Lecture 2.

3
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 DEFENSE MECHANISMS
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the way our body defend itself against
diseases.
• Distinguish between the different types of
immunity.
• Comprehend the concept of vaccination.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Host defense
mechanisms
—are ways in which
the body protects
itself from
pathogens
—can be thought of
as an army
consisting of three
lines of defense.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• Nonspecific host defense mechanisms are
general and serve to protect the body
against many harmful substances. One of the
nonspecific host defense is the innate, or
inborn, resistance observed among some
species of animals and some persons who
have a natural resistance to certain diseases.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
 Skin and Mucous Membranes
 Cellular and Chemical Factors
 Microbial Antagonism
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Cellular and Chemical Factors
o The dryness, acidity, and temperature of the skin
o Perspiration and mucus production
o The hair, the mucous membranes, and the
irregular chambers of the nose and the cilia
(mucociliary covering) on epithelial cells of
posterior nasal membranes, nasal sinuses,
bronchi and trachea in the respiratory tract
o Nasal secretions, saliva, and tears
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Cellular and Chemical Factors
o The acidity of the stomach
o The alkalinity of the intestines
o The combination of stomach acid, bile salts, and
the rapid flow of the contents in the small
intestines
o mucous lining of the digestive tract
o Peristalsis and the expulsion of feces
o The low pH of vaginal fluid
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Microbial Antagonism
- this occurs when
resident microbes of
the indigenous
microflora prevent
colonization by new
arrivals to a particular
anatomical site.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Microbial Antagonism
Factors of inhibitory capability:
o competition for colonization sites
o competition for nutrients
o production of substances that kill
other bacteria.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
 Transferin
 Interferons
 Fever
 Complement system
 Acute-Phase Proteins
 Cytokines
 Inflammation
 Phagocytosis
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Transferin
– is a glycoprotein synthesized in the liver, has
sequesters iron and deprives pathogens of this
essential nutrient.

 Interferons
– are small, antiviral proteins produced by virus
infected cells. They attach to the membranes of
surrounding cells and prevent viral replication
from occurring in those cells.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Fever – a body temperature greater than 37.8°C.
– is stimulated by pyrogens or pyrogenic
substances.

Functions of fever:
 stimulates white blood cells to deploy and
destroy invaders
 reduces available free plasma iron
 induces the production of Interleukin (IL-
1) for the immunologic response.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Complement system – is when 30 different
proteins assists in the destruction of many
different pathogens by interacting with each other.
• complement components – term used to refer to
the proteins involved in the complement system
• complement cascade - the step-wise manner of
the interaction of complement components.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Complement system
The major consequences of complement activation are:
 initiation and amplification of inflammation
 attraction of phagocytes to sites where they are
needed
 activation of leukocytes
 lysis of bacteria and other foreign cells
 increased phagocytosis by phagocytic cells
(opsonisation).
Opsonization is a process by which phagocytosis is
facilitated by the deposition of opsonins onto the surface of
particles or cells which enables phagocytes to ingest them.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Acute-Phase Proteins
In response to infection, inflammation, and
tissue injury, the plasma levels molecules
collectively referred to as acutephase proteins
increase rapidly to enhance resistance to infection
and promote the repair of damaged tissue.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Cytokines
– are chemical mediators act that as chemical
messengers both within the immune system and
between the immune system and other systems
of the body
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Inflammation – is a normal bodily response any local
injury, irritation, microbial invasion, or bacterial toxin.
Three major events in acute inflammation:
 Vasodilation - an increase in the diameter of
capillaries which leads to redness, heat, and
edema.
 increased permeability of the capillaries
 escape of leukocytes from the capillaries
Primary purposes:
 to localize an infection
 prevent the spread of microbial invaders
 neutralize toxins, and aid in the repair of damaged
tissue.
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
 Phagocytosis
- is a process by which phagocytic white blood cells, called
phagocytes, surround and engulf (ingest) foreign materials.

FOUR STEPS IN PHAGOCYTOSIS

STEP BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Phagocytes are attracted by chemotactic agents to
1. Chemotaxis
the site where they are needed
2. Attachment A phagocyte attaches to an object
Pseudopodia surround the object, and it is taken into
3. Ingestion
the cell
The object is broken down and dissolved by digestive
4. Digestion
enzymes and other mechanisms
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Phagocytosis
Non-specific Defense Mechanisms
Macrophages
 are phagocytes that serve as a “cleanup crew” to rid the
body of unwanted and often harmful substances, such as
dead cells, unused cellular secretions, debris, and
microorganisms.
 develop from a type of leukocyte called monocytes
during the inflammatory response to infections.
 Two types:
o Wandering macrophages
o Fixed macrophages
Specific Defense Mechanisms
The specific defense mechanism is also referred as the
THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE or the IMMUNE RESPONSE.

Immunology
 is the scientific study of the immune system and
immune responses.
 When antigens enter our body, they stimulate a
person’s immune system to produce antibodies.

