EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

COURSE
GUIDE
EDU 244
SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR
UNDERGRADUATES

Course Developer Dr. Femi A. Adeoye

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Unit Writers Dr. Augustine, U. Okoronka

Kings College,
Lagos.

Dr. Femi A. Adeoye

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Course Editor Dr. Apata Funke Susan

School of Science and Technology
NOUN
Victoria Island
Lagos

Programme Leader Dr. Timothy James

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Lagos.

Course Coordinator Dr. Apata Funke Susan

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Course Reviewer Dr. Apata Funke Susan

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

Reviewed 2014

ISBN: 978-058-902-3

All Rights Reserved

Printed by ……………..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction.......................................................................... 1
What you will learn in this course....................................... 1
Course Aims......................................................................... 1
Course Objectives................................................................ 1-2
Working through the Course................................................ 2-3
The Course Materials........................................................... 3
Study Units........................................................................... 3-4
Presentation Schedule.......................................................... 4
Assignment File................................................................... 4
Assessment........................................................................... 4
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)..................................... 5
Final Examination and Grading........................................... 5
Course Marking Scheme...................................................... 5
How to Get the Most from This Course............................... 6-8
Tutor and Tutorials.............................................................. 8
Summary.............................................................................. 8-9
Introduction

This Course Guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what
course materials you will be using and how you can work your way
through these materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the
amount of time you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in
order to complete it successfully. It also gives you some guidance on
your tutor – marked assignments. Details of information on tutor –
marked assignments is found in the separate Assignment File, which
will be available to you.

What You Will Learn In This Course

This course is to bring to consciousness of those to be involved in

physics teaching at senior secondary level. So the overall aim of EDU
244 (Science Methods II) physics is to introduce you to some of the
rudiments of physics teaching. You will as well learn about the
meaning
of science, historical development of science education in Nigeria and
the nature of science; science education curriculum reforms at both
primary and secondary school levels and psychological theories of
learning and its implications for science teaching.

Course Aims

The aim of this course is to prepare you towards teaching physics at

senior secondary level. This will be achieved by aiming to:

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

* introduce you to meaning of science and historical development

of science education in Nigeria
* help you appreciate the nature of science
* outline all the science education curriculum reforms both in
Nigeria and outside Nigeria.
* examine the contributions of some cognitive psychologists like
David Ausubel, Jerome Brunner, Robert Gagne and Jean Piaget
to enhance our knowledge of the nature of science teaching
* deal with the basic methods and techniques of teaching physics.

Course Objectives

To achieve the aims set above, the course sets overall objective. In
addition, each unit has specific objectives included at the beginning of a
unit. You may want to refer to them during and after you might have
completed a unit to check on your progress.

Set out below is wider objectives of the course as a whole. By meeting

these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a
whole.

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

1. explain the meaning of science

2. define science
3. discuss the history of science
4. trace the historical development of science
education in Nigeria from missionaries to
colonial government and to post
independence period
5. give reasons why science should be taught in
schools
6. explain the nature of science
7. advance reasons for science education
curriculum reforms in both Nigeria and
outside Nigeria.
8. discuss the contributions of some cognitive
psychologists such as Ausubel, Brunner,
Gagne and Piaget to science teaching and
their implication for science teaching
9. outline the methods of teaching physics
10. describe the various resources for teaching
physics
11. prepare a scheme of work, lesson plan and
lesson note for teaching physics at the senior
secondary classes.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

12. describe the design and organisation of

physics laboratory
13. outline the safety and management
procedure in physics laboratory
14. develop test items for multiple choice, essay
and practical physics.

Working through the Course

To complete this course, you are required to read each study unit of this
study material and read other materials, which may be provided by the
National Open University of Nigeria. Each unit contains self-
assessment exercises for this course and at certain points in the course
you would be required to submit tutor-marked assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course, there is a final
examination. The course should take you about a total of 17 weeks to
complete. Below you will find listed all the components of the course,
what you have to do and how you should allocate your time to each unit
in order to complete the course on time and successfully.

I would advice that you avail yourself the opportunity of attending the
tutorial sessions where you will have the opportunity of comparing
knowledge with your peers.

The Course Materials

Major components of the course are:

(1) The Course Guide

(2) Study Units
(3) References
(4) Assignments
(5) Presentation Schedule.

Study Units

There are fourteen study units listed under three modules in this course.
They are as follows:

Module 1

The meaning of science, historical development of science education in

Nigeria and the nature of science

Unit 1 The meaning and history of science

Unit 2 Historical development of science education in Nigeria I

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

Unit 3 Historical development of science education in Nigeria II

Unit 4 Justification for teaching science
Unit 5 Nature of science

Module 2

Science education curriculum reforms and how students learn science

Unit 1 Science education curriculum reforms in Nigeria I

Unit 2 Science education curriculum reforms in Nigeria II
Unit 3 Psychological theories of learning and their implications for
science teaching I
Unit 4 Psychological theories of learning and their implications for
science teaching II

Module 3

Methods and techniques of teaching physics

Unit 1 Methods of teaching physics

Unit 2 Resources for teaching physics
Unit 3 Preparation for teaching physics
Unit 4 Evaluation of science teaching and learning with reference
to physics

Each unit consists of table of content, introduction, statement of

objectives, contents, conclusion, summary, tutor marked assignment and
references; There are activities written at every point these activities
will assist you in achieving the stated objectives of the individual units
and of the course.

Presentation Schedule

Your course materials will give you important dates for the early and
timely completion and submission of your TMAs and for attending
tutorials. You should remember that you are required to submit all your
assignments by the stipulated time and date. You should guard against
lagging behind in your work.

Assignment File

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

There are fourteen assignments in this course. That is one assignment

per units. These are designed to ensure that you really understood each
of the unit. In this file, you will find all the details of the works you
must submit to your tutor, for marking. Remember your assignments
are as important as the examinations as they carry the weightings 40%
for undergraduate.

Assessment

Two major methods will be used to assess the course. The first major
method is through assignments while written examination will be the
second one. The course material had been prepared to assist you to do
these assignments. You are also expected to use information and
knowledge from the recommend text at the end of each unit. The
assignment will carry 30% of the total marks for the undergraduate
students while 70% for the postgraduate diploma students. Final
examination of about two hours duration will be written at the end of the
course and this will also carry 60% of the total mark for the
undergraduate students and 50% for the post graduate diploma students.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)

The TMA is a continuous assessment component of your course. It

accounts for 30% of the total score. You are required to submit at least
four (4) TMAs before you are allowed to sit for the end of course
examination. The TMAs would be given to you by your facilitator you
are to be return them to the facilitator as and when due

Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
assignment file. You will be able to complete your assignment from the
information and materials contained in your reading your study units
and, references. However, it is desirable to demonstrate that you have
read and researched more into other references, which will give you a
wider view point and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject.

Make sure that each tutor-marked assignment reaches your facilitator on

or before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and assignment
file. If for any reason you cannot complete your work on time, contact
your facilitator before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of
an extensions. Extension will not be granted after the due date.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for EDU 244 will be for two hours duration and
will carry 60% of the total marks for undergraduate students. The
examination will consist of questions, which reflect the type of self

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

testing, practice activities and tutor-marked assignments/problems you

have encountered previously. All areas of the course will be assessed.

You may wish to form a discussion group of considerable numbers of

your colleagues and practice or discuss the activities and assignments
written in each unit before the examination period.

Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Category of Scoring Mark

Student
Assignment 4 for Each counts for 10 40 mark
1 – 14 undergraduate marks
Final Undergraduate 60 marks
Examination
TOTAL 100% of course
marks

How to Get the Most from This Course

1) In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture.

This is one of the advantages of distance learning. You can read
and work through specially designed study materials at your own
pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as if
you are reading the lecture instead of listening to the lecturer. In
the same way a lecturer might give you some reading to do, the
study units tell you when and what to read. You are provided
activities, to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give
his students an in-class activity.

2) Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item
is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a
particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as
a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These
objectives allow you to know what you should be able to do, by
the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives
are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you
must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly
improve your chances of passing the course.

3) The main body of the unit guides you through the required
reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your
references or from a reading section.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

4) Self activities are interspersed throughout the units, working

through these activities will help you to achieve the objectives of
the unit and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.
You should do each self activity as you come to it in the study
unit.

5) The following is a practical strategy for working through the

course. If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor or visit
the study centre nearest to you. Remember that your tutor’s job is
to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and
ask your tutor to provide it.

Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

6) Organise a Study Schedule- Design a ‘Course Overview’ to guide

you through the Course. Note the time you are expected to spend
on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units.
Important information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date
of the first day of the Semester is available at the study centre.
You need to gather all the information into one place, such as
your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to
use, you should decide on and write in your own dates and
schedule of work for each unit.

7) Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to

stay faithful to it. The major reason that students fail is that they
get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with
your schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late for
help.

8) Turn to Unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for
the unit.

9) Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit.
You will always need both the study unit you are working on and
one of your set books on your desk at the same time.

10) Keep an eye on the course information that will be continuously

posted to you. Visit your study centre whenever you need up to
date information.

11) Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due
dates), visit your study centre for your next required assignment.
Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the
examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.

12) Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor. When
you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you
can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course
and try to space your study so that you can keep yourself on
schedule.

13) When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the Assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-
marked assignment form and also the written comments on the
assignments, consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have
any questions or problems.

14) After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).

Tutor and Tutorials

Tutorials shall be provided in support of this course. You will be

notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials as well as the
names and phone number of your facilitator, as soon as you are
allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor or facilitator will mark and comment on your assignments,

keep a close watch on your progress on any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. Summit your
tutor-marked assignment to your tutor before the due date; at least two
working days are required. They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator on telephone, e – mail and

discuss problems if you need assistance. The following might be
circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your
facilitator if:

oYou do not understand any part of the

study units or the
assigned readings.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

oYou have difficulty with the self-test or

activities.
oYou have a question or problem with an
assignment,
with your tutor’s comment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face to face contact with your course facilitator and to ask
questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem
encountered in the course of your study. To gain much benefit from
course tutorials prepare a question list before attending them. You will
learn a lot from participating in active discussion.

Summary

EDU 244 intends to introduce you to Subject Methods II (Physics).

Upon completing the course, you will be equipped with basic
knowledge and skills that will place you in the status of practicing
physics teachers.

Among others, you will be able to answer these kinds of questions:

oWhat is the meaning of science?

oWhat are the justifications for teaching
physics?
oWhat are the possible reasons for science
curriculum reforms in Nigeria at both primary
and secondary levels?
oHow have the psychological theories of
learning contributed to the teaching of science
in our schools?
oWhich of the teaching methods will you
suggest for the teaching of physics in our
schools?
oHow can you manage the resources in the
physics laboratory?
oWhat are the roles of the unit head of
physics, physics teacher, physics laboratory
technician and attendants?
oHow will you assess physics practical
lessons in your school?

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

Course Code EDU 244

Course Title Subject Methods II (Physics) For

Undergraduates

Course Developer Dr. Femi A. Adeoye

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Unit Writers Dr. Augustine, U. Okoronka

Kings College,
Lagos.

Dr. Femi A. Adeoye

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

Course Editor Dr. C. A. Okonkwo

School of Science and Technology
National Open University National
Victoria Island
Lagos

Programme Leader Dr. Mercy F. Ogunsola –Bandele

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Lagos.

Course Coordinator Dr. Femi A. Adeoye

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

ISBN: 978-058-902-3

All Rights Reserved

Printed by ……………..
For
National Open University of Nigeria

xv
EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 The Meaning of Science, Historical

Development of Science Education
In Nigeria and the Nature of Science …………....1

Unit 1 The meaning and history of science……………….1-5

Unit 2 Historical development of science education
in Nigeria I…………………………………………6-8
Unit 3 Historical development of science education
in Nigeria II………………………………………...9-12
Unit 4 Justification for teaching science…………………13-16
Unit 5 Nature of science…………………………………17-22

Module 2 Science Education Curriculum Reforms and How

Students Learn Science………………………… 23

Unit 1 Science education curriculum reforms

in Nigeria I………………………………………..23-31
Unit 2 Science education curriculum reforms
in Nigeria II………………………………………32-37
Unit 3 Psychological theories of learning and their
implications for science teaching I ………………38-43
Unit 4 Psychological theories of learning and their
implications for science teaching II………………44-51

Module 3 Methods and Techniques of Teaching

Physics…………………………………………… 52

Unit 1 Methods of teaching physics…………………… 52-60

Unit 2 Resources for teaching physics…………………. 61-67
Unit 3 Preparation for teaching physics…………………68-80
Unit 4 Physics laboratory design, safety
and Management…………………………………81-92
Unit 5 Evaluation of science teaching and
learning with reference to physics……………… 93-107

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

MODULE 1 THE MEANING OF SCIENCE,

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA AND
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

In this module, you will be exposed to the meaning and definitions of

Science, the historical development of Science Education in Nigeria as
well as the nature of Science.

The module is divided into five different units as follows:

Unit 1 The meaning and history of science

Unit 2 Historical development of science education
in Nigeria I
Unit 3 Historical development of science education
in Nigeria II
Unit 4 Justification for teaching science
Unit 5 Nature of science

UNIT 1 MEANING AND HISTORY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Science
3.2 History of Science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 It is believed that you must have read through the course guide which is
part of your instructional package for this course. If you have not, it Is
advised that you read the course guide before reading your course
material as it provides a comprehensive outline of the materials you
will cover on a study unit basis, starting with the topic you are about to
study: Meaning and definitions of Science, the historical development
of Science Education in Nigeria as well as the nature of Science.

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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of science

 Define science
 State and explain the processes/methods of science

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of science

Different scholars, depending on the background and scholastic inclinations of

authors have proposed many definitions for science. For instance, some
philosophers of science see science as a body of knowledge, a way of
investigating natural phenomenon and a way of thinking in an attempt to
understand nature. This definition entails the three components of the
structure of science which include the products, the methods and the motives
of ethics of the discipline. The products of science include knowledge in the
form of concept, facts, generalizations, principles/rules/ Laws, and theories
that are subject to error and change. The methods of science include
processes involved in how scientific knowledge comes into being. Examples
are observing, classifying, inferring, measuring, communicating, interpreting
data, making operational definitions, formulating questions and hypotheses,
experimenting, formulating models, etc. The ethics of science consist of a set
of standards or attitudes which guide the day to day activities of the scientists.
Some of these are: curiosity, willingness to suspend judgment, open-
mindedness, skepticism, positive approach to failure, etc. Some others refer
to science as series of endless study of the universe and the phenomena
within it through the process of empirical observations, which often result
into the formulation of tentative concepts and theories within the universe. In
a less philosophical perspective, science can be viewed as an organized system
of explanations of nature through the process of experimentations, which are
usually open to modifications in the light of further empirical evidences by the
practitioners of science.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

a. How would you define science?

b. State four reasons why you think you would need to understand the
meaning of science.

History of science

The history of science can be regarded as the history of man. The early man
observed natural phenomena and speculated on its causes so as to find
explanation for his own crude and primitive way. From the early man to
the Greek times, to the Roman, then the British and Arab times, man
has always wanted to understand the wonders of nature. They ask
questions like what is sun, moon, the stars, rocks, air and other living
and non-living things surrounding us.

Between 4000 and 3000 BC, the ancient scientists have perfected the arts of
smelting, healing and building which had some scientific basis,
However, the Greek Philosophers were the first to introduce the
tradition of speculation which later formed the basis of today’s
scientific theories. Thales (640 – 540 BC) had theorized about the
universe and its composition without laboratories or other
observatories. They only made use of their brains and mind. Thales
proposed that water was the fundamental substance of all things. He
saw the earth as a disc which floated on water below, and the waters
above formed the rains. Other student of Thales gave counter and
opposing theories between (611 – 547 BC). These were the likes of
Anaximander and Anaximenes respectively. However, a Greek
philosopher by name Empedocles (495 – 435 BC) gave his theory of
everything being made of four elements. – earth, air, fire and water and
that any two or more combinations of these elements might account
for various materials present in the universe (Abdullahi, 1982). Plato
(428 – 347 BC) a student of Socrates introduced logic in an attempt to
explain and understand nature. This has led to the geometric views of
the structure of elements in chemistry today. Another philosopher
worthy of mention in tracing the history of science is Democritus (470 –
380).He was the first to develop or conceive the atomic theory and was
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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
also the first to use the word ‘atom” derived from the word atomos –
meaning indivisible. His atom had such attributes like physically
indivisible, different in sizes and shapes, non-porous, impervious and
was like perfect elastic spheres.

Aristotle succeeded Plato but deviated from his view of the universe.
For him, the four elements of earth, fire, water and air were qualities or
properties rather than substances. One element could be converted
into another merely by the combination of two opposite properties as
shown below:

Cold Hot

Dry Earth Fire

Wet Water Air

Table above shows the quality or property of elements and their possible
combinations.

Property: Earth - dry - cold

Water - wet - cold

Fire - hot - dry

Air - hot - wet

These properties were interchangeable on their combination. The heavens

according to Aristotle were composed of a fifth element he called
quintessence.

Greek science majorly regarded as conceptual science was not based on

sound data and was merely preserved or further enlarged between 600 to
1600 AD by the civilizations of the Romans, Asians, and Europeans.

What is practiced today as modern science emerged as a result of the demise

of the Greek science in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries as a result of discovery
that

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
Observation and experimentation were more valid ways of explaining,
predicting and establishing theories and principles for describing phenomenon
and events in the world.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Trace the origin of modern science.

In your opinion, which of the early philosophers had the greatest influence on
the present day science and why?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Science as an enterprise as practiced today was greatly influenced by the early

ideas of Greek philosopher. They initiated speculation and later logic as tools
for systematic reasoning and the explanation of events and phenomenon in
nature. Other civilizations further expounded the Greek science while still
preserving it.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that science has different definitions depending
on who is defining it. Specifically, science means “to know”. It means must
include how (the method/process) and what it knows (the products). It is
systematic and therefore can become a dependable method of knowing
anything.

Science is also as old as man. Its formal nature derives from the activities of
earliest Greek philosophers who raised questions about events, object,
phenomenon and activities observed in nature and in their environment. They
had no laboratories and therefore they performed no experiments. They only
relied on the ability of their minds and brains. Thus, their concepts, theories
and principles were not based on data. Modern science relies heavily on
experimentations, data collection, analysis and interpretation in order to
arrive at the laws and principles and theories.

6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT

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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
As a budding scientist, give a definition of science and justified your definition.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited, Ilorin

Bajah, S. T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is science. Position paper No.

1. Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A. Hopkin, J. , McLaughlin, C. W. , Johnson, S., Warner, M. Q. ,Da

Hart,

D. and Wright, J. D. (1993). The nature of science. Prentice Hall: U. S. A.

UNIT 2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 1

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Development of Science Education in Nigeria 1
(Role of Missionaries)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The development of science education in Nigeria is strongly tied to the initial

work of the colonial masters and their agents like the missionaries. They had a
twofold agenda - trade and evangelism. To achieve these goals, they needed
to teach the people how to read and write as well as do arithmetic. Thus, they
focused on what is today referred to as the 3r – reading, writing and
arithmetic. This marked the beginning of introduction of any form of western
formal education in Nigeria in the mid 19th century. Unlike in the western
world where science education started from the high schools to the
universities, in Nigeria it was started first in primary schools in 1843 by
Methodist Church in Badagry and then in secondary schools later.
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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Narrate the role of the various mission schools in

championing science education in Nigeria;
 Explain why only very little science was taught by the
missionary in their curriculum to schools;
 Explain why practical science was not part of the mission
schools.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Historical Development of Science Education in Nigeria 1
(Role of Missionaries)

The evangelism mission of the early church propelled and determined the
thrust of the primary and secondary education at that time. The first primary
school was established in 1843 by the Methodist church while the first
secondary came up in 1859. It was established by CMS. These schools were
modeled after the English Grammar Schools which emphasized literary
education. Abdullahi (1982) summarized the secondary schools established as
follows:

i. Grammar/Classical Education School

ii. The teacher – Trainig/Pastor Training Schools, and
iii. The Vocational and Agricultural Schools.

