ME 326- Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 1

BSME-3B
Group 2
Bilaro, Argie
Boncolmo, Bernadette
Claveria, John Lenard
Competente, Joanne
Cortes, Renen

Lesson 8: FUELS AND GREASE

FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF LIQUID FUELS AND GREASE

FUELS AND GREASE

FUELS
Fuels are dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy services such
as heating, transportation and electrical generation.[2] Even though most fuels ultimately get their energy
from the sun (see energy conservation) they are usually considered to be a primary energy source. When
people talk about energy conservation, usually they mean using less fuel (see fuel conservation).
Almost all, about 95%, of human primary energy comes from primary fuels (as opposed to primary
energy flows). These fuels go into power plants, see figure 1, engines, heaters and anything else that
humans derive work or heat from. This percentage is slightly different for electrical generation; 85% of
the primary energy to generate electricity comes from fuels (as opposed to primary energy flows).

Types of Fuels
When a fuel is used, it undergoes some process that leaves it in a form with less energy. This
means that most fuels are non-renewable, but may be found extensively enough as to be
considered sustainable. Primary flows, like wind, are not considered fuels and are a class of primary
energy supply entirely different from fuels - for more information on this difference please visit the
page: fuel vs flow.
Primary fuels include nuclear fuels, biofuels and fossil fuels. Often primary fuels are processed
to make something chemically distinct from how they were harvested from a natural resource. For
example crude oil is a primary fuel that undergoes fractional distillation to become products more useful
to the consumer.
Gasoline, kerosene and diesel are also fuels, but are different as they are derived from primary
energy sources. These are secondary fuels as opposed to primary fuels. These fuels are processed from
the form found as a natural resource and can also be considered energy currencies. Secondary fuels are
easier for engines to burn, so are often made from crude oil as a way of getting the most energy out as
possible.
 Furthermore, fuels like methane, butane and propane are found mixed together in their
natural resource (which would be the primary energy source) and are separated during the fractional
distillation process.
Fuels vary considerably in energy density, cost, and environmental impact, for
example uranium has a significantly higher energy density than fossil fuels but is much more expensive.
It is also difficult to compare the energy density and environmental impact of fuels to primary flows due
to the nature of how each is utilized.
Approximately 95% percent of the primary energy in the world comes from fuels
like oil, coal and natural gas (all of which except nuclear fuels produce extensive greenhouse gases when
used). Most of the rest of the world's primary energy comes from hydropower, although a small fraction
is wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, and tidal power. The amount of electricity that comes
from flows increases to about 19% (still mostly hydro) because flows don't have the same limitations of
having a thermal efficiency's that heat engines have and flows are used almost entirely for electricity
generation.

1. Ethanol
Also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol, this flammable, colorless liquid is made by
the fermentation of sugars in certain plants. In the United States, the vast majority of ethanol
produced — more than 16 billion gallons in 2018 – is made from corn. In Brazil, sugarcane is the
abundant, renewable feedstock of choice. Most of the gasoline we buy every day already contains
ethanol — up to 10 percent (E10). Adding ethanol to gasoline increases octane, which boosts
engine power and performance. More and more American vehicles can use higher ethanol blends
right out of the factory: There are over 20 million flex-fuel vehicles on the road, all built to run
safely and efficiently on E85, a fuel blend that’s between 51 percent and 83 percent ethanol.
There are more than 3,000 stations in the U.S. that sell E85. All vehicles built since model year
2001 can also safely run on E15 (a blend of up to 15 percent ethanol), which more stations around
the country are beginning to offer. Ethanol can be made from a variety of plants, including
switchgrass, corn stalks and leaves (called corn stover) and some varieties of cactus. The ethanol
derived from these sources is called cellulosic ethanol. Ethanol can also be processed from our
abundant new supplies of natural gas.
2. Methanol
Also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, this flammable, colorless liquid is the
simplest alcohol. Therefore, the process for converting raw materials to methanol is simpler than
with ethanol, making the potential cost savings to the consumer very attractive. Anything that
once was biomass can be converted to methanol for use as a fuel. These raw material
“feedstocks” include coal, natural gas and farm waste. Trash in landfills emits methane gas over
time, which can be captured and converted to methanol. Unlike ethanol, methanol is toxic and not
fit for humans to drink. It’s used in making antifreeze, solvent and window cleaner. It’s the main
component in windshield wiper fluid, which we dump directly to the atmosphere. Racecar drivers
have been using methanol for decades because it has a higher octane and a lower flashpoint than
traditional gasoline, making it safer in the event of a crash. Various tests have shown that
methanol can safely be used in vehicles that also run on E85. But more so than with ethanol,
material compatibility is a concern: Water in the fuel can cause corrosion of parts if the wrong
material is used, such as zinc or aluminum.

