Highway Engineering I Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Good highways are so interwoven with every phase of our daily activities that it is almost impossible
to imagine what life would be like without them. We depend on highways for the movement of goods,
for travel to and from work, for services, for social and recreational purposes, and for many other
activities necessary to the functioning of our complex society. The planning, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of highways depend largely on the efforts of the highway engineer, who
must translate the desires of the people for better highway transportation into physical being.

History of Roads and Road Construction

Before beginning the study of highway engineering, it is interesting and informative to briefly trace
the development of highways and highway systems from early historical periods to the modern era.

Ancient Roads

The great highway systems of our modern civilization have their origin in the period before the dawn
of recorded history. Even before the invention of the wheel, individual and mass movements of
people undoubtedly took place. The earliest travel was on foot; later, pack animals were utilized,
crude sleds were developed, and simple wheeled vehicles came into being. Many of the migrations of
the early historical period involved large numbers of people and covered relatively great distances.
More or less regularly traveled routes developed, extending to the limits of the then-known world.

As various civilizations reached a higher level, many of the ancient peoples came to a realization of
the importance of improved roads. The streets of the city of Babylon were paved as early as
2000B.C.History also records the construction of a magnificent road to aid in the building of the Great
Pyramid in Egypt nearly 3000 years before the birth of Christ. Traces of early roads have been found
on the island of Crete, and it is known that the early civilizations of the Chinese, Carthaginians, and
Incas led to extensive road building.

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 Highway Engineering I Chapter 1 Introduction to Highway
By far the most advanced highway system of the ancient world was that of the Romans. When the
Roman civilization was at its peak, a great system of military roads reached to the limits of the
empire. Many of these roads were built of stone and were 3 ft or more in thickness. Traces of this
magnificent system are still in existence on the European continent; in fact, some of these roads still
serve as bases for sections of modern highways.

After the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, road building, along with virtually all other forms of
scientific activity, practically ceased for a period 1000 years. Even as late as the early part of the
eighteenth century, the only convenient means of travel between cities was on foot or on horseback.
Stage-coaches were introduced in 1659, but travel in them proved exceedingly difficult in most
instances because of the extremely poor condition of the rural roads.
Roman Roads

Most of the early Roman roads were of elaborate construction. Some of these roads are still in
existence after over 2000 years. During this period of Roman civilization many roads were built of
stone blocks of considerable thickness.
The main features of Roman roads are:

They were built straight regardless of gradients

They were built after the soft soil was removed and a hard stratum was reached
The total thickness of the construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 meters at some places

A typical cross-section of the Roman road is as shown below.

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The construction procedure has its own steps. The constructed roads were much stronger than what
was required for the animal drawn carts in those days. The enormous cost of construction can not be
justified.
Tresaguet Construction
Piere Tresaguet (1716-1769) developed an improved method of construction in France in 1764. The
main feature of his proposal was that the thickness of construction need be only in the order of 30 cm.
Further due consideration was given by him to subgrade moisture condition and drainage of surface
water.
Typical Cross Section of Tresaguet’s Construction (French’s road)

Metcalf Construction
John Metcalf (1717-1810) was engaged on road construction works in England during the period
when Tresaguet was working in France. Metcalf was responsible for the construction of about 290km
of road in the northern region of England. As Metcalf was blind, much of his work was not recorded.

Telford Construction
Thomas Telford (1757-1834) was the founder of the Institution of Civil Engineers at London. He
believed in using heavy foundation stones above the soil subgrade in order to keep the road
foundation firm.
He insisted on providing a definite cross slope for the top surface of the pavement by varying the
thickness of the foundation stones. Telford also proposed to provide cross-section drains at intervals
of about 90 meters.

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Macadam Construction
John Macadam (1756-1836) put forward an entirely new method of construction as compared to all
the previous methods. The most important modifications made in Macadam’s methods with respect to
the others are:

The importance of sub grade drainage and compaction were recognized and so the sub grade
was compacted and was prepared with sufficient cross-slope.
Macadam was the first person to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at all necessary
to be placed at the bottom layer of construction. He realized that the sub grade being the
lowest portion of the pavement should be prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the
load transmitted through the pavement. Compacted layer of broken stones placed at the
bottom, according to Macadam could replace, with advantage, the heavy foundation stones.
The total thickness of construction, though less than previous methods, could, serve the
purpose in a better way.
The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under animal
drawn vehicles.
Macadam’s method was the first method based on scientific thinking. Various subsequent improved
methods were based on Macadam’s construction and some of the methods still in use are known after
his name.
Typical Cross Section of Macadam’s Construction

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Macadam’s method of construction gained recognition as a scientific method of construction, and
hence was adopted by various countries with slight modifications.
The next development was the bituminous macadam roads and other types of surface dressing
methods using bituminous materials. For better performance superior bituminous materials like
bituminous carpet, sheet asphalt and bituminous concrete were also developed in a scientific way.

