STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Branch of Mechanics which deals with the

relations between externally applied loads and
their internal effects on bodies
CONCEPT OF STRESS
STRESS = FORCE PER UNIT AREA

APPLIED FORCE = STRESS * AREA

Unit: N/m2 (Pa), kPa, MPa, GPa

 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES
a a

area, Aarea, A

N

V
τ σ

a a

Average Normal Stress, σ = stress acting perpendicular to the

surface of a section
σ = N/A
Average Shear Stress, τ = stress acting parallel or tangent to the
surface of a section
τ = V/A
STRESS UNDER CENTRIC LOADING

P P

A

n
N=
σ t
A cos 
area =
P cos  P
θ A
τ V =
cross-sectional area = A cos
STRESS UNDER CENTRIC LOADING
n A
t N= 
cos 
P

V =
A
cos

F n 0 F t 0
N  P cos   0 P sin   V  0
A A
 P cos   P sin 
cos  cos 
P cos 2  P sin  cos 
  
A A
P P
 (1  cos 2 )   (sin 2 )
2A 2A
STRESS UNDER CENTRIC LOADING
P 1
A
P
0.5
2A
0
0 45 90 135 180

-0.5

From the graph:

P
σ is maximum at θ = 0˚ and 180˚:  max 
A

P  max
τ is maximum at θ = 45˚ and 135˚:  max  
2A 2
STRESS UNDER CENTRIC LOADING
NOTES:
1. Normal stresses are maximum at planes for which
the shearing stress is ZERO.

2. When θ > 90˚, the sign of τ changes. The magnitude of

τ for any angle is the same as that for 90˚ + θ.

If a shearing stress exists at a

point on any plane, there must
τ
also exist at this point a shearing
τ stress of the same magnitude on
an orthogonal plane.
STRAIN CONCEPTS

Displacement – a vector representing

the movement of a point with respect
to some convenient reference system
of axes
“rigid body displacement”
– all points in the body
displaces by the same
amount

displacement vector
Strain Concepts

Deformation – changes in the shape and

size of a body that is subjected to an
external load or temperature change

- designated by the Greek letter δ

Example application
Strain Concepts

Strain – a quantity used to provide a

measure of the intensity of a
deformation (deformation per unit
length)

Two types:
1. Normal Strain
2. Shear Strain
Strain Concepts
Normal Strain - elongation or contraction of an element
per unit of length
Average normal strain:
L
 avg  where
Li
L  algebraic change in member length, meters
Li  initial length of member, meters

Sign Convention: when rod…

Example: L  A ' C '  AC • elongates: positive
• contracts: negative
A'C '  C '  A'
Unit of measure:
AC  C  A • supposedly “dimensionless”, but is
expressed In practice as: m mm
L A' C '  AC or
   m m
Li AC
Strain Concepts
• Shear Strain - angular change between two
perpendicular line segments
Shear strain:

    ' where
2
  shear strain
 ' measured angle between two lines initially
(mutually) perpendicular to each other

Sign Convention:

tan   • Positive:  '  90o
L
Example
γ  • Negative:  '  90o
 
δ L

Unit of measure:
   ' • radians
L 2
θ'

Undeformed body Deformed body

STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

1. An iron column of annular cross-section has an outer diameter of

200 m and is subjected to a force of 74 kN. Find the thickness of
the wall if the allowable compressive stress is 10 MPa.
a. 12.75 mm c. 17.75 mm
b. 12.57
b. 12.57 mm mm d. 15.75 mm

2. If the ultimate shear strength of a steel plate is 42 000 psi, what

force is necessary to punch a 0.75 in diameter hole in a 0.625 in
thick plate?
a. 63 000 lb c. 68 080 lb
b. 61
b. 61850
850lb lb d. 66 800 lb
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
3. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will
carry a tensile load of 500 kN at a stress of 140 MPa. Assume
the wall thickness to be one-tenth of the outside diameter.
a. 111.3 mm c. 109.7 mm
b. 113.7 mm d. 112.4
d. 112.4mm mm

