Solar Cell and Solar Panel Production

*
BERK BOZKURT
1
Department of Electrical – Electronics Engineering, Antalya Bilim University, Antalya/Turkey
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received 31 May 2019

1. ABSTRACT combining solar cells. Photovoltaic (PV) is

another name of solar energy and it is consist from
Solar energy is important for all countries due to “photo” (Greek word for light) and “voltaic”
increasing energy needs. Rapid depletion of fossil ( reference to Alessandro Volta who invented
fuels provide us this greater energy source. Also, battery) [1]. We can think a sunlight as a heap of
air and water pollution and global warming photons, and solar cells catches these bunch of
happens due to use of fossil fuels which known as photons, and convert them to electrons. Every
major energy sources. For this reason, countries cells at solar panels create a volts, so solar panel’s
began to give importance to renewable energy mission is combining these volts and make them
sources like solar energy. In this study, the bigger electric current and voltage.
production of different types of solar panels and
their working principles was demonstrated.
3. PRODUCING SOLAR CELLS
Key Words: Solar Panel, Renewable Energy.

2. INTRODUCTION Solar cells are very thin silicon disk that convert
sunlight to electricity and silicon is called as a
semiconductor. Then, what is semiconductor? In
Why do we waste time for non-renewable energy nature, some substances do not conduct electricity
sources when there is legendary energy sources in but some of them can conduct electricity. For
the sky with ceaselessly and free? The Sun has example, metals allow electricity to flow and they
energy more than we need for billion years and called conductors. Otherwise, plactics and wood
with the help of solar panels we can convert that don’t allow electricity to flow and they called
energy to electricity. As global warming caused by insulators. Semiconductors like Silicon (Si),
non-renewable energy sources continues to Germanium(Ge) and Gallium Arsenide(GaAs)
increasing day by day, there is no doubt that solar neither conductors nor insulators. For making
energy become more important energy source in solar cells we generally use silicon. We can
future. To save our world, we have to use solar change the behavior of silicon and make it
energy as a electricity. conductor by doping it. If we add small amount of
With the help of solar cells, we can convert solar impurity into silicon crystal, it will conductive.
energy to electricity. Solar panels occur by There are 2 types of impurities; N-type and P-type.
In N-type doping, Phosphoros(P) or Arsenic(As) 3.2 RAW MATERIALS
added to silicon. Phosphoros and Arsenic have
five outer electrons so, when they making bond, Firstly, for producing solar cells we need to have
one outer atom will be free to move. These free sand, because naturel sands are main components
electrons allow electric current flow to the silicon. of silicon [2]. In this step as shown in Fig. 1, sand
In P-type doping, Boron(B) or Gallium(Ga) added and coal placed in an arc furnace and we heat
to silicon. Boron and Gallium have three outer them until 1,800 C. Then, the products are carbon
atom so, when they have bond with silicon atoms, dioxide and metallurgical grade silicon. [3]. It has
one silicon atom can not have bond. Because of %98 purity, but it is not enough. So that, with the
this event, holes can be generated and these holes help of next step we can achieve more purity.
takes electrons from other atoms. Both types of
semiconductors are good conductors and solar
cells made by these two types silicons. So far, this
paper mentioned about how solar cells produced in
a simple way, now let’s explain in more detail.
There are four types of solar panels;
1- Monocrystal
2- Polycrystal
3- Thin Film (have low efficiency)
4- Transparent Solar Panel (not common yet.) Fig.2 Sand to Mg-silicon process. [4]

3.3 POLYSILICON
3.1 MONOCRYSTAL AND In this process, our input materials are MG-silicon
POLYCRYSTAL SOLAR CELL and HCI (Hydrochloric acid). We mixed them at
the Silane (SiH4) tank, then we can distillate the
For the production of solar cells, we must follow
silicon for making pure. At the last step silicon
the 9 stepes.
moves to heated zone many times and after that
we will have 99.99% pure polysilicon ingots.