Classification of Roads
Types of Roads
The different types of roads are classified in to two categories:
 All-weather roads
 Fair-weather roads, depending on whether they can be used during different seasons of
the year.

All-weather roads are those which are negotiable with all weathers, except at major river crossings
where interruption to traffic is permissible up to a certain extent, the road pavement should be
negotiable during all weathers.

Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather condition are called fair-weather roads; on these
roads, the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways where streams may
overflow across the road.

Based on the type of carriage way or the road pavement, the roads are classified as:-
(i) Paved Roads: are provided with a hard pavement which should be water bound.
(ii) Unpaved Roads: are not provided with a hard pavement course (includes earth roads and
gravel roads)
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, the road types are divided as:-
(i) Surface Roads: are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing
(ii) Unsurfaced Roads: are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing

Methods of Classification of Roads

The roads are generally classified on the following basis
a) Traffic Volume

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b) Load Transported or Tonnage
c) Location and Function

The classification based on location and function should be a more acceptable classification for a
country as the may be defined clearly. As an example the roads in India are classified as follows:
a) National Highways (NH)
b) State Highways (SH)
c) Major District Roads (MDR)
d) Other District Roads (ODR) and
e) Village Roads (VR)

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Overview of the highway planning and development process

Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process. Historically,
detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases of planning and
project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-ways acquisition, construction, and
maintenance. While these are distinct activities, there is considerable overlap in terms of
coordination among the various disciplines that work together, including designers, throughout
the process.
It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that designers and
communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final design features of the
project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed design phase is
limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and project
development.
Successful process includes designer and community involvement from the beginning.
The Stages of Highway Development
Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway development process
are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final design, right of way, and
construction. After construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance activities
continue throughout the life of the facility.

Planning
The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project takes place
during the planning stage. This problem definition occurs at the State, regional, or local level,
depending on the scale of the proposed improvement. This is the key time to get the public

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involved and provide input into the decision making process. The problems identified usually fall
into one or more of the following four categories:
1. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure repair).
2. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
3. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that can
only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
4. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location,
and physical design of access point’s necessary (access).
Whichever problem (or set of problems) is identified, it is important that all parties agree that the
problem exists, pinpoint what the problem is, and decide whether or not they want it fixed. For
example, some communities may acknowledge that a roadway is operating over its capacity but
do not want to improve the roadway for fear that such action will encourage more growth along
the corridor. Road access may be a problem, but a community may decide it is better not to
increase access,
Increased public involvement in highway planning and development is essential to
success.

• Factors to Consider During Planning

It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential impact that a
proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the conceptual phase.
During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and limit the design options in
subsequent phases. Some questions to be asked at the planning stage include:

• How will the proposed transportation improvement affect the general physical character
of the area surrounding the project?
• Does the area to be affected have unique historic or scenic characteristics?
• What are the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the community?

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Answers for such questions are found in planning level analysis, as well as in public involvement
during planning.
Physical
Safety Capacity
Character

Figure1.1 Cost Other

Factors to consider
in planning.

Historic
& Multimodal
Environmental
Scenic Consideration
Quality
Characteristics

Project Development

After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the project
development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies. The level of
environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can
range from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (a comprehensive
document that analyzes the potential impact of proposed alternatives) to a modest environmental
review completed in a matter of weeks. Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product
of the project development process generally includes a description of the location and major
design features of the recommended project that is to be further designed and constructed, while
continually trying to avoid, minimize, and mitigate environmental impact.