4. A force of 10 N is applied to one end of a 10 inch diameter

circular rod. Calculate the stress.
a. 0.20
a. 0.20kPa
kPa c. 0.15 kPa
b. 0.05 kPa d. 0.10 kPa
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

5. A rigid bar AD is supported by two rods as shown. There is no

strain in the vertical bars before load P is applied. After load P is
applied, the axial strain in BF is 400 m/m. Determine the axial
strain in CE.
a. 0.004 mm/mm c. 0.005 mm/mm
b. 0.003 mm/mm d. 0.002
d. 0.002mm/mm
mm/mm
6. Determine axial strain in rod CE if there is a 0.25-mm clearance in
the connection at pin C before the load is applied
a. 1583.3
a. 1583.3 μm/m
μm/m c. 2000 μm/m
b. 1558.3 μm/m d. 1500 μm/m
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

7. A thin rectangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown.

Determine the shearing strain at P.
a. 0.0157 rad c.c.0.0016 rad rad
0.0016
b. 0.0024 rad d. zero
8. Determine the angle in degrees between two initially
perpendicular lines contained inside a steel plate when the
angular strain is 0.005 radian.
a. 88.23 deg c.
c.89.71
89.71deg
deg
b. 92.12 deg d. 90.29 deg
DEVELOPMENT OF STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Pinternal 1. apply
 instant 
A(a) initial_OR_(b) reduced incremental
apply pulling loads P
action here
2. measure
moving part, Linstant
 avg ,instant
pull here  resulting
Linitial deformation
in specimen
Stress-strain calculation:
fixed application of incremental loads...
P1 P1  P P1  n  P
1  2  ...  n 
Ainitial Ainitial Ainitial
results to further elongation of specimen.
L1 L2 Ln
1  2  ...  n 
Linitial Linitial Linitial
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR BASED ON ITS SED
1. elastic behavior:
• proportional limit; returns to
its original length after
3 4 unloading
2 • elastic limit; stress no
longer proportional to strain,
1 but (still) exhibits elastic
behavior
2. plastic behavior: yield
point – continues to deform
without further increase in
STEEL load, deformation becomes
permanent
3. strain hardening: after yielding ends, additional load can be applied
until ultimate stress is reached
4. necking: reduction in cross-sectional area, decrease in load-
carrying capacity
MEASURE OF DUCTILITY OF MATERIAL: STRENGTH VS. TOUGHNESS

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE, ur
• a measure of the strain energy
density in a material
• it is the area under the stress-
strain diagram where stress is
proportional to strain.

1 
1 pl
2
u r   pl  pl 
2 2 E

MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS, ut
• indicates the strain-energy density of the material just before
it fractures
• represents the entire area under the stress-strain diagram.
HOOKE’S LAW: MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
  f  avg  ?? • PHILOSOPHY: design
engineering structures to
undergo small deformations
that involve only the straight
line portion for the stress-
strain diagram.

• Hooke’s Law: For the initial

portion of the stress-strain
diagram, stress is
proportional to the strain ε:

 E
- E: modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus.
 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• shows the relationship between shear stress and shear
strain.
• at the elastic region, shear stress is proportional to strain.
• Hooke's law for shear can be written as,   G
G: shear modulus of elasticity
E E (1  v)
K  modulus of rigidity D
3(1  2v) (1  v)(1  2v)

Relationship between the

ff material constants: E, G
and Poisson’s ratio 
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity Constrained Modulus
E
G
2 1  
ALLOWABLE STRESSES
AND FACTOR OF SAFETY
Failure – the state or condition in
which a member or structure no
longer functions as intended
WORKING STRESS OR ALLOWABLE
STRESS

• maximum allowable stress used in design

computations

P
σcr > σws

“critical stress” > working stress

strength of the material

 ws 
factor of safety

P
DESIGNING FOR STRENGTH

Failure by Fracture Failure by Slip

 ws 
 ult  yp
F .S .  ws 
F .S .