In the first category, we have the following schools: the CMS Grammar
Schools in Lagos, St. Gregory College, Lagos opened by the Roman
Catholic in 1876; Methodist Boys’ High School in Lagos opened by the
Methodist Mission in 1887 and the Baptist High School in Lagos
established in 1885 by the Baptist Mission.
The early Teachers and Pastors training institutions include: St. Andrews
College, Oyo established by CMS (Church Missionary Society) in 1876,
the Hope Wadel Institute, Calabar opened in 1861 and the Baptist
Training College, Ogbomoso opened in 1899.
Under the third category, the prominent institution opened was the
Roman Catholic Agricultural School Topo, Badagry. In most of these
institutions, there were attempts to teach science in the curriculum
through the inclusion of subject such as Botany, Nature Study, Natural

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Philosophy and Physiology. However, it cannot be said that serious
science teaching took place at this period due to some obvious reasons.

First, the missionaries were not ready to bear the huge cost involved in
building science laboratories. Second, they had no trained teachers to
handle the science subjects. Finally, they were interested in producing
clerks and evangelists to support their missionary efforts and not
necessarily in giving functional education to Nigerians. It is also
important to note the total lack of science textbooks in Nigerian Schools,
lack of a uniform curriculum and the difficulties in comprehension
between the teachers then (mainly whites) and the pupils. These factors
combined to make most efforts towards the introduction of science in
Nigeria by the missionaries to be only rudimentary.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Trace the history of the introduction of rudimentary science in the
Nigerian educational system.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit exposed you to the historical background of primary and secondary
education in Nigeria by the various Missions as well as the extent of science
inclusion in the curriculum at that time and possible reasons why so little
science was done.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we learnt that the primary school in Nigeria where any form of
science could have been taught is the Methodist School established in 1843.
This was followed by the first secondary school in 1859 - CMS Grammar
School. These schools were to emphasise literary education. Other schools
later followed which had some slightly different focus including Grammar
Schools, Teachers/Pastors training/ Vocational Schools/Agricultural Schools all
established by the missionaries who were more interested in training clerks
and evangelists to help them in their missionary assignment.

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Give a brief account of the role of the church in the
introduction of science education in Nigeria.

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2. What were the major reasons why little science was done in
the schools?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited, Ilorin.

Bajah, S. T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is science. Position paper No.

1. Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A. Hopkin, J. , McLaughlin, C. W. , Johnson, S., Warner, M. Q. ,Da

Hart,

D. and Wright, J. D. (1993). The nature of scie

UNIT 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

11 (ROLE OF THE COLONIA MASTERS AND OTHERS)

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Development of Science Education in Nigeria 11
(Role of Colonial government and others)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 The trade mission of the colonialist also determines the initial
aim of education in Nigeria. The government then was interested in
production of clerks and interpreters, cooks and servant that will help
towards the achievement of their set goal. This attitude set the stage of
science education in Nigeria which possibly affected the state of affairs
in the educational sector till date.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Government’s target of 60% to 40% enrolment ratio for science and

humanities/Arts subjects respectively has remained a tall dream. Suggest any
historical antecedents leading to this state of affairs as may have been
occasioned by the colonial rule of the past.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the role of the colonial administration in developing

science education in Nigeria;
 Give reasons why science teaching in schools did not receive
an initial boost/support from government;
 Narrate the history of government participation in science
education;
 Explain the disparity in science education in particular
between the North and the South.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Historical Development of Science Education in Nigeria II (Role of

Colonial government and others)

The colonial governments, apart from being interested in producing

manpower to support their mission, were also latently afraid of the positive
impacts of science on the people. In addition, they had the belief that blacks
were inferior in intelligence and lack what it takes to do science. These and
many more reasons explain why they treated with levity the teaching of
quality science in Nigeria schools.

The government did not show any enthusiasm in encouraging the vital efforts
of missionaries in laying the foundation for modern science education. Their
support came by way of meager grants to mission schools as stipulated by the
Education Ordinance of 1908. Schools were at liberty to decide how to use the

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grant and some did use it to acquire science equipment for laboratory
instructions.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

To what level did King’s College offered science subjects when it was
established?

Government’s first direct involvement came in 1909 when it established what

is now called King’s College, Lagos to serve as a model in staffing, quality of
teaching and equipment. It offered science up to Cambridge University senior
local examination level. In 1927, government opened Queen’s College, Lagos
for girls and two years later in 1929, two more government colleges were
opened at Ibadan and Umuahia to serve the Western and Eastern regions
respectively. These institutions all had provision for the teaching of science.
However, Kings College remained the only school that offered science up to
the high school certificate level and had a standard chemistry laboratory.

The story in the North was somewhat different. The religious intolerance of
Moslems did not allow the missionaries a free hand to open secondary
schools and to initiate science teaching. The first government college in the
North came up in 1938 in Kaduna.

The effort of African Education Commission sponsored by the Phelps strokes

of U.S.A. in pointing out to the British government the consequences of a
deliberate policy to shortchange Africans in science education in 1920 perhaps
became the right tonic that forced them to start at all. It categorically
reminded the colonial masters that physics, chemistry and biology have
revolutionised many of the industrial and social activities of mankind. Further
pressure was brought on government by Nigerian nationalist who had
opportunity to study overseas as well as further Education Ordinances.
Government was then forced to open post secondary institutions for the
teaching and learning of science. The first of the higher institutions was Yaba
Higher College (now Yaba College of Technology) established in 1934 to
produce intermediate manpower in Agriculture, Medicine, Engineering,
Surveying teachers to teach basic science subjects in secondary schools. The
college ran a four year programme to the award of Master Diploma in Science
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and Mathematics. The colleges produce the first set of teachers that laid the
foundation for development of an appropriate curriculum in science for
secondary schools.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What role did Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) played in

popularizing science teaching in Nigeria?

Another important factor which accelerated the science education

development efforts in 1950 was the establishment of the West African
Examinations Council (WAEC) by an ordinance. From this point, changes were
introduced in the syllabus. British syllabus which was foreign in content was
made to reflect indigenisation of content and scope of science teaching in
Nigeria schools. Popularization of science teaching received a boost in 1957 as
the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) was inaugurated.

This body later pursued and developed the Integrated Science Curriculum
which is in use till today. The establishment of the Federal School of Science,
Lagos in 1958 a year after the establishment of the University College, Ibadan
was another step by government in popularizing science. The school
specialized in offering basic sciences for O and A levels in GCE and had
contributed in no small measure in providing basic science education to young
Nigerians of that time.

After independence in 1960, foreign technical aids led to the establishment of

higher institutions and Universities. A.B.U. started in Zaria in 1962 with
University of Ife while University of Nigeria Nsukka had stated two years
earlier in 1960. These institutions with the Advanced Teachers’ Colleges
produced teachers who took over the teaching of science in secondary
schools.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit has established that colonial masters were not too keen in
developing science education in Nigeria schools. This lukewarm attitude
determine the time of intervention of government in the establishment of
secondary schools and other higher institutions where science teaching were
to be fully implemented.

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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that the first government owned secondary
school is Kings College, Lagos and this was established in 1909. Here, the
basic sciences of physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics were
taught. It also had the first standard chemistry laboratory. The British
syllabus and curriculum were used for science instruction and this made
content very foreign. It was not until 1950 when WAEC was established
that real indegenisation of content started. The establishment of higher
institutions to train teachers also came very late. The first higher
institution being Yaba Tech in 1934 while University of Ibadan was
established in 1957. Therefore it could be stated that several factors
both real and imagined had contributed to the slowing down of the pace
of development of science education in Nigeria starting from the
colonial era.

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and explain the factors that contributed to the slow pace of development
of science education in Nigeria?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited, Ilorin.

Bajah, S. T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is science. Position paper No.

1. Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A. Hopkin, J. , McLaughlin, C. W. , Johnson, S., Warner, M. Q. ,Da

Hart,

D. and Wright, J. D. (1993). The nature of science. Prentice Hall: U. S. A.

UNIT 4 JUSTIFICATION FOR TEACHING SCIENCE

CONTENTS

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1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why teach Science?
3.2 The importance of scientific knowledge to society
3.3 The role of science in Socio – Economic development
3.4 The implications of Scientific development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this module, an attempt is made to provide a justification or rationale for

science teaching in schools. This is important if one must be able to justify the
call for investment of resources – human, material and financial resources as
well as time in the development of science education.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What does society stand to benefit by investing in science education?

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Give/state reasons why science should be taught in schools;

 Explain the importance of scientific knowledge to the society;
 Discuss the role of science in the socio-economic
development of a society or nation;
 Discuss the implication(s) of scientific development in
stabilizing world order or politics.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Why teach Science?

All over the world, science has become a great tool for solving socio-economic
problems of mass unemployment, hunger, poverty, poor health facilities,
rural-urban drift, population explosion, environmental degradation and a host
of other problems besetting a developing country like ours. This is based on
the great gains (social, economic, technological and political) which science
and the application of its knowledge (technology) has brought to such
advanced nations of the world such as Japan, USA, Canada, Britain, France,
Germany, etc. These nations have nurtured science and its application to an
enviable status where it has become part and parcel of the peoples’ culture. It
was discovered that the tendency to adopt science and technology for solving
societal problems and for creating further wealth dates back to the era of
industrial revolution in Europe. For example, the British Empire grew in leaps
and bounds in economic and political power because of the use of machines
and such other contrivances of science and technology for mass production of
goods and services.

3.2 The Importance of Scientific Knowledge to the Society

The various African nations have long realized the importance of science in
the development of their various economies. This had led the African
Ministers of Education as far back as 1962 to recommend sixty percent of
admission into higher institution of African countries for scientific and
technologically based courses as opposed to forty percent for social sciences
and humanities courses. No African nation however has yet achieved this
target. Scientific knowledge and its application have elevated the status of
man from Stone Age to space and computer age, subsistence farmer to mass
producer. Science has also librated man from superstition and fear of nature
by offering plausible explanations to natural events and phenomenon. These
have added meaning to life and empowered man to manage and live more
comfortably in his environment.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What does the applications of knowledge of science achieved in human life?

3.3 The role of Science in Socio-economic development

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The knowledge of science is instrumental to technological, economic, social
and political growth across the globe. The application of scientific knowledge
has led to discovery of hydro and thermal electric power, gas turbine and
thermonuclear power plants which in turn have led to modern
industrializations. The fertilizer and petrochemical plants which have boosted
agriculture and other sectors of industrial activities are only made possible
through science. The telephone and the world of information and
communication technology (ICT) would be impossible without the basic laws
of acoustics, electricity, magnetism and waves in physics. The principles and
laws of physics and chemistry are employed in the construction/manufacture
of vehicles (land, sea and air) and in the development of modern rockets,
nuclear bombs and missiles used in modern warfare. The same can be said of
the principles of semi-conductor devices and electronics which have led to the
development of diodes, rectifiers, integrated circuits (ics) and logic gates,
which are widely used in computers and other electronic systems.

The developments of organic components, drugs and medicines have not only
helped in producing large yield agricultural products but also in improving on
the living standards of the people. Our oil and other natural resources must be
processed into finished products through the instruments of industries like
refineries, steel plants, paper mills and chemical industries for making soaps,
cosmetics, perfumes, plastics, glass, pesticides, etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

As a science teacher, do you agree that teaching of science can lead to

attitudinal change in the learners?

3.4 The implications of Scientific Development

Exposure of people to knowledge of medical sciences has brought

sophisticated gadgets, which are now used to probe even the innermost part
of the human anatomy. Also, the use of automatic patient monitoring system
in hospital’s intensive care units which not only improve health care delivery
system, but also helps in unattended and more reliable patient monitoring
which such as measurements of vital parameters like pulse, blood pressure,
body temperature etc.
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In addition, the problem of environmental degradation being tackled now
around the globe stemmed from our understanding of the atmosphere and
the overbearing effects of certain human activities on it; and how this impacts
negatively on man.

Besides, the knowledge of the concepts, empirical laws, theories and

principles of science as well as the attitude and processes/methods of science
combine to add more meaning and satisfaction to our lives. The scientific
explanation of phenomena around us help to dispel unwanted fears, banish
timidity and superstition and provide us with the needed knowledge to be set
free at heart

The science also provides us with the requisite experts professionals that
would move the nation out of its present woods into the exalted position of
national development and economic emancipation. These include the
engineers, doctors, surveyors, scientists, technologists, nurses, computer
scientists, pharmacists, etc.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit discussed the reasons for teaching physics, importance of scientific
knowledge to society as well as the roles of science in Socio-economic
development of a nation. The implication of scientific development in
stabilizing world order was also discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have learnt about the roles played by sciences and its
applications in shaping our collective and individual lives. We also saw how
science has helped the so called developed nations get to where they are
today. Science has therefore become a “sine qua non” in developing and
creating wealth in any nation. The more a nation has scientific and
technological power, the more it tends to be respected among the comity of
nations. Having been blessed with a lot of natural resources – rivers, oils,
forests, arable land, etc; we must employ the instrument of science and
technology to wriggle ourselves out of poverty, which presently stares us in
the face. This will be made possible only through a sound, and well articulated
science education programme mounted in our schools at all levels.

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT

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1. What is the justification for inclusion of the science subjects
in the curriculum?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited, Ilorin.

Bajah, S. T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is science. Position paper No.

1. Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A. Hopkin, J. , McLaughlin, C. W. , Johnson, S., Warner, M. Q. ,Da

Hart, D. and Wright, J. D. (1993). The nature of science. Prentice Hall: U.
S. A.

Offorma, G. C. (ed) (1994). Curriculum Implementation and Instruction.

Uniworld Educationl Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.

Okoronka, U. A. (2004). Model-Based Instructional Strategies as Determinants

of Students’ Learning outcomes in secondary school physics in Lagos State,
Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

UNIT 5 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Nature of science

3.2 Science Concept

3.3 Science Theory

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3.4 Scientific Law

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In units 1 and 4, you learnt about the meaning/definition(s) of science and the
justification for teaching science respectively. In this unit, we shall further
extend the ideas of those two units by looking at the nature of science. What
exactly is the true spirit of science?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Science has been said to mean different things to different people. What do
you suppose should be the true nature of science?

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 List the process or methods of science;

 List and explain the attitudes of scientific attitudes;
 List and explain the products of science;
 Explain the nature of science.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Nature of Science

Science is organized into a hierarchical deductive system in which

concepts and facts are subsumed under the laws, while the laws,
concepts and facts are subsumed under the theories. A major goal of

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science is to understand the world around us. How do scientists go
about understanding the mysteries of our world? Like good
detectives, they use special methods or processes peculiar to science
alone to determine the “truth and facts” about nature, which
constitute the major products of science.

Fact

A fact is an event that occurred in the past that people recorded

with no disagreement among observers. It is important to note that
fact of the past may not be fact in the present if there are changes
or revisions in observations, the object of observation, or the
meaning attached to the observation.

PROCESS OF SCIENCE

Processes of science are the methods and skills that scientists employ in
their work. Processes of science are the scientific activity per se and are
self-correcting, self-evaluating and independent of the people or event
on whom they operate. They include:

identifying problem
observation
hypothesizing / prediction
analyzing
inferring
extrapolating
synthesizing
evaluating
classifying
measuring
describing
experimenting
asking insightful questions
formulating problems
designing experiments
constructing laws, principles and generalizations, etc.

These form the basis of what is referred to as the scientific method or

process.
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In addition, the scientific enterprise – as a human endeavour entails
some personal way(s) of exploring or knowing as the scientific attitudes
or attitudes of science. These are the beliefs, values, qualities and
opinions held in awe by scientists, which keep alive or maintain the
spirit of the scientific enterprise as an unfinished business and also self-
correcting. They include among others:

- suspending judgement until enough data is collected;

- objectivity while collecting, analyzing, evaluating and
interpreting data;
- intense curiosity by being fascinated with the world around
him/her;
- humility and skepticism (being free from pride and arrogance as

- well as taking everything with a pinch of salt);

- tenacity by thinking positively about failure and not giving up
very easily;
- open-mindedness – free from prejudice and personal biases;
- strong determination;

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- honesty;
- asking questions (divergent and convergent) – questions of what,
how, when, where and why?

The products of science are not necessarily the finished goods and
services derived from the application of the knowledge of science.
Rather they constitute mainly of the knowledge, concepts, models,
generalizations, algorithms, principles, theories, laws, etc. which are
used for creating further scientific knowledge. While the scientific
methods are systematic and tend to be static, the products of science are
dynamic and generative depending on the extent of data available at
anytime.

On the other hand, the natures of science are those qualities or elements
which make science what it is. Thus, science is organized into a system
in which there are linkages between the elements.

The nature of science is described using the three basic elements of

science as follows:

(i) the processes or methods of science;

(ii) the products of science;
(iii) the human attitudes of science.

Thus, in investigating a phenomenon or event, scientific processes are

used to gather data while the products of science will be applied in
analysis and interpretation. However, the human attitudes of science
must remain in focus at any point of the investigation. Applying the
methods and attitudes of science lead us to new scientific products,
which are subsumed under the old ones.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

How are concepts, laws, theories and principles related?

3.2 Scientific Concept

A concept can be defined as a word, group of words, label or symbol

which defines the regularity perceived in events or record of events or
phenomenon. There are two types of concepts:

(i) concrete or empirical concepts;

(ii) abstract or theoretical concepts.

Concrete concepts are observable, demonstrable and may be defined

operationally. They are easy to measure. Examples include plant,

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volume, density, mass, temperature, table, stone, etc. Abstract concepts

are non-observable and cannot be perceived or measured in a simple
direct way. Examples include atoms, molecules, electrons, genes, field,
force, etc.

All concepts can be taught at any level depending on the teacher and the
background of those to be taught relative to the level of mastery
expected.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is a scientific theory? Give any three scientific theories you know.

3.3 Scientific Theory

Scientists use the ‘facts’ or concepts they have gathered to propose

explanations for observed events or phenomenon. Then experiments are
performed to test their explanations. After studying the facts; making
observations and performing experiments, scientists may develop a
theory.

A theory is a logical explanation for events, which occur in nature based

on facts, observations or experimentation. It is a powerful, time-tested
idea or group of ideas that makes useful and dependable predictions
about our natural world. A theory must undergo series of
experimentation and testing. If it survives the tests, the theory may
become accepted by the scientific community. However, a theory could
be wrong and therefore change after additional tests, observations and
data. Examples of theories in science include Dalton’s atomic theory,
the kinetic theory of matter, theory of evolution, theory of relativity, etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is the difference between a scientific theory and law? Use any
two examples as illustration.

3.4 Scientific Law

When a theory survives many tests and becomes accepted as true,

scientists then call it a law. A law is a statement of what happens or will
happen under certain given initial conditions. For a statement to be
regarded as a scientific law, it must express a consistency or uniformity
among observations of natural phenomena and must involve the use of
concepts. Examples of law of science include – Newton’s law of
universal gravitation:

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- Charles and Boyle’s laws

- Hooke’s law
- Ohm’s law
- Medelev’s law, etc.

As with theories, scientific laws may change as new information is

provided or new experiments performed. This points out what is known
to cement, the spirit of science, which is always asking mind bugging
questions and seeking further and new explanations.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Science though meaning different things to different scientists has a

single focus i.e. to unravel the mysteries of nature using the same
“tools” and “methods”. The processes of science because they are
dependable make the investigations of science replicable. Thus, we
have developed what is now known and referred to as the scientific
method which is applicable now in all fields of knowledge. This
comprises of the following steps:

identifying / recognizing a problem;

collecting relevant information ./ data;
formulating hypothesis;
conducting / performing experiment;
recording, analyzing and deducing from data;
drawing / stating a conclusion.

These also form the method of science and together with the attitudes of
science the products of science are obtained. The processes, attitudes
and products of science combine to give science its nature.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the methods or processes of science

known as the scientific method; the attitudes which enable these
processes to remain what they are as well as the products of science.

