Doran et al.

RESEARCH

Modelling an unconventional closed-loop deep

borehole heat exchanger (DBHE): Sensitivity
Analysis on the Newberry Volcanic Setting
Hannah R. Doran1* , Theo Renaud2 , Gioia Falcone1 , Lehua Pan3 and Patrick G. Verdin2
*
Correspondence:
[email protected] Abstract
1
James Watt, School of
Engineering, University of Geothermal energy is a baseload resource that has the potential to contribute
Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, UK significantly to the transition to a low-carbon future. Alternative
Full list of author information is (unconventional) deep geothermal designs are thus needed to provide a secure
available at the end of the article
and efficient energy supply. Current Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) are
under technical review as a result of the associated low recovery factors and risk
of induced seismicity in connection with reservoir stimulation operations, and
Supercritical EGS (SEGS) concepts are still under early research and
development. The Newberry and Icelandic Deep Drilling Projects (NDDP and
IDDP) aid these developments to drill deeper into very hot temperature zones.
An in-depth sensitivity analysis was investigated considering a deep borehole
closed-loop heat exchanger (DBHE) to overcome the current limitations of deep
EGS. Using the DBHE, cold working fluid is pumped down in the outer annulus
and rises to the surface via natural convection or is pumped up via an inner
tubing. A T2Well/EOS1 model previously calibrated on an experimental DBHE
in Hawaii was adapted to the current NWG 55-29 well at the Newberry volcano
site in Central Oregon. A sensitivity analysis was carried out, including
parameters such as: the working fluid mass flow rate, the casing and cement
thermal properties and the wellbore radii dimensions. The results allow an
assessment of key thermodynamics within the wellbore and provide an insight
into how heat is lost/gained throughout the system. This analysis was performed
under the assumption of sub-critical conditions. Requirements for further software
development are briefly discussed, which would facilitate the modelling of
unconventional geothermal wells in supercritical systems.
Keywords: Closed-loop deep borehole heat exchanger; EGS; NDDP; T2Well;
EOS1

Introduction
Geothermal energy is an ideal candidate to dominate the energy industry in the
foreseeable future. Holding a good reputation at providing a constant supply of
heat and/or electricity, this mature baseload technology could aid the climate crisis
by significantly reducing carbon emissions.
Conventional deep geothermal methods have been utilised to provide power pro-
duction from natural hydrothermal reservoirs with these desired characteristics: a
large heat source, highly permeable, sufficient supply of injected water, imperme-
able layer of cap rock and a reliable recharge system (DiPippo, 2015). Generally,
these sites are unique and restricted by location, severely limiting the true potential
Doran et al. Page 2 of 22

of geothermal energy - according to the International Energy Agency, this resource

could generate 1400T W h per year by 2050 while avoiding 800M t of CO2 (IEA,
2011). This largely untapped resource demands alternative solutions to compete in
the renewable energy market, specifically exploiting unconventional methods to ex-
tract heat, notably from petrothermal sources where permeability and/or porosity
are lacking (Falcone et al, 2018). There are significant research gaps for deep un-
conventional methods where the geothermal gradient is larger than the mean value
of 25 − 30◦ C/km (Olasolo et al, 2016). In an Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS),
cold water is injected at high pressure into the subsurface to stimulate fractures,
hence creating an artificial reservoir (Olasolo et al, 2016). The first EGS project was
in Los Alamos (New Mexico), previously defined as a Hot Dry Rock (HDR) project
due to lack of natural water saturation in basement rocks (Breede et al, 2013; Ola-
solo et al, 2016). EGS’s are currently under technical review as they are associated
with the risk of inducing seismic activity (Lu, 2018). Examples of abandoned EGS
projects due to induced seismicity are the Basel project in Switzerland (Lu, 2018)
and the Pohang project in South Korea (Kim et al, 2018). Fundamental research
and development on Supercritical EGS (SEGS) is ongoing, such as Iceland’s IDDP
projects (Reinsch et al, 2017), the Japan Beyond-Brittle Project (Muraoka et al,
2014) and the DESCRAMBLE project in Italy (Bertani et al, 2018). SEGS’s in-
volve drilling deeper into regions of partial melt past the brittle-ductile transition
zone to achieve a larger flow temperature at the bottom of the wellbore (Cladouhos
et al, 2018). Here, the fluid is expected to reach a supercritical state, with no clear
distinction between the liquid or vapour phase; for pure water, this corresponds to
conditions T > 374◦ C and P > 22.1M P a (Dobson et al, 2017; Sudarmadi et al,
2012). The development of SEGS’s relies on ultra-high temperature technology,
capable of withstanding bottomhole temperatures of 430 − 550◦ C, typical of su-
percritical environments (Lu, 2018). The IDDP-1 well yielded superheated steam
at a temperature of 452◦ C and pressure of 140bar, corresponding to an electricity
generation potential of 35M W e, while in 2017, the IDDP-2 successfully reached
supercritical fluids at 426◦ C and 340bar at a depth of 4659m (DEEPEGS, 2018).
However, IDDP-1 drilling was abandoned after hitting a magma intrusion at 900◦ C
at 2100m and the first flow test of IDDP-2, conducted in December 2019, encoun-
tered delays (DEEPEGS, 2018, 2019). Overcoming the challenges posed by these
unique resources could potentially unlock a five times greater energy content and
a factor of ten times electricity generation potential associated with supercritical
fluids at 400◦ C compared with EGS technology at 200◦ C (Cladouhos et al, 2018).
This study focuses on the Newberry Volcano EGS project in Central Oregon.
This site was one of the first to consider heat extraction from a volcanic source,
in addition to developments in hydroshearing stimulation techniques to mitigate
induced seismicity and adapting a thermally-degradable zonal isolation material to
isolate fractures from intended stimulated zones (Cladouhos et al, 2016). Figure. 1
shows the two wellbores locations - NWG 55-29 and NWG 46-16 - along the western
flank of the volcano.
From Figure 1, the NWG 55-29 was drilled down to 3067m with a bottom well
temperature of 331◦ C (Cladouhos et al, 2016), at subcritical conditions (100◦ C <
T < 374◦ C and 0.1M P a < P < 22.1M P a) (Asl and Khajenoori, 2013), and plans
Doran et al. Page 3 of 22