F.S. = Factor of Safety = takes into account uncertainties in

1. Properties of the material
2. Actual load applied
DESIGNING FOR STRENGTH

For actual load F .S . 

strength of material
actual stress

When designing
strength of material
F .S . 
working stress
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

9. What is the modulus of elasticity if the stress is 44,000 psi and unit
strain of 0.00105?
a.
a. 41.905
41.905 x 10
x 6106 c. 42.300 x 106
b. 43.101 x 106 d. 41.202 x 106
10. During a stress-strain test, the unit deformation at a stress of 50 MPa
was observed to be 100 x 10 -6 m/m and at a stress of 150 MPa it was
600 x 10-6 m/m. If the proportional limit was 200 MPa, what is the strain
corresponding to the stress of 100 MPa?
a. 0.0005
a. 0.0005 m/mm/m c. 0.0003 m/m
b. 0.0006 m/m d. 0.0004 m/m
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
11. At the proportional limit, a 200 mm gage length of a 15 mm diameter
alloy bar has elongated 0.90 mm and the diameter has been reduced by
0.022 mm. The total axial load carried was 58.4 kN. What is the modulus
of elasticity of the material?
a. E = 75.5 GPa c. E = 200 GPa
b. E = 215 GPa d. EE =
d. = 73.4
73.4GPa
GPa
12. A solid aluminum shaft of 100 mm diameter fits concentrically in a hollow
steel tube. Determine the minimum internal diameter of the steel tube so
that no contact pressure exists when the aluminum shaft carries an axial
compressive load of 600 kN. Assume Poisson’s ratio equal to 1/3 and
the modulus of elasticity of aluminum be 70 GPa.
a. 100.0364
a. 100.0364mm mm c. 100.0312 mm
b. 100.0414 mm d. 100.0303 mm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
13. A 40 mm diameter rod 6 m long elongates 12 mm under a load
of 240 kN. The diameter of the rod decreases 0.028 mm
during the loading. What is the modulus of rigidity of the
material?
a. G = 37.7 GPa c. G = 95.4 GPa
b. G = 42.1 GPa d. G
d. G ==35.4
35.4GPa
GPa
14. A steel tie rod on bridge must be made to withstand a pull of
5000 lbs. Find the diameter of the rod assuming a factor of
safety of 5 and ultimate stress of 64000 psi.
a. 0.75 c. 0.71
c. 0.71
b. 0.79 d. 0.84
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
15. The graph shows the result of a tension test performed on a specimen.
A 3m bar made up of the same material with cross-section 400 mm2 is
subjected to a 60 kN axial force and exhibits a 2.25 mm elastic
deformation. What is the modulus of resilience?
a. 0.426 MPa c. 1.123 MPa
b. 0.511 MPa d. 0.324
d. 0.324MPaMPa
DETERMINING MAGNITUDE OF MEMBER DEFORMATION
Consider axially loaded members
CE and BF with the following
known parameters:
• material properties –
modulus of elasticity E
• section properties – length
L, cross section A
Stress Concepts P

A

Strain Concepts 
Li
 PL
Material Properties   E  L  L 
E AE
ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF AN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
• Consider a bar, which has a cross-sectional area that gradually
varies along its length, L

1. establish the stress and strain in the element:

P  x d
 
A x dx
ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF AN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER

1. establish the stress and strain in

the element:

P  x d
 
A x dx

2. using Hooke’s law, determine relation b/w stress and strain

P  x d P  x
  E
A x
E
dx  d   A  x  E dx

P  x
3. integrate
L
  dx
0 A x E
ELASTIC DEFORMATION: VARYING X-SECTION AND LOAD

CASE 1: Member having

varying internal force
and cross-sectional
area

P  x d L P  x
  E E   dx
A x dx 0 A x E
•  = displacement of one point on the bar relative to another point
• L = distance between the points
• P(x) = internal axial force at the section, located a distance x from
one end
• A(x) = cross-sectional area of the bar, expressed as a function of x
• E = modulus of elasticity
ELASTIC DEFORMATION: CONSTANT X-SECTION AND LOAD