Fig.1 Schema of the solar panel production from Fig.3 MG-silicon to Polysilicon process.[4]
beginning to end.[4]
3.4 CZOCHRALSKI PROCESS 3.6 SILICON WAFER

In this step, we increase the temperature until the In this step, we cut into slices the ingots. Because
silicon melts.After that we dip monocrystalline of the sturdiness of silicon ingots, with the help of
silicon into melted polycrystalline silicon. When diamond edge multiwire saw use for make it
we take out slowly, we create monocrystalline slice[7].
ingot [5]. This process known as Czochralski
Process(Cz) invented by Jan Czochralski. By 3.7 TEXTURING
rotating melted tank, controlling temperature and
take out speed, we can made specific
The reason why we need the texturing is that it
monocrrystalline silicon. [6] This process works
ensures better light traveling inside the solar cell.
for monocrystalline silicon for the polycristal we
Before texturing the wafers, they have a flat
have to use step 3.2.
surface so that incoming lights can easily
reflected back. For decreasing the reflection
losses, we have to do texturing process. With the
texturing wafer’s surfaces have pyramid structure.
In this way, when the incoming lights hit the one
pyramid also it must hit the next pyramid. So that
we minimize the reflection losses in this
process[8].
Fig.4 Czochralski Process [4]

3.5 CRYSTAL FORMATION

In this step, we increase the temperature for

melting the silicon like step 3.1. After that, when
we cool the tank, at the bottom crystals form. By
controling the temperature we can make a silicon
with the size of a tank. In this way, we will have a
big block of multicrystalline silicon at the end [3]. Fig.6 Scanning electron microscope photograph of
a textured silicon surface[9].

3.8 DOPING

The most common way to doping is adding

impurities to silicon wafers. If we want to do this
process we have to add
impurities(phosphorous).In order to do this, we
have to put wafers and phosphorus gas in a
furnace. Then, when we heat the furnace(900 C),
Fig.5 Crystal Formation [4] phosphorus atoms diffuse into silicon wafer’s top
side. In this way, our silicon wafers become a p-n
junction[10].

3.9 ANTI-REFLECTIVE COATING

This step is very significant. If we do not have

anti-reflective coating, lights will stay under
mirror effect because pure silicon is shiny. For
anti-reflection coating we can use titanium dioxide
and silicon oxide. Generally 75 nanometers thick
Fig.7 Poly-Crystalline and Mono-Crystalline
and combined the front surface of the solar cells
[11-13]. Solar Cells [16].

4. PRODUCING SOLAR PANELS

4.1 STRINGER MACHINE
Before starting production of solar panels, what is
After having a solar cells now our aim is making
the differences between monocrystillane (mono-c)
them a solar panel. Stringer machine is the first
and polycrystalline (p-ci)? The easiest way to
machine of this process. Stringer machine’s
distinguish these cells from each other is to look at
mission is combining the cells which is called
the corners of the cells. As shown in Fig.6 , Poly
string. The strings vary generally 10 or 12 pieces
cells are 4 corners, but there are 8 corners in mono
of solar cells. It can be changed from the stringer
cells. Also, monocrystalline cells do not have
machine’s screen. The settings are entered
color difference over the surface, but
manually on the screen of the stringer machine;
polycrystalline cells have some crystal areas.
cell size, cell space, string cells, such as soldering
Monocrystalline cells can provide less sunlight,
power and soldering time. These settings have
more production than the other. They have better
significant role because if settings are more or less
performance than poly cell panels in low light
than it should be, solar cells will broke. Than,
conditions. The disadvantage of monocrystalline
solar cells placed in cell slot carefully. Since the
panels is that they are expensive. In addition,
cells are so sensitive in the stringer machine, it is
when the panel is shadowed, or the panel is
necessary to use gloves to prevent them from
covered with snow, its performance is very badly
breaking. After settings and place the cells,
affected. While the productivity of
vacuum arms align the cells to band. While
monocrystalline cell panels was between 16% and
combining the cells, the fluid called flux is being
20%, polyacrylic cell the efficiency of the panels
used to bond the ribbons and the ribbons to the
is between 13% and 16% [14-15].
cells. With the high heat given to flux, the flux
sticks to the cell. In this step, some problems can
occur which are broken of cell, cracked cell or
ribbon shift[17]. Before passing the next machine,
stringers check carefully and if there is no issue,
they can pass the other machine. Whether stringers
have problem, they collect and dispatched the  Foreign matter detection
small solar panel production line.
If one of these faults comes to the cell, the error
4.2 LAY-UP AND GLASS LOADING determination form is put on the panel, taking note
MACHINE that the panel is in trouble and the problem is in
the string. Subsequently, the products are
barcoded and the ones that are faulty are sent to
After having a stringsi the next step it is align the
the other station, not the next one.
strings according to the desired panel’s voltage. At
this process, Glass loading machine sends the
glass with the eva sheet to lay-up machine.
Eva(ethylene vinyl acetate) is protect solar cells
from the weather conditions[18]. The lay-up
machine is responsible for placing strings to eva
sheet. Each Lay-up machine has two vacuum arms
so that strings from two stringer machines are
arranged in one Lay-up machine. We can adjust all
the settings as if they were the same string on the
monitor of the layout machine. Also, if the wrong
string is sent from the stringer by mistake, the Fig. 7. Screen of el tester machine and it shows
string can be restored with the lay-up machine. three cracked solar cells[19].