Figure 1 NDDP site NWG 46-16 and NWG 55-29 wellbore locations (Bonneville et al, 2018).

to deepen the NWG 46-16 well to 4877m are in place to transition into supercritical
environments (Cladouhos et al, 2018). It is important to note that the wells NWG
55-29 and NWG 46-16 are open-loop designs whereby the pumped working fluid is
in direct contact with the reservoir.
A low average flow rate of 3.2kg/s was obtained from a NWG 55-29 stimulation
test, compared to expected conventional EGS flow rates of 50 − 60kg/s (Cladouhos
et al, 2016; MIT, 2006). As a result of this and of the potential risk of induced
seismicity, a deep closed-loop borehole heat exchanger (DBHE) design was assumed
for this study, to be accommodated within the NWG 55-29 open-loop well. The
conventional BHE design was conceived for shallow depths and low temperature
gradients, for heating and cooling applications (Acuña et al, 2011; Beier et al, 2013;
Holmberg et al, 2016). Some DBHE sites already exist, including two deep boreholes
in Weissbad and Weggis in Switzerland, at depths of 1.2km and 2.3km respectively
(Kohl et al, 2000, 2002). To ensure realistic wellbore properties for the synthetic
DBHE in the Newberry settings, casing radii dimensions from these two sites were
applied in this study. See the Sensitivity Analysis section for details.
The modelled DBHE involves pumping cold fluid down the outer annulus, such
that hot fluid rises to surface up the inner tubing via a thermosiphon effect (natural
convection) or through the use of pumps (Tang et al, 2019). The DBHE design was
previously modelled in the Villafortuna abandoned oil well in Italy (Alimonti et al,
2016), the KTB deep borehole project setting in Germany (Falcone et al, 2018)
and the IDDP-1 well in Iceland (Renaud et al, 2019). Replacing the current NWG
55-29 well with a DBHE would not only mitigate the risks of induced seismicity,
but also prevent fluid losses and contamination to the surrounding environment,
as the working fluid is not in direct contact with the surrounding rock (Wang
et al, 2019). Installation costs can also be reduced by decreasing the boreholes
Doran et al. Page 4 of 22

thermal resistance via a thermally enhanced outer pipe in ground-coupled heat

pump systems (Raymond et al, 2015). A heat conducting filler of graphite could
also be implemented around the DBHE design to enhance downhole heat transfer
(Falcone et al, 2018).
Former DBHE studies have relied upon numerical or analytical methods to dis-
cretise the geothermal system into elements within a grid (Alimonti et al, 2018).
A research code T2Well/EOS1, recently developed at Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory for simulating coupled wellbore-reservoir processes involved in geother-
mal systems, was adopted in this study to model appropriate subcritical conditions
in the Newberry volcano area.

Methods
The DBHE was modelled into the Newberry geothermal system with a 2D ax-
isymmetric MESH adopting T2Well/EOS1 (Pan and Oldenburg, 2014). The model
set-up is described below.

Mathematical Model
T2Well/EOS1 is an integrated wellbore-reservoir numerical simulator to simulate
non-isothermal flows of multi-phase fluids (steam-water) in both domains simulta-
neously (Pruess et al, 2012). T2Well was previously used to model various contexts,
such as heat extraction in a closed-loop system with supercritical CO2 as the work-
ing fluid (Higgins et al, 2016) and for a gas storage blow out (Pan et al, 2018).
The equation of state (EOS1) was utilised, representing one non-isothermal water
component under two-phase conditions (Pruess et al, 2012). The applied thermo-
dynamic equations within the reservoir are similar to those used in other TOUGH2
family code and are defined in Table 1.

Table 1 Key reservoir equations

Z Z Z
d
M κ dVn = F κ · ndΓn + q κ dVn (1)
dt Vn Γn Vn

M m = φ(SL ρL XL
κ κ
+ SG ρG XG (2)

F m = XL
κ κ
ρL uL + XG ρG uG (3)

M E = (1 − φ)ρR cR T + φ(ρL SL UL + ρG SG UG ) (4)

F E = −λ∇T + hL ρL uL + hG ρG uG (5)

ka kr,ph
uph = − (∇Pph − ρph g) (6)
µph
Doran et al. Page 5 of 22

Equation (1) depicts the general mass and energy conservation equation with M m ,
F , M E and F E in Equations (2) to (5) representing the mass accumulation, mass
m

flux, energy accumulation and energy flux terms respectively (Renaud et al, 2020).
The phase velocity uph in Equation (6) is solved by adopting a 3D multi-phase
Darcy flow for a heterogeneous porous media.
The key equations for the wellbore used in T2Well/EOS1 are defined in Table 2.
Equation (7) depicts the conservation equation in partial derivative form, with M E
defined in Equation (8) and F E in Equation (9) representing the energy accumula-
tion and flux terms, respectively (Renaud et al, 2020).