CASE 2: Single segment having

constant load and cross-
sectional area
L P  x
  dx
0 A x E

P L PL
 
AE 0
dx   
AE

Sign convention:
• positive: elongation  tensile force
• negative: contraction  compressive force
ELASTIC DEFORMATION: VARYING X-SECTION AND LOAD

CASE 3: Several
segments having
(different but
constant) cross-
sectional area and
subjected to
different load
L P  x P L PL
  dx   dx   
0 A x E AE 0 AE
d AB PAB d BC P dCD P
  dx   BC
dx   CD
dx
0 AAB E d AB A E
BC
d BC A E
CD
nn
PAB LAB PBC LBC PCD LCD PL
       ii ii
AAB E ABC E ACD E ii11 Aii E
THERMAL EFFECTS: THE ONE WITH A FREE END

• A temperature change results in a

change in length OR thermal
strain.
• There is no stress associated with
the thermal strain unless the
elongation is restrained by the
supports.
T    T  L
  coefficient of thermal expansion (units: 1/ o C)
THERMAL EFFECTS: THE ONE WITH BOTH ENDS FIXED
• There is NO STRESS associated
with the thermal strain UNLESS
the ELONGATION IS
RESTRAINED by the supports.

• apply the principle of

superposition,
1. treat the additional support as
redundant
T    T  L
  coefficient of thermal expansion (units: 1/ o C)
 T    T  L
THERMAL STRESSES   coefficient of thermal expansion (units: 1/ C) o

2. Reintroduce the redundant support

• The thermal deformation and the deformation
from the redundant support MUST BE
B / A  0 COMPATIBLE.
3. Establish compatibility condition
B / A  0
4. Set up compatibility equation
 B / A  0  T   P

FB L
  T  L  0
AE
FB  AE  T  in compression
FB
 thermal    E  T  [SPECIAL CASE]
A
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

16. A tensile load of 100 kN is applied to a 20 mm thick flat bar, tapering in

width from40 mm to 120 mm in a length of 10 m. If E = 200 GPa,
determine the total elongation of the bar.
a. 3.43
a. 3.43 mmmm c. 3.09 mm
b. 3.57 mm d. 3.39 mm
17. A 6 m long rod is subjected to a tensile load of 1500 N. What is the
required minimum wire diameter if the axial stress is limited to 150 MPa
and the total elongation must not exceed 5 mm. Use E = 200 GPa.
a.
b.3.43
3.57mmmm c. 3.09 mm
b. 3.57 mm d. 3.39 mm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

18. A solid truncated conical bar of circular cross-section tapers uniformly

from a diameter d at its small end to D at the large end. If the length of
the bar is L, determine the total elongation due to an axial force P
applied at each end.
a. 4PL/πDdE
4PL/πDdE c. PL/Dd
b. 8PL/πDdE d. P/D
19. A steel wire is 4.0 m long and 2 mm in diameter. How much is it
elongated by a suspended body of mass 20 kg? Young’s modulus for
steel is 196000 MPa.
a. 1.123 mm c. 1.385 mm
b. 1.374 mm d. 1.274
d. 1.274mm
mm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
20. A rigid bar AB rests on the two short
posts as shown. AC is made of steel
and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD
is made of aluminum and has a
diameter of 40 mm. Determine the
displacement of point F on AB if a
vertical load of 90 kN is applied over
this point. Use Est = 200 GPa and Eal
= 70 GPa.

a.
a. 0.225
0.225 mm
mm c. 0.375 mm
b. 1.000 mm d. 0.500 mm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