3. Gasoline
 Only 19 gallons out of every 42-gallon barrel of crude oil ends up as gasoline. After
being extracted from the ground, crude is shipped to an oil refinery, where it is heated to
temperatures above 350°C in a pressurized chamber and distilled into gasoline. However, before
it can be sold, this unfinished gasoline needs to be blended with additives to boost its low octane
rating in order to achieve increased efficiency and avoid harming engines with pre-ignition and/or
knocking — problems that can cause severe engine damage. Although lead was used as an
additive in the United States from the 1920s through the mid-1990s, it was banned for causing
brain damage. Most gasoline currently sold in the United States is blended with aromatics,
ethanol, or some combination of the two to boost its octane rating. The use of aromatics is still
controversial, however, due to their toxic and carcinogenic nature.
4. Diesel
Like gasoline, diesel fuel must also undergo a refining process before it’s ready for use,
with approximately 12 gallons of diesel being made from every 42-gallon barrel of crude oil. At
the refinery, crude is heated to temperatures between 200°C and 350°C and then distilled into
diesel fuel. While diesel is generally acknowledged as being more efficient than gasoline and
emits fewer greenhouse gases, diesel engines have trouble starting in cold weather and produce
more NOx, one of the main components in smog.
5. Natural Gas
Methane (CH4) is the main component of natural gas, and it’s often found in the same
wells that bring up oil. Methane is a simple molecule that burns cleanly, and currently there’s so
much of it underground in the United States that oil drillers find it unprofitable to capture, so it’s
burned off into the atmosphere. As a fuel, methane, in its gas form, has to be compressed (CNG)
to be used in vehicles. CNG is mostly used in heavy-duty or commercial vehicles. Some types of
vehicles, such as delivery trucks, use liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is cooled to -162°C.
Individuals can also convert existing cars to run on natural gas (as CNG), but an EPA certified kit
costs between $5,000 and $10,000.
6. Hydrogen
The most common element on Earth, hydrogen (H2) is used as a transportation fuel when
it’s contained inside electrochemical cells. There are several types of “fuel cell” vehicles on the
market, including the Mercedes F-Cell and Toyota’s new Mirai. Hydrogen is pumped into the
fuel cell as a gas, and when it ignites, it combines with oxygen to produce only water and heat,
with zero toxic emissions. But hydrogen is rarely found in its pure state; most of the time it’s
already bonded to another molecule (like water, H2O). It takes energy to split that bond, and
currently that is difficult to balance out. Hydrogen requires only a 4 percent mixture with air to
burn, so it’s easy to detonate and burns very quickly. Leaks are a concern during storage,
however. And it takes a lot of energy to compress into an energy density appropriate for vehicle
refueling. These vehicles are also much more expensive than vehicles that run on gasoline or
alcohols.
7. Biodiesel
This is vegetable oil that has had a glycerol removed, a process that involves adding
methanol and lye. This makes the mixture less viscous and gives it additional energy density.
This makes the fuel easier to use in vehicles year-round, even in winter. Straight vegetable oil
(SVO) also is a “drop-in” fuel, but cold weather can cause the fuel to gel. It’s important to note
that biodiesel replaces diesel fuel, not gasoline. Most diesel-fueled vehicles in the U.S. are heavy-
duty and commercial trucks.

Types of Fossil Fuels

There are three types of fossil fuels which can all be used for energy provision; coal, oil and natural gas. 
 1. Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation. When layers
are compacted and heated over time, deposits are turned into coal. Coal is quite abundant
compared to the other two fossil fuels. Analysts sometimes predict that worldwide coal use will
increase as oil supplies become scarcer. Current coal supplies could last for 200 years or more.
Coal is usually extracted in mines. Since the middle of the 20th century, coal use has doubled.
Since 1996 its application is declining again. Many developing countries depend on coal for
energy provision because they cannot afford oil or natural gas.