Table 2 Key wellbore equations

∂M κ
= qκ + F κ (7)
∂t

u2L u2
M E = ρL SL (UL + + gz cos θ) + ρG SG (UG + G + gz cos θ) (8)
2 2

∂T 1 ∂ u2 u2
F E = −λ − [AρL SL uL (hL + L +gz cos θ)+AρG SG uG (hG + G +gz cos θ)] (9)
∂z A ∂z 2 2

The Drift-Flux model (DFM) is used in solving the two-phase momentum conser-
vation equation in the wellbore. A relationship is assumed between the gas velocity
(uG ) and the volumetric flux of the mixture (j):

uG = C0 j + ud (10)

The liquid velocity uL can then be calculated from j and the drift velocity ud as:

1 − SG C0 SG
uL = j− ud (11)
1 − SG 1 − SG

The drift velocity is thus calculated as (Pan et al, 2005):

(1 − C0 SG )uc K(SG , Ku , C0 )m(θ)

ud = p (12)
C0 SG ρG /ρL + 1 − C0 SG

The velocities uG and uL within the mixture are then solved with ud to obtain the
momentum conservation equation; simplified to Equation (13)(Akbar et al, 2016;
Pan et al, 2011):

∂ 1 ∂ ∂P Γf ρm |um |um
(ρm um ) + [A(ρm u2m + γ)] = − − − ρm g cos θ (13)
∂t A ∂z ∂z 2A
Doran et al. Page 6 of 22

Table 3 defines the remaining parameters from the drift flux model, extracted
from (Pan and Oldenburg, 2014). The mass and energy conservation equations are
solved using the Newton Raphson iteration process (Pruess et al, 2012).

Table 3 Key drift flux parameters in Equation (13)

Description Equation
Slip between two phases γ = SG (ρG ρL ρm /ρ∗2 2
m )[(C0 − 1)um + ud ] /(1 − SG )
Mixture density ρm = SG ρG + (1 − SG )ρL
Mixture velocity um = [SG ρG uG + (1 − SG )ρL uL ]/ρm
Adjusted average density of mixture ρ∗m = SG C0 ρG + (1 − SG C0 )ρL

Newberry case-study
The DBHE was modelled into the Newberry geothermal system by replacing the
NWG 55-29 well with the unconventional closed-loop design. The DBHE model
built with T2Well/EOS1 is based on an experimental study from (Morita et al,
1992b), whereby the measured and computed pressure and temperature values were
verified with the HGP-A well site in Hawaii (Morita et al, 1992b). The DBHE design
is presented in Figure 2, alongside the 2D axisymmetric grid representation; note
Casg1 is the inner casing separating the outer annulus and the inner tubing and
Casg2 is the external casing separating the outer annulus and the cement (Ceme1).

Figure 2 DBHE design implemented in T2Well/EOS1. Left - 2D asymmetric MESH containing

2752 cells in the r (1 − 200m) and z (+1599.50m to − 1580m) axis, interpreted from (Morita
et al, 1992b; Sonnenthal et al, 2012). Right - Well completion diagram of the DBHE interpreted
from (Cladouhos et al, 2016). Both depict the casing and cement sections at appropriate
elevations in T2Well/EOS1, interpreted from (Tang et al, 2019; Toth, 2015).

The DBHE model was based on the Newberry 55-29 well from (Cladouhos et al,
2016). The original completion diagram from (Morita et al, 1992b) was altered to
account for the increase in depth from 879.5m to the NWG 55-29 wellbore depth
of 3067m (Cladouhos et al, 2016). Figure 2 highlights key elevation depths for each
section to account for these changes. The slotted liner was removed in the model
and the bottom of the well reached an elevation of −1267m.
The Newberry geothermal area was defined according to the thermal-hydrological-
chemical model adopted from (Sonnenthal et al, 2012). Four geological zones were
highlighted within the volcanic area and incorporated into the model at the speci-
fied elevation with known thermodynamic properties obtained from (Sammel et al,
Doran et al. Page 7 of 22

1988; Sonnenthal et al, 2012). Properties such as porosity φ, permeability k, specific

heat capacity cP and thermal conductivity λ were tabulated in (Doran, 2019; Re-
naud et al, 2020). Thermodynamic wellbore properties were also incorporated from
(Morita et al, 1992a) where φ, k, cP , λ and density ρ were tabulated in (Doran,
2019). Water was injected into the outer annulus at a temperature of 12◦ C with an
imposed mass flow rate ṁ.
The top boundary condition of the reservoir model was set with a surface temper-
ature of 12◦ C and a surface atmospheric pressure of 1bar (Sonnenthal et al, 2012).
The default pressure for the boundary condition on the DBHE was set to 3bar to
prevent effects from local vacuum conditions reaching the lower limit of the code.
Only heat flow was considered between the wellbore and reservoir to reflect the
closed-loop design, excluding fluid flow. As shown in (Sonnenthal et al, 2012), the
upper part of the reservoir was defined by constant thermodynamic values. It was
assumed in the model that the pressure and temperature were constant at eleva-
tion +1600m, neglecting the pressure and thermal losses in the water table defined
between +1800m and +1600m.