The “truths” or “facts” of science of today may not be accepted

tomorrow as more experiments and observations are carried out and
more data obtained. Hence, the scientific enterprise is not necessarily a
finished business. This is because as more facts emerge, new questions
are raised and new explanations and products are proffered.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the nature of Science?

2. Discuss briefly how the nature of Science portrays the spirit of
the scientific enterprise.
3. What do you understand by the scientific method? Briefly
discuss it.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited,

Ilorin.

Bajah, S.T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is Science. Position paper

No. 1. Science Teahers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A., Hopkin, J., McLaughlin, C.W., Johnson, S., Warner, M.Q.,
Da Hart, D., and Wright, J.D. (1993). The Nature of Science.
Prentice Hall: U.S.A.

Okoronka, U.A. (2004). Model-Based Instructional Strategies as

Determinants of Students’ Learning outcomes in secondary
school physics in Lagos State, Nigeria. An unpublished Ph. D.
Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

6.0 TUTOR –MARKED ASSIGNMENT

As a budding scientist, give a definition of science and justify your

definition.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited,

Ilorin.

Bajah, S.T. and Okebukola, P. (1984). What is Science. Position paper

No. 1. Science Teahers’ Association of Nigeria.

Maton, A., Hopkin, J., McLaughlin, C.W., Johnson, S., Warner, M.Q.,
Da Hart,
D., and Wright, J.D. (1993). The Nature of Science. Prentice Hall:
U.S.A.

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MODULE 2 SCIENCE EDUCATION CURRICULUM

REFORMS AND HOW STUDENTS
LEARN SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The dynamic nature of science education in the world has resulted to

constant revisiting or reformation in the curriculum to cope with the
changing world of science and technology. In Nigeria, science
educations at all levels are in the past and presently facing serious
problems emanating from poor achievement, low enrolment, declining
popularity etc. In order to check these problems, science education
curriculum experts embarked on regular reformation of the curriculum.
Some efforts made in the past resulted to various science education
curriculum projects at both primary and secondary school levels. In this
module two, you will be exposed to development of some science
education curriculum and science education packages.

This module also discussed psychological rationales essential for

answering such question as “when can the science concepts be taught”?
this question has to do with how students learn science. How are
concepts formed in the human mind? What are the science concepts that
you hope to encourage your students to develop? Cognitive
psychologists such as David, P. Ausubel, Jerome Brunner, Robert
Gagne and Jean Piaget, have attempted to provide answers to these
questions as well as impact on curriculum development and the
methodology of science teaching at both primary and secondary school
levels. So this module is divided into four units as follows:

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

UNIT 1 FOREIGN SCIENCE EDUCATION CURRICULUM

REFORMS
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1.1 Secondary school science curriculum projects in the U.S.A.
3.1.2 Harvard Project Physics
3.1.3 Chemical Bond Approach (CBA)
3.1.4 Chemical Education Materials Study
3.2.1 Secondary school science projects in the United kingdom:
3.2.2: Scottish Integrated Science Project
3.2.3 Nuffield Combined Science
3.2.4 Nuffield Secondary Science
3.2.5 The School Council Integrated Science Project.

4.0 Summary
5.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
6.0 References/Further Readings

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

5
.
0

1
.
0

INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to foreign curriculum reform in science

education .

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

advance reasons for a reform in the science curriculum;

list some foreign science curriculum projects;
list the financiers of each of the projects;
mention the dates when each of the projects was initiated;
mention the focus of each of the projects;
list the curriculum materials produced for execution of the
projects.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Science Curriculum Development

Curriculum development efforts in the sixties were sparkled off on October 4, 1957 by the
launching by the Soviet Union of the first man- made satellite to orbit the earth. The name
of the satellite is the sputnik 1. This event led to a re evaluation of science curricular
throughout the world under the leadership of the USA.

Some of the foreign curricula are Secondary school science curriculum

projects in the U.S.A include: Harvard Project Physics, Chemical Bond
Approach (CBA) Chemical Education Materials Study (CHEM Study).
Secondary school science projects in the United Kingdom, include: Scottish
Integrated Science Project, Nuffield Combined Science, Nuffield Secondary
Science, The School Council Integrated Science Project.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Mention some of the f o r e i gn science curriculum projects development

in Nigeria.

Notable among the developed foreign science projects are as follows:

Secondary school science curriculum projects in the U.S.A include: Harvard
Project Physics, Chemical Bond Approach (CBA) Chemical Education
Materials Study (CHEM Study).

Secondary school science projects in the United Kingdom, include: Scottish

Integrated Science Project, Nuffield Combined Science, Nuffield Secondary
Science, The School Council Integrated Science Project.

3.1.0 Secondary school science curriculum projects in the USA

3.1.1 Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC). This project was established in 1956 at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The materials produced by the
committee were in general use by 1960. The materials were developed with the
support of the National Science foundation.
The general purpose of the project was to present physics as a unified but
continuing process by which we seek to understand the nature of the physical
world.
The course has been offered as an alternative to the traditional physics course
because more emphasis is placed on modern physics. The textbook is divided into
four parts: the universe, optics and lenses, mechanics and electricity and modern
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physics. The laboratory is essential to this approach as students are expected to
experience science phenomena first and then discuss the theory underlying their
observations in the classroom setting. The ultimate goal of this methodology is to
promote the development of the attitudes and skills of the scientist.
The materials and resources of the project include physics textbooks such as PSSC
physics, laboratory apparatus, 16mm films, teacher’s resource book and guide,
science study series, and PSSC tests.

3.1.2 Harvard Project Physics (HPP).

This committee was established in 1964. The pilot version of the course was
available in 1967. The course was developed to take care of a wide range of student
abilities. In contrast to the focus of PSSC course for above average students. The
National Science Foundation supported the project.
The purpose of the course was to develop a new kind of physics course for the
science oriented and the science-shy, centered on a solid introduction to physics
but stressing the humanistic background of the sciences.
Inspection of the HPP textbook reveals that it has a different orientation from PSSC
and other conventional physics textbooks. The project physics textbook develops
topics through a story line that uses history, present-day events, and numerous
examples to develop science topics. It shows how scientific thought and ideas
evolved and accomplish this through historical events, stories, explanations, and
formulae. The project physics course is designed to be flexible, Teachers can use it
in a conventional manner or individualize the programme. This is possible because
either a single textbook is available or individual booklets for each chapter can be
purchased. The programme consists of five units, namely: (1) concepts of motion (2)
Motion in the heavens, (2) the triumph of mechanics. (4) Light and
electromagnetism, and (5) Models of the atom.
The materials produced by the project include: the textbook, project physics,
teacher’s guides, student handbooks, physics apparatus, transparences, film loops,
film strips, tests, programmed instruction, booklets, and newsletters.

3.1.3 Chemical Bond Approach (CBA). The Chemical Bond Approach was developed
by the Chemical Bond Approach Committee established at Earlham College,
Richmond, Indiana, in 1958. The materials were first published in 1963. The
project was supported by the National Science Foundation.
The general purpose of the project was to design an introductory course in
chemistry which emphasized chemical bond and chemistry as a process of
investigation.
This approach is most appropriate for high-ability students. The commonly used
textbook (Chemical systems), attempts to discuss the following questions: What
is the nature of a chemical system? When a chemical reaction occurs how does
the change alter the surroundings of the system? Why do chemical elements

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from certain compounds but not others? What determines the conditions under
which a chemical change is complete?
Some of the materials produced by the project includes: Textbook, Chemical
Systems, student laboratory guide, teacher’s guide, supplementary readings,
chart of electronegative and four self-instruction programmes.
The project has terminated.

3.1.4 Chemical Education materials Study (CHEM study).

The materials for the CHEM study programme were prepared by the Chemical
Education Materials study committee first established by the American Chemical
Society in 1959. The pilot programme was ready in 1961, and the material was
rewritten in 1962. The programme was under the auspices of the National Science
Foundation.
The general purpose of the CHEM study course is to stimulate and prepare high school
students for university chemistry and to give other high school chemistry students an
understanding of the importance of science.
The CHEM study programme takes an inductive approach to learning. Students are
expected to perform laboratory exercise that requires collection and analysis of data.
The purpose of this structure is to help students independently discover relationships
that exist before class discussion on the topic.
Some of the materials produced by the project include textbook, laboratory manuals, a
teacher’s guide, examinations, and films for both students and teacher use. The CHEM
study textbooks have been published in the following 3 editions:
(a) Chemistry: An Investigation Approach ed. 2 1980.
(b) Chemistry: Experiment and Principles, ed. 3 1982.
(c) Chemistry: Experimental Foundation, ed 3 1982
The project has essentially terminated. Distribution of written materials and films
both in English and as translated will be continued. A minimum staff will be
maintained to supervise remaining business activities and to carry out contractual
obligations.

3.1.5. Biology Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS). The Biological Science Curriculum study
project was started in 1959. Originally three versions of a first course in biology were
produced. The project was supported by the National Science Foundation.
The general purpose of the project is to contribute to the improvement of biological
education through the preparation of curriculum materials related to the study of biology.
The three most commonly used curricula developed by SSCS are the Blue version
(molecular approach), Green version (ecological approach), and the Yellow version
(organism approach). Their corresponding textbooks are Biological Science: Molecules to
man (blue version): Biological science: An Ecological Approach, (green version); Biological
Science: An Inquiry into life (yellow version). All these are for the equivalent of SS1 while
Biological Science: Interaction of Experiments and ideas is for the equivalent of SS3. Other
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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
materials include: special materials for low-ability students, laboratory blocks biology
teacher’s handbook, and numerous supplemental materials for biology teachers and
students, BSCS newsletter.
Additional materials are being developed, e.g., for Educationally Mentally Retarded,
programmed materials and inquiry slides.

3.2.0 SECONDARY SCHOOL SCIENCE PROJECTS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

3.2.1 The initiative for curriculum development in the U.K belonged to science teachers.
There were two associations: Science Masters’ Association (SMA) and Association for
Women Science Teachers (AWST) which grew rapidly and merged form Association for
Science Education (ASE) in 1961, because of their dissatisfaction with existing syllabi, the
association published.
(i) Biology for Grammar Schools
(ii) Chemistry for Grammar Schools
(iii) Physics for Grammar Schools
With the support of Nuffield Foundation for ASE, the Nuffield Science Schemes were
launched in 1961-1962.

3.2.2 Scottish Integrated Science Project

This course is different from most modern curriculum projects in the manner in which
curricula were produced. The 1964 working party was initially established to review the
existing science curricula for Scottish students’ non-certificate courses and to consider the
“Alternative syllabus” to the lower level courses. The working party was not established to
produce materials for students’ or teachers’ use. Later, their mandate was expanded but
the working party, not only reviewed according to the expanded mandate but also prepare
a workable syllabus for the first two years of school – grades 8 – 9. The resulting approach
is now known as Scottish Integrated Science. Worksheets were distributed during the
period of trial-testing in school which were later revised and published after evaluation.
Textbooks were later published following the order of the syllabus and associated teachers’
guides.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is the main focus of Scottish Integrated Science Project?

The general purpose of this syllabus was to expose students to experimental methods of
scientists, and the apparatus and methods used for drawing conclusions. The Scottish
Integrated Science courses involved extensive laboratory work. Students were expected to
work individually or in small groups: teachers, however, were expected to demonstrate the
dangerous techniques to the students. In Scotland, Science is treated as a “practical
subject” with only 20 students in a class.

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3.2.3 Nuffield Combine Science

Nuffield Combine Science team was set up in 1966. Teachers were expected to
exercise their professional judgment concerning details of content and order of the
provided structured syllabus in producing a suitable teaching sequence. Hence,

they had the task of synthesizing the materials provided for children in the first two
years of British Secondary Schools.
Emphasis in the recommended teaching sequence is placed on students’ firsthand
experience which is reflected in the laboratory experiments. Home assignments are
learnt through guided discovery method.
The materials produced are teacher’s guide, activity books, and film loops.

3.2.4 Nuffield Secondary Science

The Nuffield Secondary Science is for the lower 75% of the ability range of the
population age 13 – 16.
The aims of the Secondary Science was to provide opportunities to pupils to
understand things at the scientific background and implications of economic, social
and moral problems and to equip them for everyday life. It also included the need
to solve problems, to predict the consequences of actions and, to evaluate
assertions of politicians, advertisers, and scientists.
The objectives in secondary science are to provide immediate opportunity for , and
encouragement of, accurate observations deduction of generalizations, design of
simple experiments and formation of hypotheses. This opportunity is taken to
improve verbal fluency, literacy and numeracy, to encourage self-discipline and
responsibility for organization of work.
The curriculum consisted of 8 themes. There was provision for pupil’s experiments
and teacher’s demonstrations on each theme. Students are expected to perform
the experiments all by themselves. By so doing, they learn a lot and even discover
new things which are useful to them.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is the general purpose of this project?

Other Nuffield Curricula are Nuffield ‘O’ level Science Schemes which were the first
of the curriculum development projects in science to be sponsored by the Nuffield
Foundation in the early 1960s. They represent schemes of work in the separate
sciences - - biology, chemistry and physics – for the secondary school students,
grade 7 – 11 following a science course of five years duration and leading to the
General Certificate of Education at the Ordinary Level (GCE ‘O’ level). This type of
course and examination is taken by the top 25-30 percent of the ability range.
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The basic aim of these schemes was to foster a different attitude to science subjects
in both student and teacher - - one of curiosity and inquiry rather than an emphasis
on the uncritical assimilation of facts and the “verification” of scientific laws by
routine experiments. The schemes employed a “guided discovery”, rather than pure
heurism, calls for a diversity of teaching techniques, and is therefore challenging to
teacher and student.
Examples are: Nuffield ‘O’ level Biology, Nuffield ‘O’ level chemistry, Nuffield ‘O’
level physics, etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Mention the materials produced to execute Nuffield Secondary Science

project.

3.2.5 The School Council Integrated Science Project

The schools council integrated science project was established for students of
above-average ability. This was to enable students perform better in GCE
examinations. The primary aim of the project was to inculcate in pupils attitudes
such as critical thinking and objective observation; as such SCISP emphasizes
intellectual work. Students were expected to be able to reason why a reaction
occurs rather than just recording its occurrence.
To guide the development of materials it adopted a “Patterns Approach” which is a
combination of existing “Process Approach” and “Conceptual Approach”.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit examined the details of the foreign science curriculum

innovative projects.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you leant about the following:

Foreign curriculum innovations in sciences projects:

- Secondary school science curriculum projects in the U.S.A.
- Secondary school science projects in the United kingdom.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Enumerate the overall objectives of the schools council integrated science

project.

8.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

A.M.A., A.S.E., & A.A.M., (1970). The teaching of science in secondary

schools, 3rd ed. London: Murray.

Collette, A.T., & Chiappetta, E. L. (1984). Science instruction in the middle and
secondary schools. St. Louis: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing
Company.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

UNIT 2 SCIENCE EDUCATION CURRICULUM

REFORMS IN NIGERIA I

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Science Curriculum Development
3.1.1 University of Nigeria Primary Science Pilot
Scheme
3.1.2 The African Primary Science Project (APSP)
3.1.3 Bendel State Primary Science Project (BPSP)
3.1.4 Ife Six Year Yoruba Language Primary Science
Project
3.1.5 The Primary Education Improvement Project
(PEIP)
3.1.6 Ondo State Primary Science Project
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to curriculum reform in science education and

some primary science curriculum projects embarked upon in Nigeria.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

advance reasons for a reform in the science curriculum;

list some primary science curriculum projects;
list the financiers of each of the primary projects;
mention the dates when each of the projects was initiated;
mention the focus of each of the projects;
list the curriculum materials produced for execution of the
projects.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Science Curriculum Development

The sudden launching into space of the satellite “sputnik” by the Soviet
Union sparked off science curriculum development efforts in the
western world. This led to the awareness as regards the need to re-
examine the school science curricula, objectives, content and evaluation.

In Nigeria, a lot of external influences and foreign curricula motivated

many of the curriculum innovations in science at the primary school
level. Some of the foreign curricula are Elementary Study of Science
(ESS) of 1960, Science – A Process Approach (SAPA) of 1962; Science
Education for Africa Project (SEAP) of 1970; Science Teacher
Education Project (STEP) of 1970 etc. Because of these influences and
the historic National Curriculum Conference held in 1969 spurred
various bodies including government agencies to develop science
curricula for both primary and secondary levels of education.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Mention some of the primary science curriculum projects development

in Nigeria.

Notable among the developed primary science projects are as follows:

University of Nigeria Primary Science Pilot Scheme;

African Primary Science Project (APSP);
Bendel State of Nigeria Primary Science Project (BPSP);
Ife Six Year Yoruba Language Primary Science Project;
The Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP);
Ondo State Primary Science Project;
National Primary School Science Project (NPSSP).

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3.1.1 University of Nigeria Primary Science Pilot Scheme

This project is the first Nigeria Primary Science Curriculum project in

Nigeria began at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka in the then Eastern
part of Nigeria as a pilot scheme in 1963. The scheme was jointly
sponsored by the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria and the
Ford Foundation.

The focus of the scheme was on local materials and improvised

equipment such as the use of jam-jars, bamboo microscopes, bamboo

cages etc. in the teaching of primary science.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Who was the initiator of this scheme?

This project, which came into being through Prof. Babs Fafunwa placed
emphasis on pupils’ practical activities.

3.1.2 The African Primary Science Project (APSP)

The APSP is another earliest curriculum innovative project in science at

primary school level. It was launched in Kano in January, 1965. The
project was sponsored materially and financially by United States
Agency for International Development (USAID), Ford Foundation of
America and the Education Development Centre (EDC) of
Massachusetts. The programme was later referred to as the Science
Education Project for Africa (SEPA).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is the main focus of SEPA?

The purpose of the project was to create in the children, the spirit of
inquiry, and a sense of curiosity and to develop in them the skills,
techniques and mental attitudes to satisfy the inquiry spirit.

About 25,000 copies of printed materials consisting of pupils books and

Teachers Guide covering over 30 topics were sent to Nigeria from APSP
headquarters in Accra from 1965 to 1970. These printed materials and
educational films were distributed to teachers mostly in Lagos schools.
The teachers’ guide was in booklet form. It was divided into two
sections. Book one was for the lower primary classes and book two was
for the upper primary classes. Also printed was the “Child Observation
Checklist” used in evaluation of child learning.

3.1.3 Bendel State Primary Science Project (BPSP)

The BPSP which started in Benin-city in 1966 was first called Mid-
western State Primary Science project and later became known as the
Bendel State Primary project. The project was directed by the State
Ministry of Education. It was jointly financed by United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the Government of the former Mid-western
State of Nigeria.

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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is the focus of BPSP?

The general purpose of the project is the development of primary

science curriculum and the training of teachers to teach primary science.
The project was designed to be child-centred with the aims of
developing in the child the mind of inquiry, self-confidence and self-
reliance through problem-solving.

The following materials were produced: text book, “Science is Discovery” in pupil’s books
and teachers’ guides for years one to six. Primary school science syllabus for classes 1 to
VI. Also, Evaluation for innovation – A handbook for teachers was produced. The last two
were published by the Science Curriculum Development Centre, Abraka.

The project was one of the few projects evaluated by experts. The evaluation
team found that the project plans were implemented to a large extent but
printed books for primary four were not distributed according to the policy of
the Ministry. The printing of books for primary five was also delayed for two
years by the press.

3.1.4 Ife Six Year Yoruba Language Primary Science Project

This project was part of an enlarged Ife Six Years Yoruba Primary
project initiated in 1970 at the University of Ife under the chairmanship
of Prof. Aliu Babatunde Fafunwa, then, Director of the Institute of
Education of the University.

Some of the overall objectives of this project were:

- To develop a primary education curriculum with a strong

surrender value since primary education is terminal for many
Nigerian children.
- To develop materials, together with appropriate methodology for
teaching the prepared curriculum effectively
- To use Yoruba language as the medium of instruction throughout,
in order to demonstrate that the primary instruction, when given
in the child’s mother tongue rather than in a second or foreign
language, is more effective and meaningful.