2. Oil is a liquid fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of marine microorganisms deposited on
the sea floor. After millions of years the deposits end up in rock and sediment where oil is trapped
in small spaces. It can be extracted by large drilling platforms. Oil is the most widely used fossil
fuel. Crude oil consists of many different organic compounds which are transformed to products
in a refining process. It is applied in cars, jets, roads and roofs and many other. Oil cannot be
found everywhere on earth and consequentially, there have been wars on oil supplies. A well-
known example is the Gulf War of 1991.

3. Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel that is versatile, abundant and relatively clean compared to
coal and oil. Like oil, it is formed from the remains of marine microorganisms. It is a relatively
new type of energy source. Until 1999, more coal was used than natural gas. Natural gas has now
overtaken coal in developed countries. However, people are afraid that like oil, natural gas
supplies will run out. Some scientists have even predicted this might happen by the middle or end
of the 21st century. Natural gas mainly consists of methane (CH 4). It is highly compressed in
small volumes at large depths in the earth. Like oil, it is brought to the surface by drilling. Natural
gas reserves are more evenly distributed around the globe than oil supplies.

Classification of Fuels
A fuel is a substance which gives heat energy on combustion. A fuel contains carbon and
hydrogen as main combustible elements. fuel is any material that can be made to react with other
substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. heat energy
released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine. Other times the heat
itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the illumination that comes with
combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where
organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy.
The based on physical states, fuel can be classified into three types:

1. Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels like furnace oil and are predominantly used in industrial applications. Most
liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by
exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust. However, there are several types, such as hydrogen
fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and biodiesel which are all categorized as a liquid fuel.

Types of liquid fuel

a. Petroleum
b. Oils from distillation of petroleum
 c. Coal tar
d. Shale-oil
e. Alcohols, etc.
The properties of liquid fuels
 Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference
temperature of 15°C. The unit of measurement for density is kg/m3 and measured by a
hydrometer. It is important for assessing ignition qualities and other quantitative calculations.
 Specific Gravity is a ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of
oil
to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative
to water is called specific gravity. E.g., Light diesel oil has specific gravity as 0.85 - 0.87,
furnace oil has 0.89 - 0.95.
 Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on the
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Every oil has its own temperature -
viscosity relationship and measurement by viscometer. It is important characteristic for
storage and use of fuel oil. It influences the degree of pre-heating required for handling,
storage and satisfactory atomization. Highly viscous oils may become difficult to pump, hard
to light the burner, and difficult to handle. the low atomization may result in the formation of
carbon deposits on the burner tips/walls. The pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.
 Flash Point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. The 66 °C is the
flash point for furnace oil.
 Pour Point is the fuel's lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under
prescribed conditions. It is a rough estimation of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is
ready to be pumped.
 Specific Heat is the number of calories needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 10C.
The unit of specific heat is kcal/kg0C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil
specific gravity.
 Calorific Value measures the heat or energy produced. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes
all vapor produced during the combustion process is fully condensed and Net calorific value
(NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being
condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value. The calorific value of
fuel oils is much more consistent compare to coal (solid fuel), for example kerosene and
diesel oil got the GCV 11,100 and 10,800 kCal/kg respectively.
 Sulphur the amount of Sulphur in the fuel oil depends on the source of the crude oil and on
the refining process. The Sulphur content for the residual fuel oil is in the order of 2 - 4 %.
 Ash Content is related to the inorganic material or salts (compounds of sodium, vanadium,
calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel etc.) in the fuel oil and ash levels in
distillate fuels are negligible. the residual fuels have higher ash levels. The ash has an erosive
effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise
to high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipment.

 Carbon Residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a
hot surface like burner and injection nozzle when its vaporizable constituents evaporate. The
residual oil contains carbon residue of 1% or higher.
 Water Content is low when it is supplied because the product at refinery site is handled hot.
the water content can be maximum 1% which the upper limit. The water content can cause
damage to the inside surfaces of the furnace during combustion especially if it contains
 dissolved salts or it can cause spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing
the flame, reducing the flame temperature or lengthening the flame.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels
 Advantages:
 They possess higher calorific value per unit mass as compare to solid fuels.
 They burn without dust, ash, clinkers.
 Easy to fire and fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
 Easy to transport through pipes.
 Can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
 They are clean in use and economic to handle.
 Heat loss in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
 They require less furnace space and excess air for complete combustion

 Disadvantages:
 The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
 There is a greater risk of five hazards, in case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid
fuels.
 They give bad odor.
 Special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
 Specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are required for efficient burning of
liquid fuels.