T2Well numerical validation

Experimental validation
The experimental data from a DBHE in Hawaii set at the depth of 879.6m was used
to validate the T2Well model (Morita et al, 1992b). The pressure and temperature
distribution in the first 12 hours showed a good match between measured values and
simulations as illustrated in Figure 3. Model properties and details can be found in
(Renaud et al, 2020).

Figure 3 Left - Transient pressure simulation with T2Well compared to measurements from
(Morita et al, 1992b).Right - Transient temperature simulation with T2Well compared to
measurements from (Morita et al, 1992b)

Numerical discussion
A DBHE with graphite on the wellbore was numerically investigated using FE-
FLOW (Falcone et al, 2018). While authors in (Falcone et al, 2018) used constant
water properties, T2Well uses the pressure and temperature dependent thermo-
physical properties based on models suggested by the International Formulation
Doran et al. Page 8 of 22

Committee (IFC, 1967). As stated in (Sui et al, 2019; Tang et al, 2019), constant
fluid properties seem to generate errors in the pressure losses calculation and heat
produced in DBHEs. The produced water temperature and heat flux were underesti-
mated for a DBHE of 6100m (Alimonti and Soldo, 2016) and overestimated by 11%
in a DBHE of 3500m (Hu et al, 2020). These errors occurred due to not accounting
for specific heat capacity and density changes within the DBHE. Compared with
constant water properties, these changes would increase the total heat energy while
decreasing the temperature of the return fluid.
The same deep geothermal system was modeled based on the KTB deep bore-
hole project, reaching a reservoir depth of 8000m (Falcone et al, 2018), using
T2Well/EOS1. While a 3D model was considered in (Falcone et al, 2018), the
T2Well model used in this work is an axisymmetric RZ mesh centred on the well-
bore. Graphite is implemented with a thermal conductivity value of 300W/m.K
and an assumed porosity of 1%.
The T2Well grid contains 1030 elements. The maximum radial extension of the
model is 1 km. The bottom of the DBHE was set at a depth of 7000m. Water was
injected in the annulus at the flow rate of 304.8m3 /d (∼ 7kg/s). The reservoir was
assumed to be fully saturated water. The surface temperature was set to 15◦ C, with
an initial temperature gradient of 40◦ C/km. The bottom temperature is 330◦ C. The
graphite filled the surrounding of the DBHE from the depth of 4400 and 7200m
instead of the cement or grout. The value of casing materials is 900J/kg.K and
the wall roughness is 2.5 × 10−5 m. The thermal properties of the rock and DBHE
sections applied in the model can be found in (Falcone et al, 2018; Seyidov, 2016).
Fig. 4 describes the water temperature at the surface of the DBHE compared to
the FEFLOW results.

Figure 4 Numerical results comparison from (Falcone et al, 2018) and the T2well/EOS1 model.

From this case study, the temperature obtained at the surface of the DBHE was
lower than previously described in (Falcone et al, 2018), suggesting the potential
overestimation of the water temperature using constant water properties due to
changes in the specific heat value (Song et al, 2018). As stated by (Hu et al, 2020),
the temperature dependent properties as calculated in T2Well/EOS1, must be con-
sidered for long term performance evaluation of DBHE.
Doran et al. Page 9 of 22