Primary functions of the immune system:

• to differentiate between “self” and “nonself”
• to destroy that which is nonself
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Antigens
 are foreign molecules, usually proteins, which
can stimulate the immune system to produce
anti-bodies.
 can be classified depending on the manner in
which they are processed by the immune
system
• T-dependent – requires B-cell
• T-independent – requires the interaction of a
macrophage, a Helper T-cell and a B-cell.
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Immune Response
 The site and source of most immune activity is
the lymphatic system.
 The cells involved in the immune responses
originate in the bone marrow.
 Three lines of lymphocytes derived from the
lymphoid stem cells of bone marrow:
• B lymphocytes (or B cells)
• T lymphocytes (T cells)
• natural killer (NK) cells
 Specific Defense Mechanisms
Two major types of T cells
• Helper T cells - secretes cytokines to support either
CMI or humoral immune response by inducing B-cell
activation and differentiation of activated B cells into
plasma cells

• Cytotoxic T cells -
destroys virally
infected host cells.
 Specific Defense Mechanisms
Antibodies (a.k.a. immunoglobulin)
 are produced by the plasma cells (which are
activated B-cells) in response to an antigen.
 recognize and latch onto antigens to remove
them from the body.
 The amount of and type of antibodies produced
depend on:
• nature of the antigen
• site of antigenic stimulus
• amount of antigen
• Number of times the person is
Antibodies for COVID-19
exposed to the antigen
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Two major arms of the immune system:
• Humoral immunity
 involves the production of antibodies in
response to antigens
 the person becomes immune to a particular
pathogen
• Cell-mediated immunity (CMI)
involves many different cell types, including
macrophages, T helper cells, cytotoxic T cells,
delayed hypersensitivity T cells, natural killer
cells, killer cells, and granulocytes.
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Immunity
 is the condition of being immune or resistant
to a particular infectious disease.
 Types:
Innate immunity – in born
Acquired immunity - results from the active
production or receipt of protective
antibodies during one’s lifetime
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Acquired immunity types:
 Active acquired immunity - the antibodies are
actually produced within the person’s body
 Passive acquired immunity - the person
receives antibodies that were produced by
another person or by more than one person,
or, in some cases, by an animal
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Natural active acquired immunity
• is acquired in response to the entry of a live
pathogen into the body (i.e., in response to an
actual infection)
• The antibodies, which are secreted by plasma
cells, protect us from infection or reinfection and
are called protective antibodies.
Artificial active acquired immunity
• is immunity that is acquired in response to
vaccines.
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Vaccination
 deliberately exposes a
person to a harmless version
of a pathogen (or toxin)
 stimulate the person’s immune system to produce
protective antibodies and memory cells.
 Some vaccines contain weakened (attenuated)
pathogens.
 others vaccines contain dead (inactivated)
pathogens.
Specific Defense Mechanisms
List of vaccines that are usually given to babies in Ph:
• BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin)-for tuberculosis
• DPT/Hep B-Hib (Pentavalent) –for Diphtheria,
Pertussis, Tetanus, Hepatitis B, Haemophilus
influenza type B
• Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)
• Hepatitis B Vaccine (HBV)
• Meningococcal C Vaccine (MCV) 1 &2
• Inactivated poliovirus vaccine
*Reference: DOH Region IV-A Calabarzon
Specific Defense Mechanisms
List of vaccines that are usually given to kids in Ph:
• MMR vaccine – for measles, mumps, and rubella
• Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine
• Influenza vaccine
• Pneumococcal vaccine (recommended for children
in certain high-risk groups)
• Hepatitis A vaccine (recommended for children in
certain high-risk groups)
*Reference: DOH Region IV-A CALABARZON
Specific Defense Mechanisms
Other vaccines:
• Anthrax • Smallpox
• Cholera • Tuberculosis
• genital warts • tetanus toxoid
• Lyme disease • typhoid fever
• Rabies • yellow fever
 History of Vaccination
• The ancient Greeks, has observed that people who
have recovered from certain infectious diseases,
such as plague, smallpox, and yellow fever, rarely
contract the same diseases again.
• In the 11th century, Chinese used a powder
prepared from dried smallpox scabs to immunize
people, either by introducing the powder into a
person’s skin or by having the person inhale the
powder. Edward Jenner, a British physician, was
immunized in this manner.
 History of Vaccination
• Some years later, Jenner investigated the widespread belief
that milkmaids, who usually had clear, unblemished skin,
never developed smallpox. He hypothesized that having
had cowpox (a much milder disease than smallpox and one
that leaves no scars) protected the milkmaids from getting
smallpox.
• Jenner prepared a smallpox vaccine, using material
obtained from cowpox lesions. People injected with
Jenner’s vaccine were protected from smallpox.
• Jenner was the first person to publish (in 1798) the
successful results of vaccination. Thus, he is generally given
credit for originating the concept.
History of Vaccination
• During the late 19th century, Louis Pasteur
developed successful vaccines to prevent cholera
in chickens, anthrax in sheep and cattle, and
rabies in dogs and humans.
• It was actually Pasteur who first used the terms
vaccine and vaccination.
• The words “vaccine” and “vaccination” come
from vacca, the Latin word for cow.
COVID-19 Vaccination
• DOH Vaccine Primer
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ivSDKxw1kSStF3IGFxr1Y-
SYmpUCogpg/view?usp=sharing
• 10 Must Knows
• https://drive.google.com/file/d/1JTgaPX_9KLWf-
NNT8W99pWz3XTTxDAjM/view?usp=sharing
• Why so many Covid-19 variants are showing up now
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=Ha6yUxze1vk&f
bclid=IwAR309kCB-
8rRaz4wRJGfriKepFrT2h2YA7n99U2qUm9fkPOvS3-8z9b5eCc
• Why you can't compare Covid-19 vaccines
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=K3odScka55A&
fbclid=IwAR2qO87xUuL_vRUqMz3NPHyK6FDEhykjAhKC5ZGKXwR7J
DU53R60OQcSZ8U
References:
• Burton’s Microbiology for the Health Sciences, 9th Edition
• DOH Regional Office IV-A CALABARZON Immunization
Booklet
References for pictures:
• brightinstruments.co.uk
• 123rf.com
• en.wikipedia.org
• dreamstime.com
• the-scientist.com
• shutterstock.com
• parenting.firstcry.com
• everydayhealth.com
• aboutkidshealth.ca
• britannica.com
• slideplayer.com