The revised aims and objectives of the projects are

- The project was to organize writing workshops for the

development and evaluation of curriculum materials.
- The project was to develop materials with appropriate
methodology for teaching and learning the prepared curriculum
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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE
effectively.
- Curriculum materials were to be developed in both Yoruba and
English

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Suggest other subjects apart from science that the project was designed
to use mother tongue to teach.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

The project generally was designed to exploit the use of mother tongue
(Yoruba) in the teaching and learning of the underlisted primary school
subjects:

English Language
Mathematics
Elementary Science
Religious Knowledge (Christian/Muslim)
Agricultural Science
Physical Education
Social Studies
Cultural and Creative Arts
Family living
Yoruba.

The project was supported financially by the Ford Foundations of

America and former Western State Ministry of Education. The main
objective of the project according to Fafunwa (1975) was “to develop a
primary education for the child and make him an intelligent citizen of
this country”.

The writing group of the curriculum development team did a lot of work
as the group had to battle with writing science concept in Yoruba as
none of the group members learnt or taught science in Yoruba language
before. The group therefore set up a “Lexical Committee” to select the
right choice of words and concepts that would correctly express in
Yoruba for those scientific concepts and expressions not easily
identifiable with local Yoruba language.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Mention the materials produced to execute this project.

The materials produced are ‘Sayensi’ for primary classes Books 1 to 6

both teachers’ guide and pupils text. So also the teacher manuals.

Some of the problems encountered with the project were:

absence of the equivalence of some scientific terms such as

sodium, iron, lead etc.
finding a commonly acceptable word from possible list of
varying dialects.
The problem of proceeding to higher institutions of learning
where no such programme may be provided for, was very
prominent.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

Mobility of the local labour produced was restricted.

3.1.5 The Primary Education Improvement Project (PEIP)

The PEIP was initiated in 1970 at the Institute of Education, Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria. The project was jointly sponsored and financed
by the then six Northern States of Nigeria, UNESCO, UNICEF, USAID
and the British Council. The project was formerly called
UNICEF/UNESCO assisted project but later called PEIP.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

What is the aim of this project?

The project is aimed at making children think and study science like the
scientists, hence it adopted the philosophy of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) processes and skills for
achieving this aim, with emphasis on the following process of science
such as observing; measuring; classifying; using numbers; manipulating;
communicating; predicting; inferring; interpreting; formulating;
hypothesizing and experimenting.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

Does this project have materials produced for its execution?

The curriculum materials produced for the project were a series of pupils
textbooks (Books 1 to 6), Workbooks and teachers’ guide which
provides detailed information for the teacher to carryout science
activities which must have been specified in the pupils’ text.

The project was owned by the Northern States of Nigeria. It was based at the
Institute of Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The materials were
therefore used in the Northern States.

The following materials were produced:

a) Activities for lower primary classes 1 - 3

b) Primary science for primary classes 1 - 6
c) Social Studies for primary classes 1 - 6
d) Oxford Modern Mathematics books 1 - 6

Pupil’s textbooks, workbooks and teacher’s guides were produced for the
science and mathematics books.

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 EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

Most of the materials produced were used during the introduction of the
national programme of the Universal Primary Education in 1976. The science
curriculum is just a component of the whole programme.

3.1.6 Ondo State Primary Science Project

The project was initiated in 1974 by former Western State of Nigeria.

But later continued in Ondo State after the creation of states in 1976.
The project drew its inspiration from the outcome of the APSP
workshop.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

What is the purpose of this project?

The main purpose for the project was to produce a child-centred
curriculum with an investigative approach.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

The curriculum materials produced for the project were pupils textbooks
and teacher’s guide. But the teachers guide was not completed for all
the classes before the creation of states in 1976.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

What is the general purpose of this project?

The concern and effort to improve, coordinate and regularize the quality
of science taught at the primary school level led to the idea of having a
core-curriculum for primary school science. So the NPSSP was
developed in order to rectify some inadequacies found in the core-
curriculum. Thus, the general purpose of the project was to provide
guidelines for meaningful action to make education in Nigeria a true
instrument for the reconstruction of our society and to achieve the
development of National Capacities in support of nationalism, social,
scientific, technological and economic development.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

Could you name the approaches recommended for the teaching of this
project?

Combinations of approaches were recommended for the teaching of the

project which are processes, conceptual, thematic or project approach
and the guided discovery approach that involves the activity of the child.
This was made to run through the entire project.

The materials produced for the execution of the project include the
followings:

Textbook on Integrated Primary Science for Primary Schools;

Teachers’ Guide;
National Primary Science and Mathematics Project;
Syllabus and teaching materials;
Apparatus / equipment for teaching;
A project Newsletter and kits.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit examined the details of the science curriculum innovative

projects undertaken at the primary school level in Nigeria.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you leant that:

external influences and foreign curricula motivated many of the

curriculum innovations in science at primary school level.
Notable among the developed primary science projects in
Nigeria.
- University of Nigeria Primary Science Pilot Scheme
- African Primary Science Project
- Bendel State Primary Science project
- Ife Six Year Yoruba Language Primary Science Project.
- The Primary Education Improvement Project
- Ondo State Primary Science Project
- National Primary School Science Project.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Enumerate the overall objectives of Ife Six Year Yoruba Language

Primary Science Project as well as revised aims and objectives of the
project after the writing workshops organised by Curriculum
Development experts.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Ogunleye, A.O. (1999). Science Education in Nigeria: Historical

Development Curriculum Reforms and Research. Sunshine
International Publications (Nig.) Ltd.

Omolewa, M. (1977). Some Earliest Problems of Science Education in

Nigeria (1959 – 1982). Journal of Science Teachers Association
of Nigeria, 15 (3), 72 – 92.

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UNIT 2 SCIENCE EDUCATION CURRICULUM

REFORMS IN NIGERIA II

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Science for Nigerian Secondary School (BSNSS)
3.2 The Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP)
3.3 The Nigerian Secondary Schools Science Project (NSSSP)
3.4 The National Science Curriculum for Secondary Schools
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The content of Science Curriculum existing in our secondary schools

before and after independence in 1960 did not provide enough learning
experiences for students to become useful to the society. The curriculum
was intended for the Cambridge University by West African
Examinations Council (WAEC) and was designed partially to satisfy the
requirements of its external examinations in science.

The poor state of the type of curriculum in the sciences gave a lot of
concern to Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) and WAEC
in 1968 who jointly examined and revised the existing syllabi in science.

Efforts made by some curriculum agents such as STAN, WAEC,

NERDC (Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council)
and CESAC (Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre)
resulted in the following science curriculum projects undertaken at the
secondary school level.

Therefore, this unit focuses on the following secondary science

curriculum projects:

i) The Basic Science for Nigerian Secondary Schools (BSNSS);

ii) The Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP);
iii) The Nigerian Secondary Schools Science Project (NSSSP);
iv) The National Science Curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

mention the date when each of the project was initiated;

mention the organization that financed each of the project;
mention the philosophy of each of the projects;
mention the curriculum materials produced for execution of the
projects.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Basic Science for Nigerian Secondary School (BSNSS)

BSNSS was the first science curriculum development project undertaken

in Nigeria between 1963 – 1967 at the Comprehensive High School,
Ayetoro. The project which was popularly known as Ayetoro project
was financed jointly by the Ford Foundation of America and the
Western Nigeria Regional Government and coordinated by CESAC of
the University of Lagos.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What approach did the syllabus of this project adopt?

The BSNSS was a curriculum in general science, which covered the first
two years of secondary school. The basic science syllabus developed in
Ayetoro was written by Nigerians and was published in 1967 with the
Teachers Guide. The syllabus was conceived to be child-centred with
emphasis on the discovery teaching method and laboratory oriented
activities.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is the philosophy of the project?

The philosophy of the project is “Doing science the way the scientist do
it”, observing carefully, reporting honestly what is observed and being
patient. The underlying theme of the project is energy transfer – how
energy is acquired, supplied and transferred between living organisms
and their surrounding.

The contents of materials produced for the project were divided into two
main blocks. Block I for Form One and Block II for Form two. In
block 1, there were five units while block II contain four units.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the topics listed in each of the units in the two blocks?

Block I, with five units:

Unit I - Introduction to Science

Unit II - Heat
Unit III - Mechanics
Unit IV - Electricity
Unit V - Chemistry

Block II, with four units:

Unit I - Small organisms and cells

Unit II - Food and Nutrition
Unit III - Diseases
Unit IV - Ecology

The project was not widely adopted in schools, as it did not go beyond
the pilot-testing stage.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What could be responsible for the project not being acceptable

nationwide in Nigeria?

This could have been that the objectives of BSNSS may have been at
variance with our traditional sciences curricula used in schools
throughout the federation at that time and also the advent of Integrated
Science syllabus worldwide.

3.2 The Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP)

The NISP was the first science curriculum project developed by STAN
in 1970.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

What are the skills that the project expected students to acquire in
Integrated Science?

Some of the skills listed for the students to acquire after having been
exposed to a course in integrated science are observing, measuring,
classifying, reporting, organizing, generalizing, predicting and
experimenting.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Give the name of the approach used in the NISP.

STAN commissioned its members to write Pupils Textbook and

Teachers Guide for the NISP with emphasis on the child-centred
approach which was basically activity-oriented. This means involving
the students actively in open-ended laboratory activities just like being a
scientist.

The philosophy of NISP was designed to assist the child to:

gain the concept of the fundamental unity of science;

gain the commonality of approach to problems of a scientific
nature;
gain an understanding of the role and function of science in
everyday life and the world in which he/she lives.

The contents of materials produced for NISP were divided into six units.
These are:

Unit 1 You as a living thing

Unit 2 You and your home
Unit 3 Living components of the environment
Unit 4 Non-living components of the environment
Unit 5 Saving your energy
Unit 6 Controlling the environment.

3.3 The Nigerian Secondary Schools Science Project

(NSSSP)

The Nigerian secondary school science project was developed by the

Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC) in 1970.
The centre was formerly at the University of Lagos, Lagos but has
now been merged with the former Nigeria Educational Research
Council and the Nigerian Language Centre to form the new Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Centre.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

What method of teaching does the project adopted?

The general purpose of the project was preparation of the young ones
for useful living in the society and higher education through training
in the use of both the brain and the hands. It hoped to teach
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conceptual thinking with manipulative skills so that adequate
foundation may be laid for the improvement of Nigeria. The
approach is on discovering facts, explaining them and applying
them. Rote learning is to be completely discouraged.

Chief H.M.B Somade was the original Director of the project fro m
1968 – 1975. The next Director was the late Dr. O. Ozoro from 1975
– 1982. Dr. U. M. O. Ivowi was the last acting Director of CESAC.
Support for the project came from the Ford Foundation through Dr.
Adam Skapski and later by the Federal Government.
The materials produced for the NSSSP were based on CESAC’s alternative
syllabus which was accepted by WAEC for use in examining School
Certificate candidates. These materials include; Senior Secondary biology
textbooks I-III. Chemistry textbooks I-III, and Physics text books I-III.
Teacher’s guides were also prepared for each book. Textbooks for students and
Teachers Guides were developed for the three science subjects namely: biology,
chemistry and physics as Books
1, 2 and 3. The book 1 is for Year III, Book 2 for Year IV and Book 3 for Year V.

The textbooks were used throughout the country by several associate

and volunteer schools on a trial basis.
The CESAC, before its merger, has revised the senior secondary
syllabus and has also developed a core curriculum for the senior
secondary level.

3.4 The National Science Curriculum for Senior Secondary

Schools

The advent of the new 6-3-3-4 system of education in Nigeria called for
the development of new curriculum in every subject area for both the
junior and senior secondary levels of education.

In science subjects namely biology, chemistry and physics new curricula

were developed which was referred to as National Science Curriculum
for Senior Secondary Schools.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

What do you think was responsible for the advent of this project?

The critique of the draft copy of NSSSP submitted to the Joint

Consultative Committee on Education (JCCE) by CESAC resulted to
the birth of National Science Curriculum for senior secondary schools.

The new senior secondary schools science curriculum adopted spiral or

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concentric approach to the teaching of concepts through the use of
guided discovery method. This was to ensure that learning as an activity
takes place during exploration, experimentation and discussion.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

Could you suggest how the teaching syllabi were arranged?

The science curriculum has its contents arranged in a logical,

developmental and sequential order. The performance objectives for
each topic in the curriculum were identified. Also the teaching syllabi
were arranged into five sections namely:

Topic
Performance objectives
Content
Activity
Notes.

The curriculum also recommended the use of improvised local

materials.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit examined the details of the science curriculum innovative

projects undertaken at secondary school levels in Nigeria. The issue of
curriculum in science education has been a highly controversial one, in
the sense that, there has never been a yardstick by which various science
curriculum projects designed for use in schools could be measured, thus
there is no definite ways to ascertain whether the use do meet their set
objectives.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that:

Basic Science for Nigerian Secondary Schools (BSNSS) was the

first pioneering science curriculum project undertaken in Nigeria
between 1963 – 1967 at the Comprehensive High School
Ayetoro.
Nigerian Integrated Science Project (NISP) was the first science
curriculum projects to be developed by the Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria (STAN) in 1970.
Nigerian Secondary Schools Science Project (NSSSP) was
developed by the Comparative Education Study and Adaptation
Centre (CESAC) in 1970.
National Science Curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools came
into being as a result of the birth of the new education policy
called 6-3-3-4 system in Nigeria.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Draw a table to reflect the distribution of the major topics in Physics

over the three years under the National Science Curriculum for Senior
Secondary Schools.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Ogunleye, A.O. (1999). Science Education in Nigeria: Historical

Development Curriculum Reforms and Research. Sunshine
International Publications (Nig.) Ltd.

Omolewa, M. (1977). Some Earliest Problems of Science Education in

Nigeria (1959 – 1982). Journal of Science Teachers Association
of Nigeria, 15 (3), 72 – 92.

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UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR SCIENCE
TEACHING 1

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 David Ausubel’s Theory of Learning
3.1.1 Implications of David Ausubel’s Theory of Learning for
Science Teaching and Curriculum Development.
3.2 Jerome Brunner’s Theory of Learning
3.2.1 Implications of Jerome Brunner’s Theory of
Learning for Science Teaching and Curriculum
Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Students generally already have their patterns of thinking. How do these

expand to include new ones? How are concepts formed in the human
mind? Can the concepts in science be handed over entire and ready-
made or must the learner build them up for himself step by step? What
are the science concepts we hope to encourage our students to develop?
Various cognitive psychologists such as David Ausubel, Jerome
Brunner, Robert Gagne and Jean Piaget to mention few have attempted
to provide answers to these questions. Answers to these questions carry
very large consequences for the organization of science lessons.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Describe David Ausubel’s theory of learning.

Discuss the implications of David Ausubel’s theory of learning to
science teaching and curriculum development.
Describe Jerome Brunner’s theory of learning.
Discuss the implications of Jerome Brunner’s theory to science
teaching and curriculum development.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 David Ausubel’s Theory of Learning

Ausubel’s theory of learning distinguishes between rote and meaningful

learning of science and how prior knowledge affects the learning
process of science. (Ausubel,1960). Ausubel therefore stresses the value
of prior (i.e. previous) knowledge in students learning. It is generally
accepted that what a student already knows could aid or hinder new
learning. According to Ausubel as cited in Abdullahi (1982),
meaningful learning occurs when there is appropriate link between prior
knowledge and new learning task i.e. interaction between the students’
appropriate elements in the knowledge that already exists and the new
material to be learnt. When there is no such interaction, rote learning
occurs.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is the meaning of subsumer?

Those parts of the learner’s cognitive structure (organization of

knowledge), which can provide for the interaction necessary for
meaningful learning are called Subsumers.

Subsumer, according to Ausubel is defined as a principle or generalised

body of knowledge that the learner already acquired that can provide for
association or “anchorage” for the various components of the new
knowledge. That is a new learning must be linked to the existing
knowledge to create meaning. Where relevant subsumers do not exist to
link new materials with the previous knowledge, ‘advance organiser’
can be introduced.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is advance organiser?

Ausubel advocates for introduction of what he called advance organiser.

Advance organizers are alternative set of link or ‘anchorage’. Ausubel
is an advocate of verbal learning. He proposes that meaningful learning
can take place by two processes namely:

the use of relevant subsumers when they exist in the knowledge

already possessed by the learner, and
the use of advance organisers where the subsumers are absent.

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3.1.1 Implications of David Ausubel’s Theory of Learning for

Science

Teaching and Curriculum Development

Teaching of science subjects must not begin until the teacher is

sure of previous knowledge and if not, it should be provided.
Teaching of science subjects must begin with new learning or
knowledge in a sequential manner.
Science teacher must not present new materials during teaching
unless the learner is ready.
Ausubel supported the use of expository method in teaching of
science subjects as the method can lead to high level of
understanding and generality as against the use of discovery
approaches which are extremely time consuming.
Contents in the science curriculum must be arranged in sequential
order.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What is discovery?

3.2 Jerome Brunner’s Theory of Learning

Jerome Brunner introduced the concept of learning by discovery.

Discovery is used according to this theory as all forms of obtaining
knowledge for oneself by use of one’s mental processes. Brunner
believed that learning by discovery begins when science teacher
purposefully create problem and present the problem to students by
introducing some inconsistencies among source of information which
are given in the process of instruction. According to Brunner such
inconsistencies lead to intellectual discomfort that will stimulate (i.e.
motivate) the students to initiate individual discoveries through
cognitive restructuring (i.e. internal reorganization).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

How many forms of discovery processes does Brunner say exist?

According to Brunner (1960), two forms of discovery process exist,

which are:

Assimilation: This occurs when a student spontaneously

recognizes a new situation that is familiar to one of the elements
in his existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure)
and he easily assimilates it.

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Accommodation: This occurs when a new situation (i.e. new

knowledge) is incompatible to the existing structure of
knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure). The learner first restructures
(i.e. organises) his cognitive framework in order to be able to
accommodate the new knowledge.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Name the three types of human activities for learning which Brunner’s
theory emphasized.

Brunner’s theory emphasizes that the students should find out

information on their own through the use of mental processes. It also
places great importance on the three types of human activities for
learning i.e. the three information-processing systems, which are:

(i) Physical activity (i.e. motor activities) referred to as Enactive

representation.
(ii) Imagery referred to as Ionic representation.
(iii) Symbolic activities.

The three activities coexist with each other and for this reason the
attainment of one does not mean the total abandonment of the others.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

List the activities that accompany each of the three information

processing systems.

At enactive stage: The child manipulates the learning materials

directly by neuro-muscular activities.
At ionic stage: The child deals with mental images of objects but
could not manipulate the objects directly.
At symbolic stage: The child uses language to express the
objects.

The interpretation of these three stages together is that when a child at

junior secondary school level for example shows deficiencies in his
learning capacity especially in symbolic representation, it could be that
such a child was deficient at the two earlier stages, which he/she
skipped. It is therefore compulsory to fill in the skipped gap by
providing concrete support that will make up for the deficiency.

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3.2.1 Implications of Jerome Brunner’s Theory of Learning

for Science Teaching and Curriculum Development

Science teachers should place great emphasis on the most

important ideas and relationships of a subject, thus offering a
structure that will allow students to generate new concepts, ideas,
relationships and principles.
Science teachers should deliberately create or present problems
for the science students either in form of apparent contradictions
or inconsistencies among sources of information, which are given
in the process of instruction. Such inconsistencies according to
Brunner lead to ‘intellectual discomfort’ that will result into
students initiating individual discoveries through cognitive
structuring.
Science teachers should encourage discovery learning in the
science class as these aids problem-solving and development of
creativity in the science students.
Science teachers should encourage science students to make
intuitive guesses more systematically as this will make students
to have a chance to practice their ability to go beyond the
information given.
Science teachers should be inductive.
Science teachers should emphasis on a radical reorganisation of
the science curriculum across all school levels such that in the
new curriculum, the fundamental structure of all the subjects
students are likely to encounter throughout the school years are
presented very early in a very simplified form.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The importance of psychological theories of learning to both science

teachers and students cannot be overemphasized. In the light of this, the
study and application of the two theories discussed in this unit should be
intensified.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

- David Ausubel’s theory of learning stresses

- the value of prior knowledge;
- that meaningful learning takes place when there is appropriate
link between prior knowledge and new learning task
- sequence of instruction.