Sensitivity Analysis
Table 4 summarises the parameters investigated in this study: mass flow rate of
water ṁ(kg/s), thermal conductivity λ(W/mK) of the casings and cement (see
Figure 2), and the wellbore inner ri (m) and outer ro (m) radii dimensions for the
annulus and tubing. All parameter changes were referenced against a base case
scenario from (Morita et al, 1992b).
The working fluid velocity uF at the bottom of the well was explored for values
3kg/s < ṁ < 9kg/s (See Mass Flow rate section).
An insulated inner casing is advantageous for preventing heat losses between the
inner tubing and the outer annulus, hence maximising the extracted energy flow rate
at the outlet (Falcone et al, 2018; Song et al, 2018). Therefore, the effectiveness of an
insulated inner casing as inner tubing for the DBHE was investigated by adjusting
λ(W/m.K) of Casg1 whilst ṁ was fixed at 5kg/s. Note 46.1W/m.K was chosen as
an upper limit to explore the heat transfer through the design when all three casing
properties are identical - Casg2 = Casg3 at λ = 46.1W/m.K - (see Inner casing
properties section).
Fixing Casg1 at λ = 0.01038W/m.K and ṁ = 5kg/s, the outer casing thermal
conductivity λ was adjusted based on quoted values in Table 4. The casing properties
extracted from the Weissbad DBHE and the NWG 55-29 well were explored here
(see Outer casing properties section).
Fixing ṁ, Casg1 and Casg2 properties to the base case values quoted in Table 4,
the thermal conductivity λ parameter for various cements was explored. The use
of a heat conducting filler for enhanced heat transfer (graphite flakes positioned
laterally and parallel to one another) was also investigated (Falcone et al, 2018) at
λ = 300W/m.K (see Cement properties section).
Four wellbore radii cases were investigated: annulus reduction (Case 1), annulus
increase (Case 2), tubing increase (Case 3) and tubing reduction (Case 4) against
the base case radii dimensions from (Morita et al, 1992b). Again, the mass flow rate
was fixed at ṁ = 5kg/s. Case 1 involved an annulus reduction by 1.27, incorporating
ri = 0.0629m from the Weggis plant (Kohl et al, 2002). Case 2 involved an annulus
increase by 1.33 by implementing ri = 0.1061m from the Weissbad well (Kohl et al,
2000). Case 3 values were chosen so the tubing increase factor was equal to that
of Case 2 (1.33). Case 4 tubing reduction by 1.22 was influenced by ro = 0.0365m
tubing dimensions from the Weggis well (Kohl et al, 2002). For all radii changes,
the annular space between ri and ro remained constant at 0.0092m and 0.0192m
for the annulus and tubing respectively.
The heat transfer down the outer annulus and up the inner tubing was investigated
for each parameter change and compared to the base case scenario from (Morita
et al, 1992b) seen in Table 4. For each parameter change, the temperature T (◦ C) and
pressure P (MPa) vs elevation (m) was investigated over a total simulation time of
30 years. In addition, the simulated energy flow rate of the wellbore qT h (M W ) was
also extracted from the output file. A review on the energy flow rate for the closed-
loop DBHE vs open-loop NWG 55-29 wellbore was explored and concludes this
Doran et al. Page 10 of 22

Table 4 Parameter changes investigated in the DBHE model.

Parameters Values Description Base case

ṁ(kg/s) 3-5-7-9 5

Inner casing properties

0.01038 Insulated 1
1.163 Morita 2
Casg1 λ(W/mK) 0.01038
2.5
46.1 Morita 3

Outer casing properties

46.1 Morita 2
45.0 Weissbad 4
Casg2-3 λ(W/mK) 46.1
15.0 Newberry 5
0.01038 Insulated 1

Cement properties
0.99 Morita 3
2.24 REF concrete 6
Ceme 1-2 λ(W/mK) 0.99
3.52 GRAP concrete 6
300 Graphite flakes 1
Radii
0.0797/0.0889 Morita
0.0629/0.0721 Case 1
Annulus radii ri /ro (m) 0.1061/0.1153 Case 2 0.0797/0.0889
0.0797/0.0889 Case 3
0.0797/0.0889 Case 4

0.0253/0.0445 Morita
0.0253/0.0445 Case 1
Tubing radii ri /ro (m) 0.0253/0.0445 Case 2 0.0253/0.0445
0.0336/0.0528 Case 3
0.0173/0.0365 Case 4
1 Insulated inner casing 0.01038W/mK, cited from (Falcone et al, 2018).
2 Thermal conductivity values quoted from (Morita et al, 1985).
3 Thermal conductivity values quoted from (Morita et al, 1992a).
4 Weissbad parameters quoted from (Kohl et al, 2000).
5 Newberry parameters quoted from (Cladouhos, 2012).
6 Cement parameters obtained from (Asadi et al, 2018).

study. The energy flow rate is estimated for the NWG 55-29 wellbore by adopting
equation (14) below:

qT h = cP ṁ∆T (14)

Where ∆T = To − Ti , To = 94◦ C representing the first flow back temperature

recorded at the outlet point of the NWG 55-29 wellbore (Cladouhos et al, 2016) and
Ti = 12◦ C is the surface temperature of the Newberry environment (Sonnenthal
et al, 2012). cP = 4200J/kg ◦ C is assumed a constant for pure water properties. See
Energy flow rate comparison between DBHE and NWG 55-29 section for details.

Results
Mass flow rate
Figure 5 shows the temperature and pressure distributions along the DBHE for
varied ṁ. Table 5 highlights key thermodynamic properties from Figure 5 and the
simulation output file: ∆T between inlet Ti and outlet To points, energy flow rate
qT h and the working fluid velocity uF at the bottom of the wellbore:
From Figure 5, it appears that an increase in ṁ results in a lower bottom well
temperature (32◦ C for 9kg/s in comparison to 73◦ C for 3kg/s). This decrease is
Doran et al. Page 11 of 22

Figure 5 Mass flow rate analysis over 30 years. Left - Temperature vs Elevation for various
ṁ(kg/s). Right - Pressure vs Elevation for various ṁ(kg/s). Solid lines represent annulus and
dashed lines tubing data respectively. Legend applies to both graphs. All cases were compared
with the base-case graph (in yellow).