2. Solid Fuels
Solid fuel refers to various types of solid material that are used as fuel to produce energy
and provide heating, usually released through combustion. Coal is classified into three major
types; anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However, there is no clear demarcation between them.
Coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is
the oldest coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with
little volatile content and practically no moisture.

Types of solid fuel

 Wood
 Coal
 Oil shale
 Tanbark
 Bagasse
 Straw
 Charcoal
 Coke
 Briquettes
Woods Characteristics
The woods are very easily available and most commonly used solid fuel. The woods are
used as fuel from ancient time after the discovery of the fire. The 39 Types of fuels and their
Characteristics wood is used in almost every village, town and cities in India. The wood is used
for industrial purposes. Constituents of Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. The wood
consists of mainly cellular tissue and lignin. it also consists of lesser parts of fat and tar and sugar.
 Coal classification
Coal is classified into three types as follows, even there is no clear demarcation between them:

 Anthracite
 Bituminous
 Lignite.

The Coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous and sub-bituminous. the

anthracite is the oldest coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of
carbon with little volatile content and without moisture. The lignite is the youngest coal from a
geological perspective and it is a soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter (combustible
constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated). and moisture content with low fixed
carbon (carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements).
The coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal. The chemical
composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility.

Chemical and physical properties of coal

The chemical properties of coal refer to the various elemental chemical constituents such
as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur. The physical properties of coal include the heating
value, moisture content, volatile matter and ash.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Fuels
 Advantages:
 They are easy to transport.
 The production cost is low.
 They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
 They possess moderate ignition temperature.

 Disadvantages:
 The ash contents are high.
 They burn with clinker formation.
 Large proportion of heat is wasted.
 Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
 Handling cost is high

3. Gaseous Fuel
Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous.
Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures
thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily
transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of
consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though some fuel gases
are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be advantageous, avoiding
the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can
also be dangerous.
Types of gaseous fuel
 Natural gas
  Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
 Refinery gases
 Methane from coal mines
 Fuel gases made from solid fuel
 Gases derived from coal
 Gases derived from waste and biomass
 Blast furnace gas
 Gases made from petroleum
 Gases from some fermentation process
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels
 Advantages:
 They are clean in use.
 They do not require any special burner.
 They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to user, no need of manual transportation.
 They can be easily lighted.
 They have high heat contents therefore provides higher temperatures.
 To get economy in heat they can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases.
 They burn without any shoot, smoke and ashes.
 They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

 Disadvantages:
 Very large storage tanks are needed.
 They are highly inflammable; the fire hazards are possible.

Properties of gaseous fuels

The fuel should be compared based on their net calorific value and especially true for
natural gas because increased hydrogen content results in high water formation during
combustion.
1. LPG
LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at normal atmospheric
pressure but may be condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature by the application of
moderate pressures. The LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and butane with a small
percentage of unsaturated, some lighter C2 and heavier C5 fractions. The propane (C3H8),
Propylene (C3H6), iso-butane (C4H10) and Butylene (C4H8) are included in the range of
LPG.The liquid LPG evaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas.
LPG vapour is denser than air for example butane is about two times heavier than air and propane
is about 1.5 times heavier then air. Consequently, the vapours may flow along the ground and into
drains sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a considerable distance
from the source of leakage. There should be adequate ground level of ventilation where LPG is
stored therefore LPG cylinders should not be stored in cellars or basements which have no
ventilation at ground level.
2. Natural gas
Natural gas has high calorific value and requiring no storage facilities. It mixes with air
readily and does not produce smoke or soot. It did not contain Sulphur. It is lighter than air and
 disperses into air easily in case of leak.
The methane is the main constituent of natural gas and it is about 95% of the total volume. The
other components are Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and traces of
other gases. In these gases a very small amounts of Sulphur compounds are also present. The
properties of methane are used when comparing the properties of natural gas to other fuels
because methane is the largest component in natural gas.