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- Jerome Brunner’s theory of learning centers on:

- learning through discovery
- discovery aids problem-solving and creativity development
- two forms of discovery namely: assimilation and
accommodation.

Three types of human activity for learning namely:

o Enactive representation
o Ionic representation
o Symbolic activities.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss how you as a physics teacher will apply Jerome

Brunner’s ideas in the teaching of physics in your laboratory.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin, Atoto Press.

Akanbi, I.A. and Opasina, M.A. (2000). Teaching Methods for

Business, Languages, Sciences, Social – Sciences and Technical
Education. In J.A. Ayelagbe (Ed.), Andrian Publication Series,
185 – 189.

Urevbu, A. (1990). Studies in Science Education: Methodology of

Science Teaching. Juland Educational Publications.

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UNIT 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
II

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Robert Gagne’s Theory of Learning
3.1.1 Implications of Robert Gagne’s Theory of Learning
for Science Teaching and Curriculum Development
3.2 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Learning
3.2.1 Sensory – motor stage ( 0 – 2 years)
3.2.2 Pre-operational stage (2 – 7 years)
3.2.3 Concrete – operational stage (7 – 11 years)
3.2.4 Formal operational stage (11 – 15 years)
3.2.5 Implications of Jean Piaget’s Theory of Learning
for Science Teaching and Curriculum Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, you studied two cognitive psychologists whose works
have had tremendous impact on teaching/learning process. These two
and other psychological theories that you will learn in this unit are very
important and valuable because they are fundamental theoretical
foundations for the present instructional strategies in science teaching.

In this unit, you will learn about other two cognitive psychologist
namely Robert Gagne and Jean Piaget as well as the general
implications of the theories for science teaching and curriculum
development.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Describe Robert Gagne’s theory of learning;

Discuss the implications of Robert Gagne’s theory of learning to
science teaching and curriculum development;
Describe Jean Paget’s theory of learning;

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Discuss the implications of Jean Piaget’s theory of learning to

science teaching and curriculum development.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Robert Gagne’s Theory of Learning

Robert Gagne’s theory of learning is often referred to as Gagne’s theory

of learning hierarchy. The theory states that the learning of a new
concept or skill depends upon the mastery of prerequisite concepts. This
implies that prior (i.e. previous) knowledge determines what further
learning may take place and that materials meant for learning must be
sequentially structured by the science teacher. Gagne emphasizes the
importance of task analysis of instructional objectives. He also believes
in task analysis of the concepts, skills and knowledge to be taught.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Name the highest level of Gagne’s learning hierarchy.

Gagne’s Theory believes that in order for the students (i.e. learners) to
acquire the desired knowledge (i.e. terminal task), the materials meant
for learning must be sequentially structured so that the learning of one
topic (i.e. acquisition of one knowledge) aids the learning of the next
higher topic (i.e. acquisition of the next higher knowledge). This
invariably implies that learning of science must be sequentially
structured by the science teacher from simple to complex until the
desired objectives are achieved. In Gagne’s hierarchy of learning,
problem-solving is the highest level while the lower levels involved
facts, concepts and generalization.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is the importance of pre-testing in the teaching/learning process?

Gagne’s theory also advocated the administration and use of pre-test to

find whether the students possess the relevant prerequisites for the next
knowledge (i.e. higher knowledge) (Akanbi & Opasina, 2000). The
result of the pre-tests will help the teacher to know the entry point for
teaching/learning process to begin in the hierarchy of learning tasks.
Gagne also suggests that in a teaching/learning situation, the teacher
should begin with a question like “what is it that I want the learner to be
able to do?” The answer to this question should form the statement of
objectives which must be stated in behavioural form.

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3.1.1 Implications of Robert Gagne’s Theory of Learning for

Science Teaching and Curriculum Development

For learning of science to be effective, contents in science

subjects should be arranged in hierarchical order so that those
simpler concepts are mastered first before the more complex
ones.
Science teachers should carefully state the objectives for learning
any topics in science subjects.
Science teachers should arrange the learning tasks sequentially so
that the learning of one science topic should aid the learning of
the next higher topic until the desired body of knowledge or skills
is acquired.
The contents in science curriculum should be arranged
hierarchically so that simpler contents are treated first at lower
class before the complex ones at higher class.
After completing the structured hierarchy of learning tasks, the
teacher administers diagnostic pre-tests in order to find out the
point where the learning hierarchy can start.

3.2 Jean Piaget’s Theory of Learning

Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist pioneered the studies on

cognitive and mental development. Piaget’s theory emphasize that
learning ability corresponds to the level of intellectual development (i.e.
cognitive development).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What are the developmental stages identified by Jean Piaget?

The four human intellectual developmental stages identified by Piaget

together with the approximate ages to which they correspond are as
follows:

Stage Age

- Sensory – motor stage 0 – 2 years

- Pre – operational stage 2 – 7 years
- Concrete operational stage 7 – 11 years
- Formal Operational stage 11 – 15 years

3.2.1 Sensory – motor stage (0 – 2 years)

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This stage can be thought of as a pre – verbal stage. The entire child’s
learning activities at this stage consist mainly of sensory and motor
activities like seeing, sucking, tasting, touching, pushing and shaking
the objects in his/her environment. The child also learns that objects are
permanent and go out of existence when they can no longer be seen.
The child experiences during that period form the basis for later
knowledge. By the end of the period, certain aspects of the child’s
behaviour can be called Intelligent. He/she can, for example, pull a
string to get an object or pull a blanket on which an object is resting.

In this stage, the major intellectual activity is interaction of the senses

and the environment.

3.2.2 Pre – operational stage (2 – 7 years)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is operation in Piaget’s theory of mental development?

The term ‘operation’ in Piaget’s theory of mental development is a way

of thinking that follows a definite pattern. It is a subconscious act of
thinking which is prerequisite to logical reasoning. Urevbu (1990) has it
that until a child can think ‘operationally’, he/she is unable to
completely analyze or organize information presented to him.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

List the child attributes at pre-operational stage.

At the pre – operational stage, the child may be able to speak clearly,
use symbolic representations by drawing, writing and reading and
perform complex physical manipulations; he/she is perceptually oriented
and cannot reason logically or see contradictions that, to an adult, are
glaringly obvious.

The child also develops the idea of volume, length and number. He/she
easily confuses the physical changes of an object with the change in
quantity of the object. For example, if the same volume of soft drink is
poured into two different cups having different shapes e.g. narrow and
wide. To the child, the soft drink in the narrow cup is more than the
wide one, which illustrate that the child has confused height with
volume. At this stage, the thinking of the child is irreversible.

At this stage also, the child represents objects by images. For this
reason, he constantly reorganizes his picture of the world (i.e. his/her

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environment) through imaginative play. The child also uses language

(i.e. words) by talking, questioning, listening and experimenting.
Talking to self or object is part of the characteristics of this stage.

3.2.3 Concrete – operational stage (7 – 11 years)

At the concrete operational stage, the child’s mental process is limited to

thinking about things. He is able to solve problems, but he/she is
limited in his ability to do so. He/she is limited by the nature of the
problem. Problems involving concrete objects that can be observed and
manipulated can be solved. He/she cannot cope with problems where
hypothetical situations must be considered, beyond simple extensions,
extrapolations or interpolations. In consequence, solutions are achieved
mainly by trial – and – error. A child at this stage also develops the
ideas of conservation of matter, length, weight, volume and concepts of
time and space.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

What is the implication of concrete – operational stage?

At this stage, the child performs logical operation with concrete objects,
which implies that the child can carryout some logical processes like
observing, describing, classifying and measuring real objects.

The implication of this stage to primary school years is that it is a period

of exploration (i.e. the time for children to examine relationship between
man and the physical and biological environment). This implies that the
study of science in primary schools should begin with the art of
observation, which involves the use of the basic senses of seeing,
smelling, hearing, touching and tasting. Greater emphasis should be
placed on doing than telling i.e. talking. Teaching at this stage should
involve the use of models i.e. specimen, real objects, apparatus etc.
because the child depends on facts and not theories.

3.2.4 Formal operational stage (11 – 15 years)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

How does this stage relate to other earlier discussed developmental

stages?

Progression through the previous stages results in accumulation of

experiences and development of mental structures, which are necessary
background for logical and prepositional reasoning. This stage is
characterized by freedom from reality. Reality provides merely a

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starting point for thinking, the first step being the consideration of other
possibilities. At this stage also, the child develops abstract thinking. He
can think in abstract terms. He has developed full formal patterns of
thinking. He can follow logical arguments. It is only when this stage
has been reached that the more complex relationships of mathematics
and science and the hypothetico – deductive nature of reasoning can be
fully understood. The child at the formal operational stage can make
deductions, comparisons and inferences from ideas. The child can solve
ideological problems and can relate symbols with concepts.

3.2.5 Implications of Jean Piaget’s Theory of Learning for

Science Teaching and Curriculum Development

Science teachers should promote exploration and interaction with

environment using locally available materials.
Science teachers should ensure that learners deal with concrete
materials before going to the complex ones. Later they will learn
abstract concepts and generalizations.
Science teachers should commence teaching of science concepts
starting from simple to complex ones.
Science teachers should present new ideas and knowledge at the
level consistent with the child’s present state of development
thinking and language.
Science teachers should focus on problem solving rather than rote
memorization during teaching / learning process.
Science curriculum should be designed in such a way that student
will have opportunities to perform desirable mental operations.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have been exposed to two cognitive psychologists

namely Robert Gagne and Jean Piaget. You have equally been exposed
as a science teacher to implications of the two theories for science
teaching and curriculum development.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

Robert Gagne’s theory of learning which is often referred to as

Gagne’s theory of learning hierarchy states that the learning of a
new concept or skill depends upon the mastery of prerequisite
concepts.
Gagne believes that the materials meant for learning must be
sequentially structured.

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In the implications of Gagne’s theory for science teaching and

curriculum development:

- contents in science should be arranged in hierarchical

order.
- Emphasizes on science teachers stating the objectives for
learning science topics…..
- Emphasizes on pre-testing……..

Jean Piaget’s theory of learning emphasises that learning ability

corresponds to the level of intellectual development.
Piaget identified four human intellectual developmental stages as:

- sensory – motor stage (0 – 2 years)

- pre-operational stage (2 – 7 years)
- concrete operational stage (7 – 11 years)
- formal operational stage (11 – 15 years)

in the implications of Piaget’s theory for science teaching and

curriculum development, the following are proposed:

- science teachers should make use of locally available

materials to promote exploration and interaction with
environment.
- Science teachers should commence teaching from simple
concepts to the complex ones.
- Science teachers should place emphasis on problem
solving rather than rote memorization.
- New ideas and knowledge to be presented by the science
teacher should be at the appropriate level and consistent
with the child’s level of development thinking and
language.
- Science curriculum should be designed to give learners the
opportunities to perform desirable mental operations.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and discuss the Jean Piaget’s general principles of how you, as a
physics teacher, should teach physics in your laboratory.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin, Atoto Press.

Akanbi, I.A. and Opasina, M.A. (2000). Science Methods in Teaching

Methods in J.A. Ayelagbe (Ed.). Andrian Publication Series, 186
– 193.

Urevbu, A. (1990). Studies in Science Education: Methodology of

Science Teaching. Juland Educational Publications.

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EDU 256 SUBJECT METHODS II (PHYSICS) FOR UNDERGRADUATE

MODULE 3 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF

TEACHING PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION

This third module deals with another very important aspect associated
with methods of teaching and issues to consider in selecting the
techniques and the resources for teaching Physics. The module also
focuses on providing necessary information on documents that are
available for teachers to teach physics, the physics laboratory in your
school, its design, safety and organisation and how the physics teachers
will assess physics teaching in school. This module is divided into five
units as follows:

Unit 1 Methods of teaching physics

Unit 2 Resources for teaching physics
Unit 3 Preparation for teaching physics
Unit 4 Physics laboratory design, safety and Management
Unit 5 Evaluation of science teaching and learning with reference
to physics

UNIT 1 METHODS OF TEACHING PHYSICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Selection of Teaching Methods
3.2 Method of Teaching Physics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word teaching embraces curriculum planning, instruction,

measurement and evaluation. Several methods are available for lesson
presentations. However, experiences have shown that no teacher restricts
himself to a single method in lesson presentations. Usually, related
methods are combined to present lessons successfully. The methods of
teaching are the approaches or means, which a teacher could adopt in
order to carryout the function of instruction of lessons. Some of the
methods used by science teachers in presenting scientific information,
principle or skill to the pupils include: lecture or chalk-talk,
demonstration, discussion, project, discovery, laboratory or
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investigative, field trips, etc. Each method specifies the various
activities to be carried out by both the teachers and learners in order to
achieve the stated objectives of an instructional programme or a lesson.
Modern theories of learning and trends in educational practices
emphasize teaching methods, which are learner-centered as opposed to
those that are teacher-centered.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

In selecting the methods to teach a topic in physics, list the key factors
that must be considered?

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

List some methods that are adequate for teaching physics;

Describe the activities involved in each method;
State the advantages and disadvantages of each method;
Explain the factors to be considered in choosing any method(s) to
be used for teaching a particular lesson.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Selection of Teaching Method

In selecting appropriate methods of teaching in physics, teachers are

guided by the following factors:

(i) Learners’ age and expected previous experiences in the topics to be taught.
(ii) Suitability of the method for topic under discourse
(iii) Competence of the teacher to use his/her chosen/selected method
(iv) Size of the class
(v) Resources available for instruction and teaching e.g. laboratory,
library, computer, models, charts, realia, etc.
(vi) Time when lesson or topic will be taught (morning, afternoon or
evening).

Age of the learners: Delicate equipment as well as hazardous

chemicals will not be left for young learners to handle. Therefore,
laboratory method involving such will be wrong method to be used at
this level. The demonstration method will be a better choice.

Suitability of the method: Certain techniques will be used to achieve

the stated instructional objectives better than others. The lecture method
for instance will teach factual information – laws, concepts, principles,
while the laboratory method will teach practical skills better
respectively. Similarly, the inquiry or discovery method and project

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method will teach problem solving skills better than discussion or

lecture methods.

Competence of teachers to use a particular method: The physics

teacher should select a method that he or she can effectively handle.
This implies that if the teacher feels more competent in the lecture
method, regardless of its limitations that method should be employed
instead of using another method which the teacher is not proficient and
therefore cannot use effectively.

Size of the class: The size of a class is an important factor to consider

in selecting a method to teach physics lesson. Large classes are better
taught using lecture and discussion methods. However, laboratory
methods will make use of small groups or individual learners.

Resources available for instruction: The resources available to a

teacher often constrain him/her to the method(s) to select. If a school
does not have a laboratory for instance, it is impossible for the teacher to
employ the laboratory method. However, he can use the demonstration
method in the class to show some of the practical skills or use the field
trip or excursion methods where students will visit industries to see
things done practically. If the school has computers, he can simulate
some practicals that are difficult to perform in the laboratory.

Time of the lesson: The learners are more active in the morning hours
than later in the day when boredom and tiredness may set in. Therefore
a selected teaching method must be such that make the learners active
participants. A lecture method adopted in the morning will therefore be
more effective than in afternoon during the heat of the sun. It must be
noted that no single teaching method is recommended by experts for
teaching physics. The choice is left in the hand of the teacher and the
method could change or vary as many times as the need arises
depending on the concept, skill or attitude that is to be developed in the
learners.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Take a particular topic in physics and select a teaching

method/method(s) you consider effective for teaching it. Justify your
selection.

3.2 Methods of Teaching Physics

The methods of teaching physics could be grouped into two:

(i) The general methods

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(ii) Specialized methods or strategies.

The general methods of teaching physics include:

- lecture method for large group or class

- discussion method for small group or class
- demonstration method
- experimentation/laboratory method
- discovery/inquiry method
- project method
- field trip/excursion method.

The specialised methods are used for specific purposes in physics

teaching. They include:

- Concept learning/attainment methods or techniques e.g. concept

mapping, mapping/diagram, etc.
- Rule learning technique e.g. Advance Organizers
- Algorithms and procedure learning techniques
- Problem solving, problem based – learning techniques
- Model – based teaching strategies for difficult and abstract
physics concepts – uses analogies, simulation, vignettes, etc. to
create understanding
- Conceptual changes strategies e.g. concept mapping chucking,
framing, rehearsals, mnemonics etc.

Lecture Method: This is the most popular teaching method used by

teachers in presenting scientific information – ideas, concepts, laws,
generalization, theories and facts. It is a one-way communication
approach in which the teacher dishes out the points, explains a process,
clarifies issues or summarizes a discussion. The students are passive.
They only listen and perhaps take notes. It has its merits and demerits.
It allows for easy handling of large classes, leads to easy coverage of
cognitive aspects of syllabus, and entails economy of time, effort and
teaching materials. On the other hand, it renders learners passive, does
not develop critical thinking and creative ability in learners, involves
only the sense of hearing, does not meet the varied needs of the mixed
ability group in large class, and leads to disciplinary problems as
learners become restless and disruptive. It encourages rote learning.

Demonstration Method: This is used for explaining how to use an

equipment, how to carryout an experiment, how to solve a mathematical
problem, or how to do anything in a specified way. The teacher
demonstrates while the learners observe. It is used as an exhibition
lesson or to show parts of an object or to show the correct use of science
equipment by the teacher to the students. The demonstration method is

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not synonymous with the laboratory method. A laboratory experiment

is used to verify a science principle or as a means of observing,
measuring or interpreting data. Also laboratory method involves
exercises or activities in which all members of the class participate to
find out something for themselves. But the results of experiments or
demonstration are known to the teacher who either due to time, space or
resources cannot allow every member of the class to carry it out, so he
performs it to show the learners.

The advantages of this type of teaching method include:

1. It is an attention-inducer and a powerful motivator when used at

the beginning and ending of a lesson.
2. It saves time and materials
3. It enables teachers to show the learners the correct use of
equipment to avoid breakages and accidents and how to secure
reliable measurements and results
4. Enables the teacher to review students experiments
5. It enables the teacher to handle activities that may be dangerous
to students e.g. those involving high voltage, radio-active
materials, etc.

Its disadvantages include:

1. It does not allow the pupils to develop manipulative skill.

2. Pupils may have difficulty in seeing details of the
object/experiment being demonstrated.
3. It offers less scope for learners to observe, touch, manipulate or
record events.
4. It involves only the senses of hearing and sight.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

(a) Discuss any four methods of teaching physics.

(b) State their advantages and disadvantages.

The discovery method / inquiry method: The discovery method

involves a structured or unstructured exploration in the laboratory in
which the student, through his mental processes such as observing,
measuring, classifying, hypothesizing, etc. can draw conclusion from
data, which has been gathered and analysed.
There are two types of discovery method namely: (1) Guided inquiry (2)
Unguided inquiry methods. Both involve “finding out” and lead to what
is generally regarded as the scientific method, which includes the
following processes:

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1) Formulating problem for investigation

2) Formulating hypothesis to guide the investigation
3) Designing experiment to collect data
4) Analyze and synthesise data to form generalization or solution to
problem
5) Possessing/acquiring certain scientific attitudes such as
objectivity, curiosity and open mindedness.

Advantages

1. Equips the learner to be the builder/owner of his knowledge through

active participation and leads him to become problem solver.
2. Instruction is student – centered.
3. inculcates manipulative skills.
4. Retention, recall and transfer of knowledge is facilitated
5. Encourages analytical thought and promotes intuitive development.

Disadvantages

1. It is slow and time consuming method and so less content is

covered.
2. Effective teacher supervision is difficult for a large class size
3. The m e t h o d i s cost intensive as equipment and apparatus
involved cost a lot of money.
4. Is student placement centered and may not achieve much in
imparting organised body of knowledge into learners.