Table 5 Key thermodynamic properties for various ṁ(kg/s) quoted to 3 significant figures (3.s.f)
ṁ(kg/s) ∆T (◦ C) qT h (M W ) uF (m/s)
3 59.6 1.14 1.51
5 38.9 1.46 2.48
7 30.0 1.76 3.45
9 25.7 2.06 4.42

observed in response to an increase in working fluid velocity (4.42m/s vs 1.51m/s),

leading to a shorter residence time. An increased ṁ up the tubing results in a lower
outlet temperature (34.5◦ C for 9kg/s in comparison to 71.4◦ C for 3kg/s). A slight
gain in temperature up the tubing is also observed (a 2.48◦ C increase for 9kg/s in
comparison to a 2.06◦ C decrease for 3kg/s). This could be due to a higher pressure
reduction up the tubing (∆P = 43.7M P a for 9kg/s vs ∆P = 29.4M P a for 3kg/s).
A mass flow rate value of 9kg/s displays the highest qT h compared with 3kg/s and
yields the largest ∆T up the tubing. Ideally, ∆T should be minimised up the tubing
to enhance the systems efficiency by extracting more heat from the surrounding
formations. A balance between efficiency and energy flow rate should be achieved.
Due to 9kg/s causing too high of a friction loss up the tubing and inducing higher
pumping costs as shown by an increased inlet pressure (15.9M P a as opposed to
1.62M P a for 3kg/s), and 3kg/s yielding the lowest energy flow rate (1.14M W ),
5kg/s is considered the best-case scenario with minimal ∆T up the tubing and an
energy flow rate of qT h = 1.46M W .

Inner casing properties

Figure 6 shows the temperature and pressure distributions along the DBHE for
varied λ in Casg1. Table 6 summarises key thermodynamic properties extracted
from Figure 6 and from the simulation output file: ∆T between inlet (Ti ) and
outlet (To ) points and the energy flow rate qT h .
∆T down the annulus is seen to increase while λ increases in Casg1 (∆T = 39.2◦ C
for λ = 0.01038W/m.K compared with ∆T = 216◦ C for λ = 46.1W/m.K). This
Doran et al. Page 12 of 22

Figure 6 Thermal conductivity analysis in inner casing (Casing 1) over 30 years Left -
Temperature vs Elevation for various λ(W/mK). Right - Pressure vs Elevation for various
λ(W/mK). Solid lines represent annulus and dashed lines tubing data respectively. Legend applies
to both graphs. All cases were compared to the base-case graph (in blue).

Table 6 Key thermodynamic properties for various λ(W/mK) quoted to 3.s.f

λ(W/mK) ∆T (◦ C) qT h (M W )
0.01038 38.9 1.46
1.163 33.3 1.35
2.5 28.8 1.25
46.1 8.19 0.830

is in agreement with Fourier’s law of heat conduction (Nuclear-power.net, 2019)

via an increase in heat transfer from the reservoir into the wellbore. The inlet
pressure remains approximately constant at 5M P a due to the constant mass flow
rate of 5kg/s imposed. In addition, the outlet pressure remains constant at 0.3M P a.
Using a thermal conductivity λ > 0.01038W/m.K, the temperature up the tubing
significantly reduces as a result of low thermal insulation between the annulus and
tubing (Song et al, 2018). For maximum efficiency, ∆T should be minimised to
follow an isothermal process to surface. In fact, λ = 46.1W/mK is considered the
worst-case scenario when all casing properties are identical and thermal insulation
is at its lowest. A higher λ yields a smaller ∆T between the inlet and outlet points
and hence a smaller energy flow rate qT h (0.830M W vs 1.46M W ), again due to
poor thermal insulation. Therefore, minimising the thermal conductivity in Casg1
(λ = 0.01038W/mK) is the best-case scenario to achieve maximal bottomhole T
and preventing significant cooling of the fluid up the tubing.

Outer casing properties

Figure 7 displays the temperature and pressure distributions along the DBHE for
varied λ in the outer casing. The first three parameter changes result in nearly
identical temperature and pressure profiles. Therefore, two cases were compared:
λ = 0.01038W/m.K for the inner Casg1 only (red), and for all casings (green).
Table 7 highlights key thermodynamic properties from Figure 6 and the output file:
∆T between inlet Ti and outlet To points, the inlet Pi and outlet Po pressure points
and the simulated energy flow rate qT h for these two cases.
Doran et al. Page 13 of 22

Figure 7 Thermal conductivity analysis in outer casings for fixed ṁ = 5(kg/s) over 30 years.
Left - Temperature vs Elevation for various λ(W/mK). Right - Pressure vs Elevation for various
λ(W/mK). Solid lines represent annulus and dashed lines tubing data respectively. The base-case
graph here is highlighted in red.

Table 7 Key results comparing insulating properties for only Casg1 and for all casings to 3.s.f

Key Results Only Casg1 All Casings

Ti (◦ C) 11.1 10.9
To (◦ C) 50.0 17.8
∆T (◦ C) 38.9 6.92
Pi (M P a) 4.97 5.23
Po (M P a) 0.302 0.302
qT h (M W ) 1.46 0.785

When all casings are insulated at λ = 0.01038W/m.K, a lower bottomhole tem-

perature (17.2◦ C vs 50.4◦ C) is observed in addition to a lower outlet temperature
(To = 17.8◦ C vs To = 50.0◦ C). This is due to insufficient heat transfer between
the reservoir and wellbore. ∆T between the inlet and outlet points decreases ap-
proximately by a factor of 6 (6.92◦ C vs 38.9◦ C) and hence results in a reduction
in qT h (0.785M W vs 1.46M W ) as the water fails to gain significant temperature
down the annulus when all casings are insulated. Therefore, to ensure an efficient
thermal recovery, the best-case scenario is observed when only the inner casing is
insulated at λ = 0.1038W/mK compared to all casing. This is because Casg1 is
most sensitive to ∆T up the tubing - as seen in Mass flow rate section above.