21. The aluminum (E = 70 GPa) rod

has a diameter of 30 mm and
supports the load shown.
Determine the displacement of
A with respect to E. Neglect the
size of the couplings

a. +0.73 mm
mm c. +0.65 mm
b. -0.73 mm d. -0.65 mm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

22. A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a shell of

cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will compress the bar a total
of 1 mm in the length of 2 m. Use Est = 200 GPa and Ecast iron = 100 GPa.
a. 200 kN c.c.240
240kNkN
b. 320 kN d. 280 kN
23. A cylinder of a diameter 1.0 cm at 30° is to be slid into a hole on a steel
plate. The hole has a diameter of 0.99970 cm at 30°. To what
temperature the plate must be heated? Coefficient of linear expansion
for steel is 1.2 x 10 -5 cm/°C.
a. 62° C c. 65° C
b. 55°
b. 55°CC d. 48° C
TORSIONAL LOADINGS
Shearing Strain
• Consider an interior section of the shaft.
As a torsional load is applied, an element
on the interior cylinder deforms into a
C'
rhombus.
C
• Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain  is related to
“angle of twist” 
AA ' c 
tan  B  
C' L L
 B'
C c
 B  tan  B 
L
• Shear strain is proportional to twist and
radius
    B'  B 
 B'      B'   B
44 L L  c c
Torsional Loads: Stresses & Deformation

shear stress, 

 B'  
c  G
• shear stress vs. • shear strain vs. angle of twist
torsional loads shear strain, 

M  0:  B' 

  B' 

B
T     dA  L c
• REVIEW: For axially loaded members
     J
G B '  G  B   B'   T     dA      dA     2 dA  T 
45 c c c  c c
Elastic Torsion Formula
The shearing stress varies linearly with 
 B'  B
the radial position in the section. c

• The results are known as the elastic torsion

formulas,

T    dA  max   2 dA
c
 max
T J
c

Tc • T – external torque applied

 max 
J • c – radius of shaft
•  – radial distance of element from
T the axis

J • J – polar moment of inertia
46
Angle of Twist: Constant Load & Cross-section
• Recall that the angle of twist and
maximum shearing strain are related,
c
 max  EQ 1
L

• In the elastic range, the shearing strain

and shear are related by Hooke’s Law,
 max Tc
 max   EQ 2
G JG

• Equating the expressions for shearing

strain and solving for the angle of twist,
TL Tc c
  max  
JG JG L
47
Angle of Twist: Varying Loads and Cross-section
• If the torsional loading or shaft cross-
section changes along the length, the
angle of rotation is found as the sum of
segment rotations

Ti Li
 
i J i Gi

• adopt the following sign convention:

positive
negative

L
T  x
 d  
0
J  xG
dx
48
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

24. A hollow shaft has an inner diameter of 0.035 m and an outer

diameter of 0.060 m. Determine the polar moment of inertia of
the hollow shaft.
a. 1.512 x 10-6 m4 c. 1.215 x 10-6 m4
b.b.1.125
1.125 xx 10 -6 m4m4
10-6 d. 1.152 x 10-6 m4
25. The maximum allowable torque, in kN-m, for a 50 mm
diameter steel shaft when the allowable shearing stress is 8.15
MPa is:
a. 3.0 c. 1.0
b. 2.0
b. 2.0 d. 4.0
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