4.4 LAMINATOR
4.3 EL-TESTER MACHINE
Products that are error-free and barcoded at EL
El tester(electroluminescence test) is the next step.
Tester, are placing in the elevator, respectively.
In this section, the general panel is controlled
Since the process in the laminator takes a long
again. The anode and cathode ends of the
time, it is necessary to wait until end of process.
incoming panel are connected to the current
The purpose in this section is to completely empty
terminals of the el tester. DC current is given to
the air in the panel and to melt the eva, which is
the panel and by the glow in the panel mistakes
laid under and over the cell, to fill the spaces
are clearly shown in el tester machine’s screen as
between the cells. The small cracks are covered by
shown in Fig.7. These mistakes are;
eva. Panels are entering each laminator as four.
The process in the laminator consists of four steps.
 Broken Cell

 Vacuum
 Cracked cell

 Lamination
 Solder failure

 Press
 Short circuit

 Cool down
 Ribbon shift
Vacuuming takes about three minutes and the air  Current Load
in the panel is emptied and then laminated at about
160 degrees for about six minutes. Then, with a If the values come less than they should be, the
press operation for about three minutes, the melted products are written "heavy solar" on the
eva completely surrounds the panel. In the next backsheet. Heavily solar panels produce much less
period, with the help of the propellers, the panel energy than normal panels, so they are sold in very
leaves the laminator and starts to cool down. cheap quantities.

Than the junction box is fitted to cover the

positive and negative poles of the panes and the
4.5 FRAMING AND SANDING anode and cathode ends of the panel are soldered.
The Junction box has an important role: housing
The backsheet and glass surface are cleaned all the electric bits on a solar panel and protecting
properly by pouring alcohol onto the panes that them from the environment. Wires are connected
come into the glass. After the panels are cleaned, to diodes inside, providing an easy way to link
aluminum frames are placed on all four sides of panels together. Also, junction box are prevent
the panel and the pane is fixed with the aid of a current flowing. The Junction Box generally
sledgehammer. Frames need to be fixed exactly consists of five parts:
because they can be cut when not fully seated,
which can cause problems for the company in any  Bypass Diode
accident after the panel is sold. After the frame  Conducting Strip
operation is finished, the four corners of the panel  Bypass Diode Terminals
are sanded. The purpose of sanding is to reduce  Connection for PV-Cable
the sharpness of the corners of the panel.  Suitable Suitable Connectors.

4.6 FLASHER

It is the last step of production of solar panels. 5. CONCLUSION

After this part, panels are ready for the utilization.
In this process flasher check the data of the panel.
In this study, I have shown that, producing solar
The positive and negative poles of the solar panel
cell from sand to a wafer. These process are little
is connected to the flasher and the barcode of the
bit complicated but all of them are important.
product is entered on the computer. Then the
Than, I mentioned about the differences between
current given to the panel and these results shown
monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar cells.
in the flasher’s monitor;
Finally, I mentioned about producing solar panel
starting from basic solar cells.
 Max Power
 Efficiency
 Fill Factor
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