Cement properties
Figure 8 shows the temperature and pressure distributions along the DBHE for
varied λ cement properties (Ceme1 and Ceme2 in Figure 2). Key thermodynamic
properties extracted from Figure 8 and from the simulation output file are sum-
marised in Table 8: ∆T between inlet Ti and outlet To points, and the simulated
energy flow rate qT h .
The bottomhole temperature down the annulus increases from 50.4◦ C to 60.9◦ C
for λ = 0.99W/m.K and λ = 300W/m.K respectively. Hence, To increases as a
result of an increase in λ within the cement, suggesting this parameter change en-
hances the amount of heat transfer between the reservoir and working fluid. In
Doran et al. Page 14 of 22

Figure 8 Thermal conductivity analysis in cement layers for fixed ṁ = 5(kg/s) over 30 years.
Left - Temperature vs Elevation for various λ(W/m.K). Right - Pressure vs Elevation for various
λ(W/m.K). Solid lines represent annulus and dashed lines tubing data respectively. Legend
applies to both graphs. The base-case graph here is highlighted in blue.

Table 8 Key thermodynamic properties for various λ(W/m.K) to 3.s.f

λ(W/m.K) ∆T (◦ C) qT h (M W )
0.99 38.9 1.46
2.24 43.8 1.57
3.52 45.5 1.60
300 49.0 1.67

particular, this heat transfer is hindered when λ is lower than that of the reservoir,
as identified in Song et al. 2018 (Song et al, 2018). As λ predominantly affects T
and not P (as seen in Inner tubing properties section), the pressure distribution
along the DBHE shows similar results for all parameter changes. Referring to Ta-
ble 8, λ is maximised in conjunction with qT h , with a percentage increase of 14.4%
comparing conventional cement with a graphite heat conductive filler (1.67M W for
λ = 0.99W/m.K vs 1.46M W for λ = 300W/m.K). While the use of graphite signif-
icantly empowers the heat transfer in the DBHE design, its use as a cement additive
is an unproved concept. Therefore, λ < 3.52W/m.K parameters are deemed more
reasonable as best-case scenario’s because conventional cement falls into the region
of 0.2 < λ < 3.63W/m.K (Ichim et al, 2016).

Radii
Figure 9 shows the temperature and pressure distributions along the DBHE for
varied radii. Two key scenarios were analysed: varying annulus radii (Case1 and
Case2) and increasing annulus and tubing radii by a constant factor of 1.33 (Case2
and Case3). Each scenario was then compared to the original base-case radii from
(Morita et al, 1992b), with a constant mass flow rate ṁ = 5kg/s. Table 9 and
Table 10 highlight the key thermodynamic properties from Figure 9 and the output
file for each scenario respectively: ∆T between inlet Ti and outlet To points, the
inlet Pi and outlet Po pressure points, the simulated energy flow rate qT h and the
working fluid velocity uF at the bottom of the well.
Doran et al. Page 15 of 22

Figure 9 Radii analysis for fixed ṁ = 5(kg/s) over 30 years. Left - Temperature vs Elevation
for the original, annulus reduction (Case1), annulus increase (Case2) and tubing increase (Case3)
radii. Right - Pressure vs Elevation for the same cases. Solid lines represent annulus and dashed
lines for tubing data respectively. Legend applies to both graphs. The Original case (in blue)
represents the base-case scenario.

Table 9 Key results when varying annulus with original radii dimensions to 3.s.f

Key Results Original Case1 Case2

Ti (◦ C) 11.1 10.9 11.2
To (◦ C) 50.0 48.5 51.8
∆T (◦ C) 38.9 37.6 40.6
Pi (M P a) 4.97 5.90 4.87
Po (M P a) 0.302 0.302 0.302
uF (m/s) 2.48 2.48 2.48
qT h (M W ) 1.46 1.43 1.50

Table 10 Key results when increasing annulus and tubing by 1.33 with original radii dimensions to
3.s.f

Key Results Original Case2 Case3

Ti (◦ C) 11.1 11.2 11.8
To (◦ C) 50.0 51.8 49.6
∆T (◦ C) 38.9 40.6 37.8
Pi (M P a) 4.97 4.87 1.35
Po (M P a) 0.3025 0.302 0.300
uF (m/s) 2.48 2.48 1.41
qT h (M W ) 1.46 1.50 1.45

Concerning the annulus comparison in Table 9, the bottomhole temperature de-

creases from 50.4◦ C to 48.8◦ C alongside a radii reduction (Case1) and increases to
52.3◦ C alongside a radii increase (Case2). This occurs due to variation in the annu-
lus area. For Case2, the annulus area increase consequently increases the working
fluid contact surface area. This leads to a longer residence time and hence enhanced
heat transfer within the wellbore, as discussed in (Nalla et al, 2005). To also shows
this trend, decreasing from 50.0◦ C to 48.5◦ C for Case1 and increasing to 51.8◦ C for
Case2. Despite the bottom working fluid velocity being constant at 2.48m/s, the
velocity down the annulus will differ due to the radii change. Observing the velocity
before it reaches the bottom, it is clear that an increase is observed (0.363m/s vs
0.803m/s) for an annulus reduction (Case1) and a decrease (0.363m/s vs 0.171m/s)
for an annulus increase (Case2), see Figure 10.
Doran et al. Page 16 of 22

Figure 10 Illustration for Cases 1 and 2 at the bottom of the well. Working fluid velocity uF
and frictional pressure F values are shown for Cases 1 and 2. These values were extracted from
the output files for connections between the bottom cell and the one above, as depicted by the
red vertical arrows. The horizontal arrow is not modelled in T2Well/EOS1 but is here to represent
the differences between the two cells. This image is not to scale.