26. The rotation or twist in degrees of a shaft, 800 mm long,

subjected to a torque of 80 N-m, 20 mm in diameter and shear
modulus G of 80000 MPa is
a. 3.03 c. 4.04
b. 2.92
b. 2.92 d. 1.81
27. Determine the length of the shortest 2 mm diameter bronze
wire, which can be twisted through two complete turns without
exceeding a stress of 70 MPa. Use G = 35 GPa.
a. 6.28
a. 6.28 m
m c. 5.23 m
b. 6.89 m d. 8.56 m
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples
28. Compute the nominal shear stress at the surface in MPa for a 40 mm
diameter shaft that transmits 750 kW at 1500 rpm. Axial and bending
loads are assumed negligible.
a. 218 MPa c. 312 MPa
b.
b.380
380MPa
MPa d. 232 MPa
29. A hollow steel shaft 2540 mm long must transmit torque of 34 kN-m. The
total angle of twist must not exceed 3 degrees and the maximum
shearing stress must not exceed 110 MPa. Find the inside diameter and
the outside diameter of the shaft that meets these conditions. Use G =
83 GPa.
a. DD==129
a. 129mm;mm; d =d92=mm
92mm
b. D = 125 mm; d = 65 mm
c. D = 132 mm; d = 100 mm
d. D = 112 mm; d = 85 mm
THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS: CRITERION & ASSUMPTION
A pressure vessel is described as thin-walled when:
• the ratio of the wall thickness to the radius of the vessel
is so small…
• that the distribution of normal stress on the plane
perpendicular to the surface of the vessel is essentially
uniform throughout the thickness of the shell.
A
ASSUMPTIONS:
• internal pressure is
constant
• gravitational forces on
masses of the fluid and the
vessel are assumed to be
negligible.
• thickness t is small
compared to the radius r
52
 SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSELS: AXIAL STRESSES SA

Consider a spherical pressure vessel with inner radius r

and thickness t
A

Due to symmetry, the F H

 0   Rinternal_pressure  Rvessel_wall_internal_forces
stresses on the planes Rinternal_pressure  p  rinner 2 
shown are equal and
Rvessel_wall_internal_forces   A  2 rinner  t 
will be referred to as
the axial stress…  A  2 rinner  t   p  rinner 2 
prinner
A 
2t
53
STRESSES IN CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with length L,
inner radius r, and thickness t

A H
p p

54
CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS: AXIAL
STRESSES
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with length L, inner radius r, and thickness t

F H
 0   Rinternal_pressure  Rvessel_wall_internal_forces
Rinternal_pressure  p  rinner 2 
Rvessel_wall_internal_forces   A  2 rinner  t 
 A  2 rinner  t   p  rinner 2 
prinner
A 
2t

55
CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS: HOOP
STRESSES
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with length L, inner radius r, and thickness t

F V
 0   Rinternal_pressure  Rvessel_wall_internal_forces
Rinternal_pressure  p  2rinner  L 
Rvessel_wall_internal_forces   H  2  t  L 
 H  2  t  L   p  2rinner  L 
prinner
H 
t

56
 CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS: POTENTIAL FAILURE MODE
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with length L, inner radius r, and thickness t

prinner  H
A  
2t 2
  H  2 A

Design
implications:
• reinforce and
proportion
 A  2 rinner  t   p  rinner 2   H  2  t  L   p  2rinner  L  pressure vessel
pr prinner such that
  A  inner H 
2t t H  A
57
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

30. What is the maximum normal stress in a 300 mm diameter basketball

that has a 2 mm wall thickness after it has been inflated to a gage
pressure of 100 kPa.
a. 3.75
a. 3.75MPa
MPa c. 7.5 MPa
b. zero d. 5.55 MPa
31. A spherical pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter has a uniform thickness
of 6 mm. The vessel contains gas under a pressure of 8000 kPa. If the
ultimate tensile stress of the material is 420 MPa, what is the factor of
safety with respect to tensile failure?
a.
a. 3.15
3.15 c. 2.15
b. 3.55 d. 2.55
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

32. A cylindrical water tank is 8 m in diameter and 12 m high. If the tank is to

be completely filled, determine the minimum thickness of the tank plating
if the stress is limited to 40 MPa.
a.
a. 11.77
11.77mm mm c. 13.18 mm
b. 10.25 mm d. 12.60 mm
33. Compute the safe wall thickness of a 76.2 cm diameter steel tank. The
tank is subjected to 7.33 MPa pressure and the steel material has a
yield stress of 215.4 MPa. The factor of safety to use is 3.
a. 1 ½ cm c. 3.89
c. 3.89cmcm
b. 3.96 cm d. 4.09 cm
STRESS AND STRAIN CONCEPTS
Examples

34. The stress in a 90 cm diameter pipe having a wall thickness of

9.5 cm under a static head of 70 m of water is
a. 325 kPa c. 32.5 kPa
b.
b. 3.25
3.25MPa
MPa d. 32.5 MPa
Stress Transformation
• Plane Stress  state of stress in which two faces of
the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by

 x ,  y ,  xy and  z   zx   zy  0.

• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

to forces acting in the midplane of the plate.

• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

of a structural element or machine component, i.e.,
at any point of the surface not subjected to an
external force.
TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRESS

• Consider the conditions for equilibrium of a

prismatic element with faces perpendicular to
the x, y, and x’ axes.
 Fx  0   xA   x A cos  cos   xy A cos sin
  y A sin sin   xy A sin  cos
 Fy  0   xyA   x A cos sin   xy A cos  cos
  y A sin  cos   xy A sin sin

• The equations may be rewritten to yield

 x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
 x  y  x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
 x  y
 xy   sin 2   xy cos 2
2
SOME NOTES
• Shearing Stress is (+) if it points in the (+)
direction of the coordinate axis of the 2 nd
subscript when it is acting on a surface
whose outward normal is in a (+) direction

• An angle measured CCW from a

reference x-axis is (+); (-) if CW
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
• The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,

 x   ave 2   x2y  R 2
where
2
 x  y  x  y 
 ave  R      xy
2
2  2 

• Principal stresses occur on the principal

planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.
MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS
Maximum shearing stress occurs for  x   ave
SOME NOTES
• On planes of maximum and minimum normal stress
(σn), shear stresses are zero

• Planes having zero shear stresses are PRINCIPAL

PLANES

• Normal stresses on PRINCIPAL PLANES are

PRINCIPAL STRESSES

• The values of PRINCIPAL STRESSES are 90° apart

EXAMPLE 7.01
SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
• Determine the principal stresses from
2
x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
For the state of plane stress shown, 2  2 
determine (a) the principal planes, • Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
(b) the principal stresses, (c) the 2
maximum shearing stress and the   x   y 
 max      xy
2
corresponding normal stress.  2 
x  y

 
2
EXAMPLE 7.01
SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy 2 40 
tan 2 p    1.333
 x   y 50   10
2 p  53.1, 233.1
 p  26.6, 116.6
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa
 x  10 MPa • Determine the principal stresses from
2
x  y  x  y 
 max, min       xy
2
2  2 
 20  302  402
 max  70 MPa
 min  30 MPa
EXAMPLE 7.01
• Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
2
 x  y 
 max      xy
2
 2 
 302  402
 max  50 MPa
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa  s   p  45
 x  10 MPa  s  18.4, 71.6

• The corresponding normal stress is

 x   y 50  10
    ave  
2 2

   20 MPa
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.1
SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
• Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses
at H.
• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
A single horizontal force P of 600 N
magnitude is applied to end D of lever
ABD. Determine (a) the normal and
shearing stresses on an element at point
H having sides parallel to the x and y
axes, (b) the principal planes and
principal stresses at the point H.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.1
SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.

• Evaluate the normal and shearing stresses

at H.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.1
• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
• With the physical significance of Mohr’s circle
for plane stress established, it may be applied
with simple geometric considerations. Critical
values are estimated graphically or calculated.

• For a known state of plane stress  x , y , xy

plot the points X and Y and construct the
circle centered at C.
2
 x  y  x  y 
 ave  R      xy
2
2  2 

• The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.

 max,min   ave  R
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
The direction of rotation of Ox to Oa is
the same as CX to CA.
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
• With Mohr’s circle uniquely defined, the state
of stress at other axes orientations may be
depicted.

• For the state of stress at an angle  with

respect to the xy axes, construct a new
diameter X’Y’ at an angle 2 with respect to
XY.