GREASE
Grease is defined by the American Society of Testing Materials as a solid to semi-solid or semi-
fluid product of dispersion of a thickening agent in a fluid lubricant. The function of grease is to remain in
contact with and lubricate moving surfaces without leaking out under the force of gravity, centrifugal
action or being squeezed out under pressure. Its major practical requirement is that it retains its properties
under shear forces at all temperatures it experiences during use.
Three Components that Form Lubricating Grease
 Base Oil- most greases produced today use mineral oil as their fluid components. These mineral
oil-based greases typically provide satisfactory performance in most industrial applications. In
temperature extremes (low or high), a grease that utilizes a synthetic base oil will provide better
stability.
 Thickener- is often referred to as a sponge that holds the lubricant (base oil plus additives). It is a
material that, in combination with the selected lubricant, will produce the solid to semifluid
structure.
 Additives - can play several roles in a lubricating grease. These primarily include enhancing the
existing desirable properties, suppressing the existing undesirable properties, and imparting new
properties. The most common additives are oxidation and rust inhibitors, extreme pressure,
antiwear, and friction-reducing agents.
Applications of Grease
Grease and oil are not interchangeable. Grease is used when it is not practical or convenient to
use oil. The lubricant choice for a specific application is determined by matching the machinery design
and operating conditions with desired lubricant characteristics. Grease is generally used for:
 Machinery that runs intermittently or is in storage for an extended period of time. Because grease
remains in place, a lubricating film can instantly form.
 Machinery that is not easily accessible for frequent lubrication. High-quality greases can lubricate
isolated or relatively inaccessible components for extended periods of time without frequent
replenishing. These greases are also used in sealed-for-life applications such as some electrical
motors and gearboxes.
 Machinery operating under extreme conditions such as high temperatures and pressures, shock
loads or slow speed under heavy load.
 Worn components. Grease maintains thicker films in clearances enlarged by wear and can extend
the life of worn parts that were previously lubricated by oil.

Functional Properties of Grease

 Grease functions as a sealant to minimize leakage and to keep out contaminants. Because of its
consistency, grease acts as a sealant to prevent lubricant leakage and also to prevent entrance of
corrosive contaminants and foreign materials. It also acts to keep deteriorated seals effective.
  Grease is easier to contain than oil. Oil lubrication can require an expensive system of circulating
equipment and complex retention devices. In comparison, grease, by virtue of its rigidity, is
easily confined with simplified, less costly retention devices.
 Grease holds solid lubricants in suspension. Finely ground solid lubricants, such as molybdenum
disulfide (moly) and graphite, are mixed with grease in high-temperature service or in extreme
high-pressure applications. Grease holds solids in suspension while solids will settle out of oils.
 Fluid level does not have to be controlled and monitored.

Characteristics of Grease
As with oil, grease displays its own set of characteristics that must be considered when being
chosen for an application. The characteristics commonly found on product data sheets include the
following:
 Pumpability - is the ability of a grease to be pumped or pushed through a system. More
practically, pumpability is the ease with which a pressurized grease can flow through lines,
nozzles and fittings of grease-dispensing systems.
 Water resistance - This is the ability of a grease to withstand the effects of water with no change
in its ability to lubricate. A soap/water lather may suspend the oil in the grease, forming an
emulsion that can wash away or, to a lesser extent, reduce lubricity by diluting and changing
grease consistency and texture.
 Consistency- Grease consistency depends on the type and amount of thickener used and the
viscosity of its base oil. A grease's consistency is its resistance to deformation by an applied
force. The measure of consistency is called penetration. Penetration depends on whether the
consistency has been altered by handling or working. ASTM D 217 and D 1403 methods measure
penetration of unworked and worked greases. To measure penetration, a cone of given weight is
allowed to sink into a grease for five seconds at a standard temperature of 25°C (77°F). The
depth, in tenths of a millimeter, to which the cone sinks into the grease is the penetration. A
penetration of 100 would represent a solid grease while a penetration of 450 would be semifluid.
 Dropping point - is an indicator of the heat resistance of grease. As grease temperature increases,
penetration increases until the grease liquefies and the desired consistency is lost. The dropping
point is the temperature at which a grease becomes fluid enough to drip. The dropping point
indicates the upper temperature limit at which a grease retains its structure, not the maximum
temperature at which a grease may be used.
 Oxidation stability- this is the ability of a grease to resist a chemical union with oxygen. The
reaction of grease with oxygen produces insoluble gum, sludges and lacquer-like deposits that
cause sluggish operation, increased wear and reduction of clearances. Prolonged exposure to high
temperatures accelerates oxidation in greases.
 High-temperature effects - high temperatures harm greases more than they harm oils. Grease,
by its nature, cannot dissipate heat by convection like a circulating oil. Consequently, without the
ability to transfer away heat, excessive temperatures result in accelerated oxidation or even
carbonization where grease hardens or forms a crust.Effective grease lubrication depends on the
grease's consistency. High temperatures induce softening and bleeding, causing grease to flow
away from needed areas. The mineral oil in grease can flash, burn or evaporate at temperatures
greater than 177°C (350°F).
 Low-temperature effects- If the temperature of a grease is lowered enough, it will become so
viscous that it can be classified as a hard grease. Pumpability suffers and machinery operation
may become impossible due to torque limitations and power requirements. As a guideline, the
base oil's pour point is considered the low-temperature limit of a grease
 FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF LIQUID FUELS AND GREASE