Discussion Method: This method contrasts with the lecture method. It

is learner-centered and is anchored on the principle of self construction
of knowledge. That is an individual is the sole builder or owner of his
knowledge. So knowledge springs from within the individual and not
from external sources. Here, the teacher’s role is to moderate or
facilitate learning process, negotiate and act as catalyst to set the
learner’s mind into thinking and reflection on an issue or topic or
concept. This method presumes that the learner is not an empty slate
ready to be written on. Rather he/she has some knowledge which may
be wrong or right about a given concept. The teacher’s role is to help
the learner to build on this prior knowledge. His thought provoking
questions will not only act as guide to the learners line of thought but
will also motivate them to reason more and recall less. This will lead to
reflection and originality of ideas.

Advantages of discussion method

1. It is useful in motivating students’ activities

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2. It develops positive interpersonal relationship between the

students themselves and with the teacher
3. Students construct/build their own knowledge through active
participation
4. It builds confidence into the learner as he/she is the owner of the
knowledge.

Disadvantages

1. Does not allow for easy coverage of syllabus

2. Not all topics can be handled through discussion since there are
topics in which students may not have any prior knowledge
3. Students with knowledge in the topic under discourse loose
interest and get bored.
4. If the discussion lasts for a long time, attention of learners may
wade.
5. It consumes a lot of time during the course of knowledge
negotiation.

Project method: This is used either to reach individual students or

small groups so as to help them get fulfilled. Project method unlike the
verification aims of the laboratory or experimentation method, requires
originality from the student. The student may generate his / her own
problem or the teacher provides one. The problems could be found in
textbooks, journals, abstracts, classroom interactions, field trips, etc.
which will constitute the project topic.

Laboratory method: This is an activity packed method for individual

or group of learners targeted at making personal observations of
processes, products, or events. There are two procedures which
characterize this method. These are laboratory exercise and
experiments. The laboratory exercise involves activities carried out in
order to provide practice in designing, operating and interpreting
experiments. The experiments are procedures used for the purposes of
testing a hypothesis, confirming what is known and discovering new
things. All laboratory exercises/activities are experiments but not all
experiments are laboratory work.

Advantages of laboratory method

1. Adequate for illustrating scientific principles, laws and inculcate

in students how to write laboratory reports.
2. Provides opportunity for students to develop practical and
manipulative skills while using science equipment and apparatus.
3. It enables students to imbibe the culture of replication of
experiments done by others in the past.

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4. Inculcate the habit of critical thinking and improves

understanding of concepts, laws, principles and facts.
5. It leads to better retention and recall of scientific information,
hence engenders positive attitude towards science by the learner
6. It makes students to become familiar with the scientific processes
of observing, inferring, classifying, measuring, interpreting data,
hypothesizing, etc.

Disadvantages

1. It is expensive as equipment and apparatus must be bought.

2. Delicate and dangerous experiments may lead to accident.

Field trip Method: This method adopts excursion taken outside the
classroom for the purpose of making observations and obtaining specific
information/data. It replicates demonstration method but in the real
world where the teacher is not in charge.

Advantages

1. It helps to create a positive attitude in the learner towards science

as he/she sees the “real life” application of laws, principles,
concepts in industry and commerce.
2. It involves many of the senses of the learner and therefore make
them to create keen interest in the learning most especially the
young ones.
3. It enables stronger student – student and teacher – student
relationship to be built which will in turn be of use in discussing
formal lessons in class.

Disadvantages

1. It is difficult to plan and execute.

2. It entails extra financial burden for the school and the learner who
may be asked to pay for the trip.
3. There is the fear and danger of accidents.

4.0 CONCLUSION

No single teaching method is a “sine qua non” for teaching physics.

However, some strategies/techniques are more effective than others
depending on the size of class, age of learners, topic involved, time of
lesson and the stated objectives for the lesson. Each method has its
merits and demerits. An effective lesson combines two or more
methods to achieve various stated objectives of a lesson.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have discussed some of the general methods of teaching

physics, their advantages and disadvantages and how to select them to
teach a particular topic or lesson. An experienced teacher must be
flexible on the methods and could vary them even during a single
lesson. The overriding principles are that the learner must be actively
engaged and participate in constructing his/her own knowledge. In
physics in particular, he/she should also be made to solve problems;
develop critical/reflective-thinking skills as well as manipulative skills
through the methods adopted.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Take a topic in physics, list your instructional objectives, select

teaching strategies which you consider effective for achieving
your stated objectives. Justify your selection.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited,

Ilorin.
Daramola, S. O. (2011) Basic principles of instruction. Lekan Priting
Press.

Offorma, G.C. (ed) (1994). Curriculum Implementation and Instruction.

Uniworld Educational Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.

Okoronka, U.A. (2004). Model-Based Instructional Strategies as

Determinants of Students’ Learning outcomes in secondary
school physics in Lagos State, Nigeria. An unpublished Ph. D.
Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

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UNIT 2 RESOURCES FOR TEACHING PHYSICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Resources for teaching physics
3.2 Classification of instructional materials/resources
3.3 Functions of resources for teaching physics
3.4 Selection and use of resources for teaching physics
3.5 Production and improvisation of teaching resources
3.6 Resources centres
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we will address the issue of resources required for teaching
physics. Learning resources for teaching or instructional materials are
devices or tools, which facilitate the quality of instruction (teaching) and
learning. They are no substitute to the teacher, rather they are to be used
by the teacher in making teaching and learning more meaningful, and
effective. Therefore, this unit will further focus on classification,
functions and selection as well as production/improvisation of teaching
resources.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

List resources for teaching physics

Classify resources for teaching physics
Justify the use of resources for teaching physics
State and discuss reasons to be considered in selecting resources
for teaching a particular physics topic or lesson.
Describe the resources for teaching giving their merits and
demerits.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Resources for Teaching Physics

The resources for teaching physics are almost inexhaustible and limited
only by the creativity and resourcefulness of the teacher. They include
all form of information carriers that can be used to promote and
encourage effective teaching and learning activities. They could be in
form of textbooks, reference books, journals, posters, charts,
programmed texts, non-print materials such as films, tapes, models,
pictures, recorders, transparencies, apparatus, and chemicals,
laboratories, and realia (real object). Others are experiments, specimens,
symbolic and pictorial representations, etc. Because the
learning/teaching resources are many and varied, the physics teacher
must be careful to select resources on their merits to enable him/her
achieve the stated instructional objectivities.

3.2 Classification of Instructional Materials/Resources

Resources for teaching physics can be classified into human and

material resources. The material resources can further be classified into
tangible and intangible resources. The tangible resources are grouped
into visual, aural and audio-visual aids. The intangible resources consist
of methods and techniques of instruction. The human resources consist
of the physics teacher, the learners and the resource persons as well as
the entire academic and non-academic staff of physics department.

A further breakdown of the resources can be given as shown below:

Visual resources: These are resource materials or tools which appeal to

the sense of sight and touch as well as smell. They can be classified
into:

1. Non projected resources – the chalkboard and adhesive,

2. Pictorial resources or aids – charts, pictures
3. Three-dimensional aids – model like, train, car, heat engine, etc.
4. Projected aids – filmstrips and slides, projector tubes
5. Laboratory equipment, chemicals and apparatuses
6. Books – textbooks, journals, magazines, encyclopaedias, etc.

Aural aids: These are resources which appeal to the sense of hearing
and touch. They include:

i. Records and record players

ii. Tape and tape recorders
iii. Radio

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Audio –visual aids: Resources here appeal to the senses of sight, hearing
and touch. They include:

i. Sound film
ii. Sound film projector
iii. Television
iv. Video tape recorder and tapes
v. Computer

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What are the major functions of the teaching resources imply?

3.3 Functions of resources for teaching physics

The functions of resources for teaching physics are many and varied.
They include among others that:

i. They are sine qua non to the achievement of curriculum

objectives
ii. They provide basic information which are not contained in
prescribed textbooks
iii. They encourage and enhance self instruction
iv. They enrich learning through increased interaction with the
learner
v. They explain, illustrate or elucidate teaching and learning
activities
vi. They arouse interest of and motivates the learner
vii. They support/enhance teachers’ presentation of the learning task.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What factors would you consider as a physicist/physics teacher in

selecting the resources for teaching a particular content?

3.4 Selection and use of resources for teaching physics

The extent to which instructional resources facilitate teaching and

learning activities leading to the attainment of the lesson objectives
depends to a large extent on the adequacy and appropriateness of
materials/resources selected. This implies that teaching resources are
not selected haphazardly. There is therefore the need for criteria or
guidelines, which will enable the teacher to select resources that will
enhance and maximize the teaching – learning process.

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The following criteria are of importance:

a) Relevance
b) Appropriateness
c) Availability
d) Quality
e) Cost
f) The learners
g) Approach of producers

Relevance

The resources selected must be relevant to both the objectives and the
target learners for whom the materials are to be used. This takes into
account the age of the learners, level of maturation, interest, needs,
ability, aspirations, aptitude, etc. Relevance of resources makes for easy
and meaningful teaching and learning.

Appropriateness

The resources should suit the local community of the learners or the
content under discourse. Material must relate to learners’ ages, interest,
experiences, etc.

Availability

The resources the teacher intends to use must be available and accessible
to himself and the learners. Sometimes the best materials may not be
available hence the need for the teacher to be able to improvise.

Quality

This involves consideration for the physical features of resources.

These include durability, size, clarity, usefulness, drawings, paintings,
weight and ease of storage. Quality resources will last more.

Cost

The teacher should be economical. So cheap but quality resources are

preferable. It is also more cost effective to invite resource persons to the
school rather than take the learners to the persons. Cost also has
implication for time, storage and energy.

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Learner as an important factor for selection and use of resources

for teaching

Every child is unique due to so many factors such as socio-economic

status of parent, intelligence, interests, needs and aspirations. The
teacher should select resource materials that will take care of the diverse
interests and needs of the learners for a meaningful interaction and
learning. Materials, which will encourage interactivity and
participation, are the best to be selected. Resources must also make
learning interesting to the learners, be varied and combined.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What steps should guide a physics teacher in the production or

improvisation of instructional materials?

3.5 Production and Improvisation of Teaching Resources

When instructional materials are either not available or expensive, the

teacher must be equipped with skills to improvise instructional
materials. The most simple and common ones are charts, posters,
pictures, drawings, models, etc. using available local materials. Steps
undertaken by a teacher in the production of instructional materials are
the:

1. Selection of specific objectives

2. Identification of the characteristics of the learners
3. Selection of the content
4. Selection of the medium for prescribing the message
5. Determination of cost
6. Production of materials
7. Evaluation of improvised material.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What are resources centers? What important functions do they perform?

3.6 Resources Centres

A resource center is a place where a wide range of educational materials,

equipment and information are stored. It is a place which offers services
and facilities for effective utilization of available materials and
equipment to promote the attainment of instructional and curriculum
objectives. It could be likened to a bank where instructional materials,
equipment and facilities are deposited for safe keeping but which are at
the teacher’s disposal to use whenever he needs them for instruction.

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The resource center is usually carefully planned and stocked with

materials. The physical facilities available include spaces for planning,
designing, production, viewing of films, demonstrating the use of
materials and their storage. Such centers also have space for workshops,
seminars and in-service training of teachers, inspectors and other school
administrators.

Simple repairs and maintenance services are also rendered in such

centers. Equipment and materials are provided for graphics, duplicating,
photocopying, typing, photographing, printing and reproduction of good
instructional materials. Resource centers could be established at the
federal, state, local government or school levels.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Teaching and learning are enhanced through activities. This forms the
basis for use of teaching resources or materials. The resources must be
selected based on a number of criteria. The resource center is a resource
bank, which the teacher could consult to make teaching and learning
more effective.

5.0 SUMMARY

This chapter dealt with resources for teaching and the criteria for their
selection and use. Resources have been classified as human and
material. It can also be classified as visual, aural, audio-visual. The role
of instructional materials/resources in facilitating the achievement of
curriculum and instructional objectives was also discussed. The
teachers skill to improvise and steps or guidelines for such
improvisation were presented. Resources centers and their essence were
also discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State and explain five criteria for the selection and effective use
of resources.
2. Explain the term ‘improvisation’ of instructional materials and
the steps for improvisation.
3. Why is improvisation of instructional materials important to the
Nigerian teacher?

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria. Atoto Press Limited,

Ilorin.
Offorma, G.C. (ed) (1994). Curriculum Implementation and Instruction.
Uniworld Educational Publishers (Nig.) Ltd.

Okoronka, U.A. (2004). Model-Based Instructional Strategies as

Determinants of Students’ Learning outcomes in secondary
school physics in Lagos State, Nigeria. An unpublished Ph. D.
Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

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UNIT 3 PREPARATION FOR PHYSICS TEACHING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is a Curriculum?
3.2 Physics Syllabus
3.3 Physics Scheme of Work
3.4 Physics Lesson Plan
3.5 Physics Lesson Note
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to the preparation for physics teaching in

schools. The task of teaching physics could be taken as an effort made
to transfer the nature of physics to the learners in a school laboratory
setting. Because of the complexities surrounding the teaching of
physics to students in the physics laboratory, considerable thought must
be given to the planning of teaching of the subject. This unit therefore,
focuses on providing necessary information on documents that are
available for physics teachers to teach physics in school effectively. The
documents are as follows: physics curriculum, syllabus, scheme of
work, lesson plan and note of lesson.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Describe a physics curriculum, syllabus and scheme of work

Prepare a physics scheme of work
Prepare a lesson plan on a chosen physics topic
Prepare a note of lesson on a chosen physics topic.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

How does a physics teacher begin the teaching of physics with senior
secondary students?

As a physics teacher you should begin by looking at the physics

curriculum for the topics to teach and think of the materials (i.e.

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reference books, resources etc) to use in the teaching before you begin
to develop the lesson plan and lesson note.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is a Curriculum?

The concept of curriculum has been given a range of meanings. Some

educators according to Abdullahi (1982) define curriculum in terms of
synonymous to syllabus, time-table and academic disciplines. It can
also be referred to as an educational programme planned for a specified
level of an academic institution.

The term physics curriculum can therefore be defined as:

a systematic arrangement of a number of physics topics into a

unit for a particular level of physics students.
all physics experiences the physics students have under the
schools direction

Whatever the definitions of curriculum, it should reflect all the four

interrelated components suggested by Kerr (1968). In relation to
physics curriculum, the four components are:

1) What is the end product of the physics instruction – objectives?

2) What is studied – the ‘content’ or ‘subject matter’ of physics
instruction?
3) How are the physics study and teaching done – the “methodology
of physics instruction”?
4) How the results of physics teaching are assessed – “evaluation”?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Give another definition of physics curriculum that will reflect the four
interrelated components of the curriculum.

Objectives

Content Methodology

Evaluation
Fig. 1: Interrelated Components of Curriculum

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Each component of the curriculum influences the others. For instance,

objectives determine the selection of content, and methodology. Also,
the methodological approach adopted for instruction is based on the
objectives and content as well.

3.2 Physics Syllabus

A physics syllabus could be described as a condensed outline or

statement of the main topics of a course of study in physics drawn from
the broad physics curriculum of the school system. It can also be
described as a broad outline of units or topics in physics arranged in a
logical sequence for coverage of physics students for specific
examination and certification.

There are two types of physics syllabus:

i) Physics examination syllabus

ii) Physics teaching syllabus

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Mention two each of physics examination and teaching syllabi.

The physics examination syllabus indicates physics topics to be covered

for a particular examination in physics. For instance, Joint Admissions
and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and West African Examinations
Council (WAEC) syllabi on physics are physics examination syllabi.

The physics-teaching syllabus is an outline of the work planned to be

done in a course of one term or one year with each class at senior
secondary school level in physics. The physics topics are arranged in a
logical sequence according to the relationship between the various
physics topics in the syllabus.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Who are the people responsible for the development of the physics
syllabi in Nigeria?

The physics examination syllabus is drawn up by a team of physics

experts (physics educators) usually outside the school system. In
physics teaching syllabus, various related parts of the physics topics or
units, which are related are brought together.

As a physics teacher, you should employ the following principles in

drawing up a physics-teaching syllabus from physics examination

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syllabus and the Physics curriculum for level of students being

considered. These are

arrange the physics topics in such a way that your teaching

proceeds from the known to the unknown. Taking into
consideration the background of the students
proceed from easy physics concepts to the abstract concepts.

In physics teaching at senior secondary one (SS1) for instance, causes of

motion of material bodies should be preceded first by the concepts of
distance, time and speed. You as a physics teacher should ensure that
the physics-teaching syllabus is arranged so that the topics suit the
intellectual or academic level of the students. A most effective physics-
teaching syllabus lends itself to the formulation of the scheme of work
from it since it spells out the following necessary information:

oWhat physics topics are to be covered in a specific period;

oThe depth of coverage of the physics topics
oThe sequence of treatment indicating the physics topics that
will
require more time than others
oGuidelines for methods of teaching
oReferences and materials needed for each physics topics.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Which of the two physics syllabi has a direct relation with physics
scheme of work?

3.3 Physics Scheme of Work

A physics scheme of work is the weekly arrangement of physics topics

from a physics-teaching syllabus to cover the academic year. This is
achieved by dividing the physics-teaching syllabus into three parts
corresponding to three terms of the senior secondary school academic
year. The physics topics in each term’s schedule are broken up to the
number of weeks on the term. As a physics teacher, if you can
successfully do this, you have succeeded in drawing up a scheme of
work on physics.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Do you consider the scheme of work on physics to be a rigid document?

The physics scheme of work should be revised from time to time

depending on the rate at which the physics students progress in the

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learning of the physics concepts. The physics scheme of work which

can also be referred to as a written plan showing what physics topics are
to be covered weekly or fortnightly is drawn up from a physics-teaching
syllabus taking into consideration the following factors as stated by
Abdullahi (1982).

The need for logical sequence

The age, ability and previous knowledge of the students
The amount of time required by each physics topic
The number of effective weeks of learning in a term or a year
The number of physics teaching periods per week including
practical periods.
Resources and materials for each physics topic.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

List the components of a good physics scheme of work.

The scheme of work on physics will also assist you as a physics teacher
to fulfill the following functions in the school:

it will direct attention to major physics topics

it will facilitate careful and meaningful planning on the part of
the physics teacher
it will allow for greater flexibility in the implementation of
physics teaching syllabus.

3.4 Physics Lesson Plan

Physics lesson plan can be described as a daily guide to physics

instruction. It is also a guide to the physics teacher in presenting a good
and effective physics lesson in the laboratory / classroom. Therefore, a
good physics lesson plan is a guide to effective physics teaching as it
directs the physics teacher in same manner as a compass gives a
navigator his bearing.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

Should the preparation of a physics lesson plan be a weekly or monthly

affair?

A physics lesson plan is a daily outline of learning activity for physics

students at senior secondary school level. The plan is usually drawn up
after the preceding physics lesson.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

Why is it not proper for a physics teacher to prepare a physics lesson

plan several weeks in advance?

As a physics teacher, you should be able to take the advantage of the

extent of materials covered in the preceding physics lessons, and the
success or failure of past physics lesson. These are the main reasons
why it is not proper for you as a physics teacher to think of preparing a
physics lesson plan several weeks in advance. A physics lesson plan
also provides a kind of instruction route to be followed by the physics
teacher so as not to live out or omit the important concepts.

Format of a suggested Daily Physics Lesson Plan

Subject: Physics
Class: SS1
Date: Day/Month/Year
Unit: Work, Energy and Power
Topic: Concept of Work
Average age: 13 years
Time of the lesson: 9.05 – 10.25
Duration: 80 minutes (double periods)

Instructional Objectives: These are the objectives that are stated in

terms of what a physics teacher is going to
do during this particular lesson or period. It
focuses attention on the teaching processes
rather than on the learning outcomes to be
attained by the students. As regards this
lesson, the instructional objectives are:

- To explain the concept of work

- To explain measurement of work.
- To derive the units of work
- To discuss the work done in a force
field in:
i. lifting a body
ii. falling bodies
- To discuss the work done in
stretching or compressing a spring.