• Normal and shear stresses are obtained

from the coordinates X’Y’.
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS
• Mohr’s circle for centric axial loading:

P
x 
P
,  y   xy  0  x   y   xy 
A 2A

• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:

Tc Tc
 x   y  0  xy  x y   xy  0
J J
EXAMPLE 7.02

For the state of plane stress shown,

(a) construct Mohr’s circle, determine
(b) the principal planes, (c) the SOLUTION:
principal stresses, (d) the maximum • Construction of Mohr’s circle
shearing stress and the corresponding  x   y 50   10
normal stress.  ave    20 MPa
2 2
CF  50  20  30 MPa FX  40 MPa
R  CX  302  402  50 MPa
EXAMPLE 7.02
• Principal planes and stresses
 max  OA  OC  CA  20  50
 max  70 MPa

 min  OB  OC  BC  20  50
 min  30 MPa

FX 40
tan 2 p  
CP 30
2 p  53.1
 p  26.6
EXAMPLE 7.02

• Maximum shear stress

 s   p  45  max  R     ave

 s  71.6  max  50 MPa    20 MPa
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2

For the state of stress shown,

determine (a) the principal planes
and the principal stresses, (b) the
stress components exerted on the
element obtained by rotating the SOLUTION:
given element counterclockwise • Construct Mohr’s circle
through 30 degrees.  x   y 100  60
 ave    80 MPa
2 2
R CF 2  FX 2  202  482  52 MPa
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2

• Principal planes and stresses

XF 48  max  OA  OC  CA  max  OA  OC  BC
tan 2 p    2.4
CF 20  80  52  80  52
2 p  67.4
 max  132 MPa  min  28 MPa
 p  33.7 clockwise
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.2

• Stress components after rotation by 30o   180  60  67.4  52.6

 x  OK  OC  KC  80  52 cos 52.6
Points X’ and Y’ on Mohr’s circle that
correspond to stress components on the  y  OL  OC  CL  80  52 cos 52.6
rotated element are obtained by rotating  xy  KX   52 sin 52.6
XY counterclockwise through 2  60  x  48.4 MPa
 y  111.6 MPa
 xy  41.3 MPa
GENERAL STATE OF STRESS
• Consider the general 3D state of stress at a point and
the transformation of stress from element rotation.

• State of stress at Q defined by:  x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

• Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the

line QN with direction cosines: x ,  y , z

• The requirement  Fn  0 leads to,

 n   x2x   y 2y   z 2z
 2 xyx y  2 yz y z  2 zxz x

• Form of equation guarantees that an element

orientation can be found such that
 n   a2a   bb2   cc2
These are the principal axes and principal planes
and the normal stresses are the principal stresses.
APPLICATION OF MOHR’S CIRCLE TO THE THREE-
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF STRESS

• Transformation of stress for an element • The three circles represent the

rotated around a principal axis may be normal and shearing stresses for
represented by Mohr’s circle. rotation around each principal axis.
• Points A, B, and C represent the • Radius of the largest circle yields the
principal stresses on the principal planes maximum shearing stress.
(shearing stress is zero). 1
 max   max   min
2
APPLICATION OF MOHR’S CIRCLE TO THE THREE-
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF STRESS

• In the case of plane stress, the axis

perpendicular to the plane of stress is a
principal axis (shearing stress equals zero).
• If the points A and B (representing the
principal planes) are on opposite sides of
the origin, then
a) the corresponding principal stresses
are the maximum and minimum
normal stresses for the element.
b) the maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to the maximum “in-
plane” shearing stress.

c) planes of maximum shearing stress

are at 45o to the principal planes.
Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-
Dimensional Analysis of Stress

• If A and B are on the same side of the

origin (i.e., have the same sign), then

a) the circle defining max, min, and

max for the element is not the circle
corresponding to transformations within
the plane of stress.

b) maximum shearing stress for the

element is equal to half of the
maximum stress.

c) planes of maximum shearing stress are

at 45 degrees to the plane of stress.