Liquid Fuel
The flash and fire points of a liquid fuel specimen are the indicators of its flammability. In
general, flash point is the lowest temperature of the test specimen, corrected to a barometric pressure of
101.3 kPa, at which the application of an ignition source causes the vapor of the test specimen to ignite
momentarily and the flame to propagate across the surface of the liquid under the specified conditions of
test. It is important to realize that the value of the flash point is not a physical constant but is the result of
a flash point test and is dependent on the apparatus and procedure used. Fire point may be considered as
the lowest temperature of the liquid at which vapor combustion and burning commences. A fire point
happens when an ignition source is applied and the heat produced is self-sustaining, as it supplies enough
vapors to combine with air and burn even after the removal of the ignition source.
Grease
Flash point is the lowest temperature to which a lubricant must be heated before its vapor, when
mixed with air, will ignite but not continue to burn. Fire point it is the temperature at which lubricant
combustion will be sustained.

Significance of Flash and Fire Point

 The flash and fire points are useful in determining a lubricants volatility and fire resistance. [A
lubricant exhibiting a flash point significantly lower than normal will be suspected of
contamination with a volatile product.]
 The flash point can be used to determine the transportation and storage temperature requirements
for lubricants.
 Lubricant producers can also use the flash point to detect potential product contamination..

Two Maim Methods of Flash Point Tests

1. Open Cup Method for flash point testing uses a vessel, or container, that is exposed to the
outside air. Once the sample material is placed in the vessel, you then gradually raise its
temperature, and pass an ignition source over it, until it flashes and ignites at a certain point. This
is the sample’s flash point. The most common open cup method is the Cleveland open cup
(COC). Other methods include Tag and Setaflash. Initially, the open cup method for flash testing
was developed to assess potential hazards when there were spillages of liquids. As a method, the
open cup test is less precise than closed cup, because vapours are free to escape into the
atmosphere, and may be affected by local conditions. Flash point results from this method may
also read higher at temperatures above ambient because of the reduced concentration of vapours
compared to closed cup methods.

2. Close Cup Method conducts tests using a vessel, which is sealed off from the outside
atmosphere. heat both the vessel and sample, which replicates the effect of accidently introducing
an ignition source into a sealed container, such as a gas tank or other storage vessel. This close
approximation of real-life conditions, and the precise nature of the testing, makes the closed cup
method ideal for product specifications and regulations. Closed cup testing will generally produce
 lower flash points because the contained heat is more likely to make the sample material
flammable at an earlier stage. This delivery of lower results tends to make closed cup methods
preferred for industry standards. It is the common method for testing the fire and flash points of
all petroleum products that have a flash point above 79°C. There are four main closed cup flash
point testing methods: Pensky Martens, Abel, Tag and Setaflash.

IMPORTANCE OF FLASH POINT TEST

The fundamental reason for the requirement of flash point measurements is to assess the safety
hazard of a liquid (liquid fuel) or semi-solid (grease) with regard to its flammability and then
classify the liquid into a group. The lower the flash point temperature, the greater the risk. This
classification is then used to warn of a risk and to enable the correct precautions to be taken when
using, storing or transporting the liquid. Specifications quote flash point values for quality control
purposes as well as for controlling the flammability risk. A change in flash point can indicate the
presence of potentially dangerous volatile contaminants or the adulteration of one product by
another. The classification of chemicals including petroleum products helps to identify the
hazards of a substance or preparation
ME_326_Assignment_8_Simulation TASK 2:

SIMULATION: Flash Point of Synthetic Kerosene

Flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which oil gives off sufficient vapour to form
an ignitable condition. Flash point can be determined by passing a flame on a quantity of oil or liquid. It
is observable due to the ignition of the gas.

Objective:

 To determine the flash point of synthetic kerosene.