The basic steps in this stage include the following:

• Refinement of purpose and need

• Development of a range of alternatives (including the "no build" and traffic management
system [TMS] options)
• Evaluation of alternatives and their impact on the natural and built environments
• Development of appropriate mitigation

In general, decisions made at the project development level help to define the major features of
the resulting project through the remainder of the design and construction process. For example,
if the project development process determines that an improvement needs to take the form of a
four lane divided arterial highway, it may be difficult in the design phase to justify providing
only a two lane highway. Similarly, if the project development phase determines that an existing

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truss bridge cannot be rehabilitated at a reasonable cost to provide the necessary capacity, then it
may be difficult to justify keeping the existing bridge without investing in the cost of a totally
new structure.

Final Design

After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description agreed upon as stated
in the environmental document, a project can move into the final design stage. The product of
this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required quantities
of materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent construction.
Depending on the scale and complexity of the project, the final design process may take from a
few months to several years.

The need to employ imagination, ingenuity, and flexibility comes into play at this stage, within
the general parameters established during planning and project development. Designers need to
be aware of design related commitments made during project planning and project development,
as well as proposed mitigation. They also need to be cognizant of the ability to make minor
changes to the original concept developed during the planning phase that can result in a "better"
final product.

The interests and involvement of affected stakeholders are critical to making design decisions
during this phase, as well. Many of the same techniques employed during earlier phases of the
project development process to facilitate public participation can also be used during the design
phase.

The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:

• Developing a concept
• Considering scale and
• Detailing the design.

Developing a Concept

A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific direction. There
are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of separate but interrelated design
decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve a common goal or concept helps the designer
in making design decisions.

Some of the many elements of highway design are

a. Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
b. Traffic barriers
c. Overpasses/bridges
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape.

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Considering Scale

People driving in a car see the world at a much different scale than people walking on the street.
This large discrepancy in the design scale for a car versus the design scale for people has
changed the overall planning of our communities. For example, it has become common in many
suburban commercial areas that a shopper must get in the car and drive from one store to the
next. Except in the case of strip malls, stores are often separated by large parking lots and usually
have no safe walkways for pedestrians. This makes it difficult to get around any other way but by
car. This type of design scale is in sharp contrast to pre automobile commercial areas that
commonly took the form of "main streets," where walking from one store to the next was the
norm.

Trying to accommodate users of the road who have two different design scales is a difficult task
for designers; however, designers must always consider the safety of pedestrian and non
vehicular traffic, along with the safety of motorists. Both are users of the road. In many road
designs, pedestrian needs were considered only after the needs of motorized vehicles. Not only
does this make for unsafe conditions for pedestrians, it can also drastically change how a
roadway corridor is used. Widening a roadway that once allowed pedestrian access to the two
sides of the street can turn the roadway into a barrier and change the way pedestrians use the
road and its edges.

The design element with the greatest effect on the scale of the roadway is its width, or cross
section. The cross section can include a clear zone, shoulder, parking lanes, travel lanes, and/or
median. The wider the overall roadway, the larger its scale; however, there are some design
techniques that can help to reduce the perceived width and, thus, the perceived scale of the
roadway. Limiting the width of pavement or breaking up the pavement is one option. In some
instances, four lane roadways may look less imposing by designing a grass or planted median in
the center.

Detailing the Design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project that are
important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that important design details are
considered and those they are compatible with community values. Often it is the details of the
project that are most recognizable to the public.

A multidisciplinary design team can produce an aesthetic and functional product when the
members work together and are flexible in applying guidelines.

Right-of-way, Construction, And Maintenance

Once the final designs have been prepared and needed right-of-way is purchased, construction
bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is initiated. During the
right-of-way acquisition and construction stages, minor adjustments in the design may be
necessary; therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the design team throughout

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these stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few months
to several years. Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to
begin its normal sequence of operations and maintenance.

Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road can be

changed by inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of
sections of guardrail damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever
spare guardrail sections may be available to the local highway maintenance
personnel at the time. The maintenance personnel may not be aware of the use
of a special guardrail design to define the "character" of the highway. When
special design treatments are used, ongoing operation and maintenance procedures
acknowledging these unusual needs should be developed.

S t a g e s of Highway Development
O Summaries of the five basic stages in highway planning and development.

Stages Description of Activity

Planning Identification of transportation needs and program project to be built
Within financial constraints.

Project Development The transportation project is more clearly defined. Alternative locations
and design features are developed and an alternative is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and specification.
Right-of-way Land needed for the project is acquired.
construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project.

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