Behavioural objectives: These are the objectives that are stated in

terms of the outcomes the physics teacher
expects from his/her teaching. Here the
attention is shifted from the teacher to the

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learners. As regards this lesson, the

behavioural objectives are stated as follows:

- At the end of the lesson, students

should be able to:

i. define work done

ii. explain how to measure work
done
iii. derive the units of work
iv. explain the work done in a
force field in:
1. lifting a body
2. falling bodies
- explain the work done in stretching or
compressing a spring

- calculate the work done, given a force

and displacement it produces in its
direction.

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TIME PART OF THE ACTIVITY

LESSON
9.05 – 9.15 Introduction Instruct a student to bring his desk to the front
(10 mins) and ask the students to push the desk forward
to cover some distance. Ask the students to
mention the concepts that are involved in the
task.
9.15 – 10.05 Presentation i. define work done
(50 mins) ii. demonstrate the measurement of
work done using a boy that is
being asked to lift some bricks on
to the top of a wall which is being
built as example
iii. derive the units of work done
using the definition given above
iv. deduce the formula for work done
when lifting a body up using a
student that is lifting up a desk to
demonstrate this action
v. deduce the formula for work done
when a body is falling vertically
and inclined using a stone falling
from a top to demonstrate the two
positions
vi. deduce the formula for work done
in stretching or compressing a
string using a spring balance that a
load is attached to demonstrate the
stretching
vii. solve problems that require the
calculation of work done for the
students.
10.05 10.25 Summary Highlight some of the important points on the
(15 mins) chalkboard
10.10 10.25 Evaluation / Ask questions on what you taught either
(15 mins) Assignment orally or written.
Home work The students should read their textbook as
homework in order to be able to define and
solve problems on concepts of energy and
power.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

Apart from the general information in the physics lesson plan, list the
other parts in which the plan is divided.

The physics lesson plan when properly written should reflect the
following elements:

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* General Information: - School

- Subject
- Class
- Age
- Time and Duration
- Topic
- Unit

* Objective What product, process or affective

objectives does the physics teacher
have for this physics lesson? These
should be written in precise terms,
they can be stated either
instructionally or behaviourally, or
both.

* Resources What equipment, teaching aids, text

material etc. will be needed?

* Introduction This relates to how the physics

teacher will prepare physics students
for this lesson.

* Learning Activities Presentation / Development of

lecture, laboratory work, discussion
etc. should fit the objectives

* Time Allotment Approximately how long do you

expect each activity to last

* Evaluation / Assignment How will the physics teacher

determine if physics students have
learned what he/she have taught. The
physics teacher may decide to give
physics students some work to do at
home or during the lesson or at
students’ free time in the school.
All these should feature in the physics
lesson plan.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

What is the difference between a physics lesson plan and lesson note?

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3.5 Physics Lesson Notes

Physics lesson notes contain all learning activities selected for a

particular physics lesson showing such details as how the lesson will be
produced, list of previous knowledge, description of the presentation of
lectures, laboratory exercise, questions to be asked etc. The form which
a lesson note takes depends on the nature of the subject, the category of
learners and the available resources, among other things.

The difference between a physics lesson plan and lesson note is a matter
of detail.

Each has its own advantage, while a physics lesson plan is short enough
to be read quickly and arranged in a way that makes it easy to find each
step, a physics lesson note indicates clearly the content and method of
the lesson; it also aids the physics teacher’s memory. Both have similar
format, while the physics lesson plan is an outline of the business of the
physics lesson, the physics lesson note gives full account of the step by
step business of the physics instruction.

A specimen of a Physics Lesson Note prepared by a B. Sc. (Ed.)

student:

School: Name of the School

Date: Day / Month / Year
Subject: Physics
Class: Senior Secondary One (SS 1)
Time: 9.05 – 10.25 am (80 minutes)
Unit: Work, Energy and Power
Topic: Concept of Work
Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should
be able to:
define work done
explain how to measure work done
derive the units of work
explain the work done in a force field in:
(i) lifting a body
(ii) falling bodies
explain the work done in stretching or
compressing a spring
solve problems on work done.

Previous Knowledge: Students must have learnt the cause of motion

which are force and friction.

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Teaching Aids: Charts showing boys and girls lifting up/down

and pushing/pulling objects
References: CESAC (1980) Nigerian secondary schools
science project physics. Book1. Heinemann
Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd. Pp. 22 – 28

Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking

the students the following question:

1. As students, when you are reading

and your parent ask you, “what are
you doing”, you often reply that you
are working.
How is this work different from a
man lifting a block to a workman at a
higher level or a man pushing a
stationary car?

The teacher links the answers given

by the students to the day’s lesson by
linking the daily experience to the
Physics lesson.

Presentation or Development

Step I

The teacher leads the students on the definition of work and asks them
to give examples of work done.

Step II

The teacher assists the students to explain how to measure work done.

Step III

The teacher assists the students to derive the units of work.

Step IV

The teacher explains the work done by lifting a body and a falling body
such that the formula for work done below is derived.

Work done against gravity = Weight (W) x Vertical upward

displacement (h) Work done = W x h = Wh

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Step V

The teacher explains the work done in stretching or compressing a

spring such that the formula for work done as shown below is derived.

Work done = ½ x Force (F) x Displacement (x)

= ½ Fx

Summary

Work done is defined as the product of the force and the displacement in
the direction of the force.

The unit of work is Newton metres. One Newton metres is equal to a

Joule (J)

Work done by lifting a body = Weight x Vertical upward displacement

Work done for elastic substances = ½ x Force x Displacement.

Evaluation

The teacher instructs the students to solve the following problems in his
presence in the laboratory while the teacher goes round to mark the
written response of the students.

1) A mother raises her baby of weight (W) through a vertical height

(h). What is the work done?
2) A faulty car was causing obstruction at the middle of the road.
When a force of 200N was applied to push it to a car park, the work
done was 8000J. How far away was the car park?
3) A spring is stretched 5 cm by a Force of 20N. What is the work
done?

Assignment: Teacher instructs the students to answer the following

questions at home as homework.

1) What is energy?
2) How will you classify energy?
3) Give the definition of each of the classification.
4) What is meant by conservation of energy?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

Write a physics lesson note for a choice physics topic for SS1 students
that will cover a 40 minutes period.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you learnt that physics teaching is a serious business that
involves a lot of dedication. So as a physics teacher, you should be
committed to the noble profession by making sure that you observe all
that is expected of a quality physics teacher.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt:

Different definitions of a curriculum.

Description of physics syllabus and the two types of physics
syllabi namely: physics examination and physics teaching syllabi.
The description of physics scheme of work.
The description of physics lesson plan and its format.
The description of physics lesson note and a specimen of a
physics lesson note.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List the components of a well written physics lesson note.

2. Develop a physics lesson note that you will use to teach the
concept of motion in senior secondary One (SS1) physics class
for forty minutes.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria, Ilorin, Atoto Press.

Houston, A. (1970). Principles of objectives testing in physics,

Heinemann, London.

Mapaderun, D. (2000). Science method 1A. In Ayelagbe, J.A. (ed)

Teaching Methods for Business, Languages, Sciences, Social
Sciences and Technical Education. Andrian Publication Series St.
Andrew’s College of Education, Oyo.

Urevbu, A. (1990). Studies in science education: Methodology of

Science Teaching. Juland Educational Publishers.

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UNIT 4 PHYSICS LABORATORY DESIGN, SAFETY

AND MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Physics laboratory
3.2 Physics laboratory design
3.3 Physics laboratory safety
3.3.1 Physics laboratory techniques for safety
3.3.2 Organisation of physics laboratory
3.4 Physics laboratory management
3.4.1 The head of physics unit
3.4.2 Some roles of the head of physics unit
3.4.3 Other roles of the physics teacher in the physics
laboratory
3.4.4 Roles of physics laboratory technicians/attendants
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Laboratory generally is an integral part of science teaching. In the

teaching of physics, chemistry, biology, etc. the laboratory occupies a
central role. As separate sciences make special demands of their own,
special laboratories for the various subjects are required. These must be
taken into account in the planning of the school laboratories and their
accommodation.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Describe a physics laboratory

Discuss some of the safety rules that should be enforced in the
physics laboratory
Describe the organisation of the physics laboratory
Discuss how physics laboratory is managed
Discuss the major roles of the head of physics unit
Discuss the roles of the physics teacher and laboratory attendant
in the physics laboratory

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Physics Laboratory

Unlike the biology and chemistry laboratory, the layout of the physics
laboratory should be flexible. The patterns of physics teaching are
changing and a rigid design, which may be suitable for the present
needs, may be found inconvenient in the future. A maximum of
adaptability should be looked for.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Why is it that the benches in physics laboratory must be movable?

On some occasions, the physics students will work in sets on the

benches, while at times they will have to be grouped to watch a
demonstration and may need to make notes during this, so that they
should have a writing surface available. There will be times when an
area of clear floor space is needed which is visible to all, or several
smaller clear areas are wanted for ripple-tanks and the final arrangement
of the laboratory should make all of these possible.

To meet these conditions requires that at least some of the benches must
be movable to make clear spaces possible. Strong tables therefore seem
preferable to the traditional long benches, but these must be sufficiently
stable to afford firm surface, which are reasonably free from vibration
and not easily displaced by knocks.

In a physics laboratory, there should be adequate supply of electrical

mains outlets, radioactive source store, storage facilities for expensive
equipment such as electron diffraction tubes, vacuum pumps and so
forth, if they are available.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What will you consider as the general layout of a physics laboratory

design?

3.2 Physics laboratory design

Any modern physics laboratory design has the following general

features:

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(a) Preparation Room:

This room should have the following facilities:

distill water machine

dry oven
storage shelves for tools to be used for services and maintenance
trolleys for moving equipment about

(b) Central Storage Room

This room is provided with cabinets where dangerous chemicals

such as radioactive and carcinogenic substances are kept.
Inflammable liquids are also stored in this room.

(c) Resource Room

This is where physics students carryout their projects. Audio-

visual materials can also be kept here. Sometimes, a darkroom is
attached to this area.

(d) Detached Store

Highly inflammable substances like ether, petroleum product,

toluene, acetone and alcohol are kept in a special store which are
located in a separate place outside the laboratory.

(e) Staff office for laboratory technicians

(f) Provision for plenty of ventilation, water, light, heat services,

drainage supply etc.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

How safe is your school physics laboratory?

3.3 Physics laboratory safety

Safety is the first thing to know in teaching science, be it physics or any

of the other sciences. It is a must for an assiduous school physics
teacher to heed this important note of warning in order to prevent
laboratory accidents and guard against physical health hazards.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

How do health hazards occur in physics laboratory?

Health hazards in the school physics laboratory are known to rear their
heads in many ways. Such as shocks from electrical appliances, skin
damage from short-wave radiation, retina damage from ultraviolet
radiation, liver and kidney damage from dangerous volatile organic
solvents, cuts from glass-ware and sharp-edged objects, etc.

Right from the drawing board, precautionary safety measures should

form part of the basic components of any good physics laboratory.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

List some other basic features of a physics laboratory that provide for
safety right from the construction stage.

These features could be:

adequate storage facilities

fire equipment
escape routes
ventilation facilities
first aid box.

3.3.1 Physics laboratory techniques for safety

Order, they said, is the first rule in heaven. This saying should also be
applicable to physics laboratory and physics teaching if we want to
ensure safety. Because of the wave of indiscipline that permeates every
facet of our society, there is need to regulate the behaviour of our
students in the schools laboratory for safety reasons. Every physics
student in your care should be made to adhere strictly to the ten rules
listed in the “do’s and don’ts” versions.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

How will you as a physics teacher enforce the ten safety rules?

The rules are:

i) Do wait outside the laboratory until you are asked to come in;
ii) Do only the experiments authorized by your teacher;
iii) Do heat liquids slowly and rotate test tubes to avoid overheating
one area;

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iv) Do wet the end of glass tube before inserting it into rubber-tube
or stopper and use a towel to insert the glass tube;
v) Do report any gas leakage, water leakage, breakage and accidents
promptly to your teacher;
vi) Do not rush or run into or out of the laboratory;
vii) Do not smoke, eat, drink or chew gum in the laboratory to
prevent dangerous chemicals from getting into your mouths or
lungs;
viii) Do not discard matches, filter papers or any slightly soluble solid
into the sink;
ix) Do not direct the open end of a test tube being heated at anyone;
x) Do not work with wet hands when performing electrical
experiment involving the use of the mains or capacitors.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

What are the common injuries that students can sustain in the physics
laboratory?

It is a common knowledge that even when all necessary precautionary

measures have been taken, when pertinent safety regulations have been
observed in the physics laboratory and when recommended laboratory
experimental techniques have been employed, accidents which could
result in injury could still happen in the physics laboratory.

The common injuries that can be sustained in the physics laboratory are:

* bleeding – due to cuts from broken glassware, sharp objects and

the like;
* burns – from naked fire and chemicals;
* shocks – from electricity;
* suffocation – from inhaling injurious vapours, gases or aerosols;
* eye injury – due to the presence of foreign particle(s) in the eye.

You, as a physics teacher, owes it as a duty to offer appropriate first aid

remediation to your injured student(s). In this wise, you are expected to
be familiar with the rudiments of first aid procedures.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

List the necessary facilities required for proper organisation of a physics

laboratory.

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3.3.2 Organisation of the physics laboratory

The organisation of the physics laboratory has to do with the provision

of essential services, storage and proper maintenance of equipment. In
the physics laboratory, the facilities required for services are:

* Water: Two or three small sinks will be found adequate for a

physics laboratory and these should be located on side benches
and are to be well separated from each other to allow
simultaneous access by groups of physics students. One of these
sinks should be provided with a hot water supply, which is
conveniently done by a sink heater.

* Gas: If gas is fitted to the working benches, these should be

properly placed so as to leave a clear working surface. Where
movable tables are used, it will usually be found sufficient to
have gas points on the side benches only and to move tables up to
these areas when gas is needed. The gas point should be arranged
such that one gas supply will accommodate two or more groups
of physics students.

* Electricity: Low-voltage supply is an essential requirement for a

physics laboratory. Apart from the fact that it allows physics
students to perform with safety all the elementary experiments in
the study of electricity, it will also find applications in other parts
of the work, for lighting low-voltage bulbs for ray boxes. The
voltage must be varied in steps and a current of 3 – 4 amperes
must be available at each working point.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

How secured is the physics store-room in your school?

* Storage: The storage of apparatus is a serious and growing

problem in most school physics laboratories. It is strongly
recommended that teachers of physics should insist on the
provision of a store room of generous size, in addition to a
preparation room. A store room which is merely a large
cupboard is not sufficient and an area of at least 138 square
metres (138 sq. m) is required, but it could well be larger if the
geometry of the building will allow this.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

Do you store both small and large size apparatus together in your school
physics laboratory?

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The apparatus to be stored in the store room vary in sizes and in shapes,
the small pieces of apparatus, magnets, polythene rods etc. can
conveniently be stored in shallow drawers and other sets of apparatus of
slightly larger sizes such as ray-boxes requires rather deeper drawers. It
is suggested that one wall of the storeroom should have cupboards
containing trays of three different depths. Such trays enable the whole
volume of a cupboard to be utilized, whereas the conventional cupboard
with a shelf uses only a fraction of the total volume for actual storage.

3.4 Physics laboratory management

The physics laboratory is usually a center of physics activities where

physics teachers, laboratory staff, students and materials are always in a
dynamic interaction.

The physics teacher as the sole administrator of a physics laboratory has

the responsibility of managing these interacting factors, in such a way
that accidents are reduced to the barest minimum level. The physics
teacher must ensure that all those who use the physics laboratory
perform their work as directed.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

What do you think should be the major concern of head of physics in the
management of the physics unit in your school?

3.4.1 The Head of Physics Unit

The task of managing the affairs of the physics unit is the sole
responsibility of the head of physics and other support staff in the unit.
This includes the physics teaching staff and physics laboratory
technicians/attendants. The head of the unit, who is one of the human
resources in the unit has three major areas to be concerned about.

These are:

* Organisation and coordination of duties: As the head of

physics unit, you should as much as possible, open and maintain
effective communication channel between yourself and other
staff members. This invariably means that you should operate an
open door policy for corrections, advice and suggestions towards
the progress of the unit.

* Delegation of responsibilities: As the head of physics unit, you

should identify staff members with their talents and capabilities
and delegate the unit duties to them.

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* Training of personnel in the unit: This should be one of the

major concerns of physics unit head. You should make sure that
the staff members both teaching and non-teaching in the unit are
recommended for promotions, attend conferences, workshops and
seminars and are also given study leave when appropriate.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

What should be the major responsibilities of head of physics unit in a

school set up?

3.4.2 Some roles of the Head of physics unit

* Formation of Unit timetable – The head of physics unit joins

his/her colleagues in other science units to work on the general
school timetable and come up with their different unit’s timetable
to be display it in their different unit laboratory.

* Provision of the Unit information on the Notice Board – The

head of physics unit should be responsible for the provision of
up-to-date information on the unit notice board as an aid to
proper communication. This notice board should be divided into
sections and labelled using section headings and different colours
(e.g. red colour for urgent or emergency information). Some of
the headings could be:

School timetable
Science department timetable
Physics laboratory timetable
Physics teachers timetable
Departmental notices
Physics unit notices
Science Club activities (e.g. JETS Club, Physics Club etc.)
Today’s Announcement
Teacher’s Centre information
Emergency information.

* Keeping Unit Records – The head of physics unit should also be

responsible for storage and retrieval of information by
maintaining two separate filing cabinets or shelves. One of the
files will be confidential files, which should contain examination
information, students’ records, and reports on students and staff
members in the unit. The second file which is called “open-
access” files should contain past question papers, physics

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syllabus, career information, catalogues for books and physics

equipment and safety information.

* Running of the Unit – The head of physics unit should on

regular basis consult with other units’ heads in the science
department as regards the needs of the unit and department. The
outcomes of the consultations are presented to the school head for
either implementation or further directed to appropriate higher
authorities. Sometimes, the consultation could be on estimates,
which can be broken down into the following subheads:

equipment cost
running cost
stationery
books and audio-visual aids
workshop/conference, seminar needs
living organism funds
replacement funds
practical examination funds.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

Apart from the teaching of physics, what other roles do you perform in
your school as a physics teacher?

3.4.3 Other Roles Of The Physics Teacher In The Physics

Laboratory

* Preparation of materials, solutions and provision of

equipment available – It is the duty of the physics teacher to
prepare all necessary materials or items for practical lesson and to
take note of all the inadequacies.

* Training of the laboratory assistants – The physics teacher

should be responsible for the training of the physics laboratory
assistants. Since physics students learn a lot of things from them
either directly or indirectly. So there is the need for them to
continually improve their skills and knowledge on the physics
laboratory organization and activities.

* Stock control, requisition and receipt of supplies – As a

physics teacher, you should ensure that you take proper records
of all the incoming and outgoing stock from the physics
storeroom. You should also have a requisition book for your

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request and always issue a receipt or sign for supplies made to the
storeroom.
* Recording breakages/damages – There could be breakages
especially with glass wares and damages of equipment in physics
laboratory. These breakages and damages should be recorded by
the physics teacher for replacement.

* Proper storage and distribution of materials/equipment – The

physics teacher should ensure that physics equipment are stored
according to their nature and the storage procedure should be
simple for safety and ease of retrieval. All optical mirrors and
lens should be stored together.

* Implementation of safety regulations – One of the major duties

of the physics teacher is to make physics students and other
supporting staffs in the physics unit keep to the safety regulations
in the physics laboratory.

