case of using a four-stage sampling plan. If we select randomly at all
stages, we will have what is known as ‘multi-stage random sampling design’.
Ordinarily multi-stage sampling is applied in big inquires extending to a considerable large
geographical area, say, the entire country. There are two advantages of this sampling design viz.,
(a) It is easier to administer than most single stage designs mainly because of the fact that sampling
frame under multi-stage sampling is developed in partial units. (b) A large number of units can be
sampled for a given cost under multistage sampling because of sequential clustering, whereas this is
not possible in most of the simple designs. In this type of sampling primary sample units are
inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units to be selected which

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belong to one and only one group. Stages of a population are usually available within a group or
population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The Individuals are selected from
different stages for constituting the multi-stage sampling.
e. Cluster Sampling
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a Cluster sampling. In Cluster sampling the
sample units contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual members or items in the
population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting
15 per cent of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the
city, selects at random 15 per cent of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the
selected schools as the sample. If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, divide the area
into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas.
Then, randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the ultimate
sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.

II.Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating
the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
It is a sampling technique in which units of the sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience or by some other means (arbitrarily) rather than chance.
Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling: The following are the main characteristics of non-
probability sample:
a) There is no equal probability of selecting any individual.
b) Non-probability sample has free distribution.
c) The observations of non-probability sample are not used for generalization purpose.
d) Non-parametric or non-inferential statistics are used in non probability sample.
In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice
concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the
organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge one will be typical or
representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions of people living in a state/regions
are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the

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principle that they can be representative of the entire state. Thus, the judgement of the organizers of
the study plays an important part in this sampling design.

In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample.
The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view and if
that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering
into this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and
have the necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an analysis
of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling, there is no
assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included. Sampling error in this
type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great or small, is always there. As
such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in small
inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative
advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling.

Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling the
interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on
how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the
interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But
the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota
samples are essentially judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to
statistical treatment in a formal way.

6.6 Determining the Sample Size

One of the first questions that the researcher typically asks, concerns with the number of subjects
that need to be included in his sample. Technically, the size of the sample depends upon the
precision the researcher desires in estimating the population parameter at a particular confidence
level. There is no single rule that can be used to determine sample size.
The best answer to the question of size is to use as large a sample as possible. A larger sample is
much more likely to be representative of the population. Furthermore with a large sample the data
are likely to be more accurate and precise. It was pointed out in that the larger the sample, the
smaller the standard error. In general, the standard error of a sample mean is inversely proportional
to the square root of n. Thus, in order to double the precision of one’s estimation, the sample size
would need to be quadrupled.
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It is often suggested that one should include at least 30 subjects in a sample since this number
permits .the use of large sample statistics. Statistically speaking, a sample n = 30 is considered
large, since with this n, the t-distribution and the normal curve are practically the same for
hypothesis testing purposes. In experimental research, one should select a sample that will permit at
least 30 in each group. Descriptive research typically uses larger samples; it is sometimes suggested
that one should select 10-20 per cent of the accessible population for the sample.

It is the crucial problem for the research scholars to determine the size of sample. In an
experimental study, it is essential to equate the control and experimental groups, but in survey study
sample should be representative of population. Therefore, size of sample is an important aspect for
the representativeness.
Other things being equal, the larger the sample, the greater the precision and accuracy of the data it
provides. It is a common belief that the precision of data is determined primarily by the size of the
sample, rather than by the percentage of the population represented in the sample. The term ‘large
sample’ is vague, it varies with nature of study. The exact procedure by which to determine the
sample size required varies with the nature of the variable and its sampling distribution, but the
basic procedure can be illustrated in connection with the mean of random samples based on normal
probability distribution.
The chances are 95 to 99 percent that a sample in separated sampling will fall within the interval M
± 1.96 SEM. The next question is the degree of accuracy required. Generally 95 to 99 per cent
confidence intervals are acceptable i.e. 5 to 1 per cent error. If the variable of the study is the
intelligence and the sampling errors were kept within 5 per cent at the 95 per cent confidence level.
The investigator can use the formula for the standard error of the mean to provide the required size
of sample.

Where
= S.D. of the population
n = Size of the sample
5 is percent of sampling error
In this illustration I.Q. distribution s = 16

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If the investigator wants more precise, the sampling error is kept within 1 per cent at the 99 per cent
confidence level. The following formula is used for determining the size of sample:

n = 1681

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