Materials:

 Metal tin or can

 Piece of plywood

 Digital thermometer

 Gas blowtorch

 Fuel to test: KEROSENE

Procedure:

1. Prepare the materials needed.

2. Half fill the can with the fuel sample (kerosene). Then close the container and put the kerosene
away from the can.
3. Put the digital thermometer inside the can then measure the temperature of fuel.

Temperature Measured: 20 ° ∁

4. Using the gas blowtorch, pass the flame over the top of the can for at least two to three times
slowly.

5. Put the digital thermometer into the can then use the gas flame to gently heat the can. We see that
nothing happened. Measure the temperature using the thermometer.
 Temperature measured:25 ℃

6. Again, pass the flame over the top of the can for at least two to three times slowly. If nothing
happened, go back to heating it up by 5 ℃

7. Put the thermometer back to measure the temperature, then again heat up the fuel using the gas
blowtorch. When passing the flame in the can, pass it slowly enough that it touches the surface of
the fuel, but not so slowly that it begins to heat the fuel.

Temperature measured: 30 ℃

8. Same instruction, pass the flame over the top of the can for at least two to three times slowly.
Then measure the temperature.
 Observation: There was a flicker of flame this time but it cannot sustain the flame.

Temperature measured: 35 ℃

9. Raise the temperature at 40 ℃ , pass the flame over the top of the can for at least two to three
times slowly. Observation: The kerosene caught fire.

10. In order to stop the fire before it gets out of control, place the piece of plywood over the tin to put
out the fire.

CONCLUSION: In this simulation, the flash point of kerosene was determined at 40 ℃ .

ME 326 Mechanical Engineering Laboratory 1
Narrative

Synthetic fuel, also known as synfuel, is a liquid or gaseous fuel made from syngas, a mixture of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen, obtained by gasification of solid feed stocks such as coal or biomass or
by natural gas reforming.
Each of a variety of fuels that are gaseous under normal conditions is referred to as fuel gas.
Many fuel gases are made up of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or a combination of these
substances. Such gases are potential sources of heat or light energy that can be easily transferred and
distributed through pipes from point of origin to point of consumption.
The aim of flash point measurements is to determine the flammability of a liquid (liquid fuel) or
semi-solid (grease) and then classify the liquid into a category. The higher the risk, the lower the flash
point temperature. Flash point values are listed in specifications for quality control and to reduce the risk
of flammability. A shift in flash point may signal the presence of potentially hazardous volatile
contaminants or the adulteration of one substance with another. Chemical classification, which includes
petroleum products, aids in determining a substance's or preparation's hazards.

In determining the flash point of synthetic kerosene, we first have to have the right materials for
the simulation such as, metal tin or can, piece of plywood, digital thermometer, gas blowtorch, fuel to test
(Kerosene). And to state the simulation we have to first, half fill the can with the fuel sample (kerosene).
Then close the container and put the kerosene away from the can. Then, Put the digital thermometer
inside the can then measure the temperature of fuel, for the temperature measured we have 20°C. 1.
Using the gas blowtorch, pass the flame over the top of the can for at least two to three times
slowly. Put the digital thermometer into the can then use the gas flame to gently heat the can. We see that
nothing happened. Measure the temperature using the thermometer, the temperature measure was 25°C.
Next was to repeatedly pass the flame two or three times if nothing was to happened, then it would result
to heating the fuel up to 5°C. Put the thermometer back to measure the temperature, then again heat up the
fuel using the gas blowtorch. When passing the flame in the can, pass it slowly enough that it touches the
surface of the fuel, but not so slowly that it begins to heat the fuel. Temperature measured was 30 ℃ .
Again pass the flame into the can two or three times but this time there was a flicker of flame observed.
And the temperature was in 35 °C. Raise the temperature at 40 ℃ , pass the flame over the top of the can
for at least two to three times slowly. Observation: The kerosene caught fire. In order to stop the fire
before it gets out of control, place the piece of plywood over the tin to put out the fire.

Thus, the conclusion in this simulation, was that the flash point of kerosene was determined at
40 ℃ .

REFERENCES:
https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/1352/grease-basics
https://www.engineersedge.com/lubrication/flash_point_fire_point.htm
https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/materials_chemicals_adhesives/industrial_oils_fluids/industrial_g
reases
https://web.iitd.ac.in/~pmvs/courses/mcl241/Flash%20and%20fire%20point.pdf
https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/flash-and-fire-point-measurement/
https://youtu.be/w_nVhkvPEpI