* Supervision and control of laboratory assistants – It is one of

the responsibilities of the physics teacher to highlight the duties
of the laboratory assistants and paste it where it can easily be
referenced to. Copies of such duties could also be made available
to each of the laboratory assistants for them to study, keep and
use as required. There is the real need to have a close supervision
and control of the laboratory assistants at all times to ensure
safety of life and materials in the physics laboratory.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

Do you have physics laboratory technician in your school?

3.4.4 Roles of physics laboratory technicians/assistants

Qualified laboratory technicians are sometimes rare to come by in our

schools but most science departments usually employ the services of the
laboratory attendants and train them on the job to play both roles. But
their work reduces to that of errand boys when they are not well trained.

The primary duty of physics laboratory technicians is to maintain and

repair damaged physics equipment. Apart from this, the physics
laboratory technicians also perform the following tasks:

Keeping the physics materials/equipment clean and tidy;

Setting up or dismantling demonstration equipment;
Ordering of physics equipment;
Storing of physics equipment in accordance with a regular order;

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Keeping adequate records of purchases and damages;

Make minor repairs of physics equipment;
Experienced technicians or attendants also serve as physics
resource person to physics students.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you learnt about the physics laboratory, its design and
safety. The organisation and management of physics laboratory with
respect to head of physics unit, and his roles as well as roles of physics
teachers and physics technicians/attendants were also discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that:

- the layout of the physics laboratory should be flexible

- modern physics laboratory design should have the following:

preparation room
central storage room
resource room
detached room
staff offices
provision for ventilation, water, light, heat services etc.

- Safety should be the first thing to know in teaching physics and

other science subjects.
- The ten safety rules must be adequately observed by the students
in the physics laboratory.
- The facilities required for services in physics laboratory are:
water gas
electricity

The management of physics laboratory involves:

the head of physics unit

the physics teacher
the physics laboratory technicians/attendants.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Itemize and discuss the use of laboratory exercise in teaching

physics at senior secondary level.

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2. What are the advantages of using laboratory method in teaching

physics at senior secondary level?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science teaching in Nigeria, Ilorin, Atoto Press.

Adeoye, F.A. & Raimi, S.M. (2001). Safety and precautionary measures
against common accidents in the physics laboratory. Journal of
Professional Teacher Trainers, 3(1 & 2), 179 – 184.

Urevbu, A. (1990). Studies in science education: Methodology of

Science Teaching. Juland Educational Publishers.

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UNIT 5 EVALUATION OF SCIENCE TEACHING AND

LEARNING WITH REFERENCE TO PHYSICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of tests and assessment
3.2 Functions of tests
3.2.1 Instructional function of tests
3.2.2 Guidance function of tests
3.2.3 Administrative function of tests
3.3 Forms of assessments used in teaching/learning processes
3.3.1 Oral form of Assessment
3.3.2 Written form of Assessment
3.3.3 Project form of Assessment
3.4 Essay test type
3.4.1 Merits and demerits of essay type test
3.5 Objective type test
3.5.1 Short-answer items or completion test
3.5.2 Multiple-choice items
3.5.3 Matching items
3.5.4 True-false items
3.6 Principles of test construction in science teaching
3.7 Basic guidelines for preparing practical examination in
science
3.8 Marking schemes for grading essay type, objective type
and practical examinations in science
3.9 Guideline for preparing marking schemes for practical
examinations on physics practical
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

One of your main duties as a physics teacher is to promote the learning

of the fundamental facts and principles of physics and to develop in the
physics students’ abilities and skills needed to engage in scientific
processes. However, as the acquisition of scientific knowledge is the
ultimate criterion, it is imperative to regularly evaluate students’
progress in their learning of physics. Your role as physics teacher in
evaluation is very important and crucial. Thus, you should be well
equipped for the performance of this task.

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In this unit, you will be exposed to one of the commonly used methods
of evaluation, which is teacher’s test. The tests may take different
forms. But the science teacher’s concern is to monitor the progress of
learning among his/her students. Therefore tests in physics class serve a
variety of functions, which shall be discussed in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Define test and assessment;

Discuss the functions of the classroom tests;
List and discuss the forms of assessment in science;
State the merits and demerits of all the forms of ‘paper and
pencil’ tests;
Discuss the principles of test construction in science teaching
with particular reference to physics;
Describe a marking scheme;
Describe how to prepare marking schemes for essay type,
objective type and practical examinations.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Test and Assessment

According to test experts (Obe, 1977 & Folagbade, 1988),

teaching/learning processes are incomplete without clearly identifying
the processes of determining students learning outcomes. The experts
further said that the most reliable method available to practicing teachers
for assessing students learning outcomes is the use of tests.

According to Obe (1977), a test is defined as a series of activities

purposely designed to measure learners abilities in the area of recall of
facts, recognition of facts, understanding of concepts, thinking
capabilities and manipulative skills.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What will you consider as good suggestions by the test experts to the
practicing teachers?

The test experts implored the practicing teachers and those educators
involved in assessing learning outcomes to learn how to select test
items, which are relevant and would give balanced representations of the
traits to be assessed at a given time.

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3.2 Functions of Tests

Findley (1963) categorized the functions of the classroom tests under

three major groups which are:

instructional
guidance
administrative

3.2.1 Instructional functions of a test

- Testing of students’ progress in the science class provides the

science teacher with the information on the students’ rate of
learning. This will enable the teacher to provide more
appropriate instructional guidance.

- Test construction reminds the science teacher of the objectives of

the course. The process of test construction at times helps the
science teacher to redefine the course objectives in clear terms.

3.2.2 Guidance functions of tests

- Information obtained from tests can be useful in the counselling

process especially on matters relating to choice of career.
- Test can be used to discover pupils special abilities and aptitudes.

3.2.3 Administrative functions of tests

- Tests serve as a quality assurance for schools. Because it

provides a mechanism not only for maintaining standard for a
school system but also for individual standards.
- Tests assist in the grouping or placement of students for teaching/
learning processes. This is based on the ability as indicated by
the scores of the students in the tests.

3.3 Forms of Assessment used in teaching/learning processes

There are different forms of assessment with great potential for

determining students progress in teaching/learning processes.

These are:

Oral form
Written (essay and objective) form
Project form.

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3.3.1 Oral form of assessment

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is the usefulness of this form of assessment in physics teaching?

This involves the student’s ability to describe or narrate in his/her own

words the steps involved in a given task. The confidence displayed in
such situations by student in the presence of an expert, his/her
communicative ability, his/her use of the appropriate expressions as well
as the commanding presence give a clear picture of a good mastery of
what has been learnt. Without any bias or sentiment, the assessor can
easily classify the student as either excellent, good or average, below
average or poor.

3.3.2 Written form of assessment

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

How often do you as a physics teacher encourage the use of this form of
assessment when teaching physics?

This form of assessment is one that involves the students putting down
in writing the processes taken such as observation, recordings,
calculating and interpretation. Written assessment is usually in the form
of “paper and pencil” test, which could be in anyone of the following
kinds:

(i) essay type test

(ii) objective type test
(iii) performance (practicals) type test
(iv) problems (quantitative questions) type test.

3.3.3 Project form of assessment

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What form of assessment will you as a physics teacher use in assessing

your teaching?

There is a difference between the project form of assessment and any of

the two forms of assessment earlier mentioned. In science class with
particular reference to physics, theory or practical work are assessed by
either of oral or written forms of assessment. In the case of project,
what is to be assessed is real and there is a permanent end product which

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can be physically displayed for all to see, appreciate, comment on and

finally assessed.

3.4 Essay Type Test

This is used as a means of evaluating the qualitative aspects of verbal

instruction. The test items require the student to compose a response of
some length, usually by integrating materials from a variety of sources.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

As a science teacher, when will you say the essay type test is required?

The essay type test is used especially when the test requires:

explanation, description and prediction of processes and

structure;
description of instruments, apparatus, etc.
exposition of theoretical knowledge;
interpretation of experimental and numerical data;
discussion of results of experiments and solution of problems.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Construct four essay type questions in physics for SS1 students on

concept of work.

3.4.1 Merits and Demerits of Essay Type Test

The merits of essay tests are:

It promotes better study habit;

It reduces the possibility of cheating;
It requires a high degree of thinking rather than rote learning;
It demands recall rather than identification

The demerits of essay tests are:

It is difficult to draw up good questions for the essay test;

It is difficult to score because it takes a great deal of the teacher’s
or scorer’s time;
Scoring of essay test is highly subjective because the scorer
tends to carry impressions from one paper to another;
The result of scoring is often less reliable because of the scorer’s
mood and its subjective ness.

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3.5 Objective Type Test

An objective test is one in which the test item are so framed that there is
only one correct answer to each question. The answer is predetermined
and the test will give the same score for each item for any individual
since the marks cannot be influenced by the biases and prejudices of the
teacher.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

List the forms of objective test

In objective test, subjectivity in scoring or marking is eliminated. The

answers to the questions can be marked by an individual who has no
knowledge of the subject matter using the pre-prepared model answers
marking scheme.

There are various forms of objective test and their classification depends
on the type of response which is being sought. There are four classes of
objective test that are commonly used in the school setting. These are:

short answer items or completion test

multiple choice items
matching items
true false items.

3.5.1 Short answer items or completion test

This test is not like other types of objective tests. Completion test items
are not objective enough to allow anybody working solely from a key or
a machine to score the test. It has the advantage that it reduces guessing
to a minimal level and demands recall rather than recognition.

Some of the demerits of this type of test are:

it encourages rote learning;

it is more difficult to construct;
scoring is relatively more tedious.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8

Construct five short answer items on a chosen topic in physics for SS1
class.

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In this type of objective test, the students supply answers which are
always in short sentences:

1. The S.I unit of work done is …………………………………

2. The concept of energy means ………………………………..
3. Rest energy is associated with ……………………………….
4. The two forms of mechanical energy are …………………… and
……………………
5. Anything that has weight and occupied space is called
……………………….
6. The rate of doing work is referred to as ……………………...
7. Large amount of power could be measured in ………………..
and …………………
8. Kinetic energy is associated with …………………………….
9. Large amount of work could be measured in ……………… and
………………….
10. Energy possessed by an object moving linearly from one place to
another is called ………………………..

3.5.2 Multiple choice items

This is the most widely used objective test because of its adaptability
and wide application. In the multiple choice test, each test item may
start with an introductory question or an incomplete statement together
with a number of alternative answers of which one is correct and the
remainders are incorrect.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9

What are the merits and demerits of this type of test?

This type of test often requires the students to select response, which is
correct for a particular question from a given list of options. The merits
of this type of test that may convince science teachers of the versatility
of this type of objective test are:

it allows for a large sample of test items

there is complete objectivity in scoring
it reduces the factor of chance success
it can be used with a wide variety of material

Some of the demerits of multiple-choice tests are:

it is prone to cheating
it aids recognition rather than recall
it is generally difficult to construct.

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Examples of multiple choice test on physics are:

1. Work done is …………………………..

A. the sum of force and distance moved in the direction of force.

B. the sum of force and distance moved in opposite direction of
force.
C. the product of force and distance moved in the direction of force.
D. the product of force and distance moved in opposite direction of
force.
E. the product of force and distance.

2. Principle of conservation of energy states that:

A. energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a

transformation.
B. energy can be created during a transformation.
C. energy can be destroyed during a transformation.
D. energy can either be created or destroyed during a transformation.
E. none of the above.

3. Which of the following is NOT an example of Vector quantity?

A. Acceleration
B. Velocity
C. Energy
D. Force
E. Displacement

4. What is the velocity of a 2.5 kg. object when its kinetic energy is
10J?

A. 2.83 ms-1
B. 28.3 ms-1
C. 283 ms-1
D. 283.3 ms-1
E. 283.33 ms-1

3.5.3 Matching items

This type of objective test is essentially a series of multiple choice

items, each item in the first column is to be paired with an alternative in
the second column. Every test item is made up of two parallel lists: One
containing stimulus (words or phrases), the other containing response

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alternative. The students are required to match the items on the two
lists.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10

When are the matching items useful in teaching / learning process?

When the learning of a particular physics concept requires the

association of two things in the student’s mind, this type of test items
comes into play. In physics, matching items are used to gain knowledge
of terms, definitions, laws, tools and their uses, illustrations, charts and
diagrams.

Instruction: Match items on Column A against statements in Column B.

A B
Work done in springs or elastic strings A measure of amount of work
done in bringing the moving
object to rest.

Power The product of average

stretching force and extension.

Rest Energy The product of force and

velocity

Kinetic Energy The energy which a body has

by virtue of its mass alone.

3.5.4 True – False Items

Of all types of objective items, true/false item is the most susceptible to

guessing. It is worthy of note that, this type of testing has become less
useful as a means of assessing students’ learning outcomes. This type of
test is usually used for testing factual recall and definitions of terms. An
inherent weakness of this testing technique is that it is difficult to find
good true/false items as it is not easy to find many statements, which are
true or false.

Examples of true/false items on physics are:

T F - The work done in pulling a stone on ground is given by

this expression W = T sin θ X distance moved

T F - Work is a scalar quantity

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T F - The more energy an object has the less work it can do

T F - Power could be measured in horsepower

T F - The basic unit of all matter is the atom.

3.6 Principles of test construction in science teaching

Beside the expertise advise given by the test experts at the beginning of
this unit, it is also important to take note of the following points when
constructing objective tests in science subjects.

Identification of major concepts to be tested.

Identification of the different cognitive levels at which the
concepts are to be tested.
Decision on the number of test items to be included in the test.
Preparation of a table of specification to guide you as a science
teacher on the selection of test items to be used.

Table 1: Table of specification for a physics multiple choice test

Physics COGNITIVE LEVELS TESTED

Concepts Kno Comprehen Applicat Analy Synthe Evaluat TOTA
Tested wle sion ion sis sis ion L
dge
Work 2 2 1 1 0 0 6
Energy 3 2 2 0 1 0 8
Power 3 1 1 1 0 0 6
Machines 4 3 2 0 1 0 10
Total 12 8 6 2 2 0 30

Table 1 illustrates the specifications required in terms of physics

concepts and cognitive levels. The table shows that 4 physics concepts
are to be tested across 6 cognitive levels as proposed by Bloom (1956).
The number of items to be selected from each concept is indicated while
the items per concepts are spread proportionately across the cognitive
levels.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 11

Give detailed interpretation of the table of specification shown

in table 1.

In all, a total of 30 items are generated to cover all the 4 physics

concepts listed. The 30 items are also spread according to the cognitive
levels required in all the concepts. It is observed that no item was

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distributed in each of the physics concepts to the evaluation levels of

cognition. This is because at the senior secondary level of physics
learning, students might have not attained such level of cognition. In the
4 concepts to be tested no items are distributed to analysis, synthesis and
evaluation because it is believed that these concepts are usually
considered abstract by students. With reference to the National
Curriculum on Physics, the document recommended that items to be
tested should cover the first two cognitive levels (i.e. knowledge and
comprehension) for the first year of senior secondary level while the
first three levels (i.e. knowledge, comprehension and application) are
recommended for the third year of senior secondary level.

3.7 Basic Guidelines for Preparing Practical Examination in

Science

Practical examinations in science are tasks meant to assess science

mainly in the psychomotor domain of learning. For the purpose of
balanced assessment of students’ learning outcomes in science, most
practical examinations also test cognitive as well as affective domain of
learning.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 12

What are the usefulness of practical examinations to the students?

Practical examinations are viable and reliable methods of assessing

science students’ learning outcomes in the sense that:

* students are encouraged to demonstrate their practical skills in

science.
* students are encouraged to apply theories learnt to practical
applications rather than relying on rote memory of scientific
facts.
* students are afforded the opportunity to observe, classify, record,
interpret instructions and report observation made.

Constructing practical examinations in science does not constitute any

problem because many standard science practical textbooks are
available in the schools to guide practicing science teachers.

An example of a typical practical physics examination is given below as

guidance.

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You have been provided with a retort stand, clamp and boss, a set of
masses, a spiral spring, stop watch, split cork and other necessary
apparatus.

Using the diagram above as a guide, carryout the following instructions:

(i) Suspend the spiral spring vertically as shown in the diagram;

(ii) Suspend a mass hanger on the free end of the spiral spring and
add a mass, m = 50.0g to the hanger;
(iii) Pull the hanger gently downward and release to set it into vertical
oscillations.
(iv) Determine the time, t, for 20 complete oscillations;
(v) Evaluate the period, T, of the oscillation. Also evaluate T2.
(vi) Repeat the procedure for four other values of m= 70, 90, 110 and
130g. In each case, determine t and evaluate T and T2.
(vii) Plot a graph of T2 on the vertical axis against m on the horizontal
axis;
(viii) Determine the slope, s, of the graph and the intercept, I, on the
vertical axis.

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3.8 Marking schemes for grading essay type, objective type

and practical examinations in science

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 13

What is a marking scheme?

A marking scheme is a model solution prepared by an examiner with

marks distributed proportionately across the different sections of test
items in the cases of essay type and practical examinations in the case of
objective test, the marking scheme required correct responses. All
correct responses carry equal marks despite the varying degrees of
difficulty associated with different test items.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 14

List the factors that can make the marking of essay type questions
subjective.

In preparing a marking scheme for essay type questions, the examiners

are expected to provide solutions to the questions posed section-by-
section. For instance, if a typical essay type question attempts to test
knowledge, understanding and application of a given scientific concepts,
in preparing the marking scheme for such an essay question, solution
provided must reflect knowledge, understanding and application of the
concepts tested.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 15

How will you carryout the mark distribution for an essay type question
on physics concepts that attempts to test the first three cognitive levels?

In distributing marks to the different levels of cognition tested

applications of concepts are expected to carry more weight (i.e. more
marks) than comprehension (i.e. understanding) while knowledge of
facts in most situations should carry least marks.

3.9 Guideline for preparing marking schemes for practical

examinations on physics practical

In preparing marking schemes for practical examinations, the following

criteria are to be allotted marks proportionately: observation, readings
recorded, graphs plotted (if any) deductions, precautions reported, result
and conclusions drawn.

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Penalties may be earned in the different criteria mentioned above. For

instance, missing units attract loss of ½ mark, systematic errors attract a
loss of 1 mark and faulty scales used for graphing attract loss of marks
depending on the deficiencies observed.

Example of hypothetical marks allotted to different sections of physics

practical questions:

Observations - 7 marks
Readings Recorded - 1 mark
Reasonable Graph - 6 marks
Slope - 2 marks
Deductions from Graph - 2 marks
Calculations (if any) - 1 mark
Accuracy - 3 marks
Precautions - 3 marks
Results - 3 marks
Conclusion - 2marks
Total marks obtainable - 30marks

To use this format of marks, practicing physics teachers are implored to

use their discretion to modify the marks according to the emphasis
required from the practical examinations.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you noticed that evaluation in teaching/learning processes

should be a continuous process and an integral part of curriculum
development and classroom instruction. As a science teacher, you need
to pay more attention to assessment of science students’ learning
outcomes in both theory and practical examinations.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that:

- the most reliable method for assessing students’ learning

outcomes is the use of tests
- test is a series of activities purposely designed to measure
learners abilities in the area of cognition and psychomotor
- assessment is the process or method of finding out about students
progress

- the three major functions of tests are:

Instructional

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Guidance
Administrative

- the three forms of assessment in teaching/learning processes are:

oral form
written (essay and objective) form
project form

- the forms of objective type test used in school setting are:

short answer items

multiple choice items
matching items
true false items

- steps to consider while constructing objective tests in science:

identification of major concepts to be tested

identification of the different cognitive levels at which the
concepts are to be tested.
decision on the number of test items to be included in the
test
preparation of a table of specification to guide you on the
selection of test items to be used.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is item analysis in science tests?

2. How would you ensure content validity of physics test set for
first year students of senior secondary level?
3. List the characteristics of a good physics test items.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abdullahi, A. (1982). Teaching Science in Nigeria. Ilorin, Atoto Press.

Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum Development. A Textbook for Students.

Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Raimi, S.M. (2000). Teaching Methods for Business, Languages,

Sciences, Social Sciences and Technical Education. In J.A.
Ayelagbe (Ed.) Andrian Publication Series, 223 – 226.

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