Pi is seen to slightly increase from 4.97M P a to 5.90M P a for a radii reduction

(Case1) and decrease from 4.97M P a to 4.87M P a for a radii increase (Case2) due
to changes in contact surface area. However, both Case1 and Case2 reach an equal
bottomhole pressure of 33.1M P a which results in Po ≈ 0.302M P a for both cases.
qT h increased from 1.46M W to 1.50 alongside a radii reduction (Case1) and
slightly decreased to 1.45M W for a radii increase (Case2). The former is influ-
enced by the working fluid’s gain in velocity from a decrease in contact surface
area by a factor of 1.72, in addition to a larger δT between inlet and outlet points.
Therefore, a radii reduction in the annulus (Case2) is the best-case scenario here
for maximal energy flow rate.
Case4 (tubing reduction by 1.22) failed to run for ṁ = 5kg/s due to a change
in pressure into the wellbore that exceeded the limits of the software, 1000bars
(Renaud et al, 2018). For a constant ṁ = 5kg/s, at time t = 0, the pressure
seen at the bottom of the well was 0.25 × 108 P a but below the DBHE in the
surrounding formation the pressure reached 1 × 109 P a, i.e. 1000bars. Therefore,
Table 10 summarizes the results when the annulus and tubing were increased by an
equal factor of 1.33 (Case2 and Case3 respectively).
Temperature down the annulus is seen to slightly increase from 50.4◦ C to 52.3◦ C
for the annulus increase (Case2) and a slight increase to 50.9◦ C for a tubing increase
(Case3). Again, this is due to adjusting the annulus area as explained above. For
instance, Case3 exhibits a smaller annulus radius compared with Case2, leading to
a lower bottomhole temperature from a reduction in the working fluid’s velocity
(1.41m/s vs 2.48m/s). To is also seen to increase from 50.0◦ C to 51.8◦ C for Case2
and decrease to 49.6◦ C for Case3.
Case3 exhibits a smaller Pi compared with Case2 (1.35M P a vs 4.87M P a). This is
again due to Case3 acquiring a smaller annulus radius, reducing the contact surface
area and the working fluid’s velocity at the inlet point - and hence a lower inlet
pressure compared with Case2.
qT h is seen to be nearly identical at 1.46M W for Case3 and the original radii.
However, Case2 is observed to have a slight increase at qT h = 1.50M W due to
Doran et al. Page 17 of 22

a higher ∆T between inlet and outlet points. It can be inferred that when the
tubing radii increases, there is little influence on the value of qT h apart from a
slight heat loss up the tubing. On the contrary, the annulus radii increase heavily
influences the extent of heat transfer down the annulus and offers a higher qT h
from an increased bottomhole temperature. The best-case scenario concluded here
is for a radii increase in the annulus (Case2). However, despite an increase in energy
efficiency, high drilling costs can incur when adjusting the radii according to (Nalla
et al, 2005).
It is worth noting that the assumption of a constant wellbore radius along the
wellbore is only a preliminary step, as wells are conventionally drilled with decreas-
ing diameter sections at increasing depths (Nalla et al, 2005). However, keeping
a constant radius for the entirety of the wellbore depth simplifies the model, as
experimented in (Morita et al, 1992b).

Energy flow rate comparison between DBHE and NWG 55-29

Assuming an average flow rate of 3.2kg/s, and ∆T = 94 − 12 = 82◦ C obtained
from the first NWG 55-29 flow back test (Cladouhos et al, 2016), in addition to
cP = 4200J/kg ◦ C for pure water, the energy flow rate obtained at the wellhead of
NWG 55-29 is approximately qT h = 1.10M W . Comparing this to the DBHE results
at 3kg/s - qT h = 1.14M W - it can be inferred that the DBHE offers a slightly higher
energy flow rate at the wellhead compared to the NWG 55-29 open-loop well with
a percentage increase of 3.44%. It is important to note that this comparison is an
estimate and in reality, ṁ and cP will vary considerably with depth.
A comparison between the two designs is also interpreted by assessing the bottom-
hole temperature at a fixed depth of 3067m. Assuming no major temperature losses
up the tubing (±5◦ C), the temperature at the wellbore bottom can be regarded as
the temperature at the outlet point.
The highest bottomhole temperature observed in this sensitivity analysis with-
out significant heat loss up the tubing is 73.4◦ C for 3kg/s in the ṁ parameter
change, whereas the conventional open-loop NWG 55-29 wellbore reached a static
bottomhole temperature of 331◦ C (Cladouhos et al, 2016). Both examples are at a
fixed depth of 3067m. Taking ∆qT h = 0.956 − (−0.200) = 1.16M W as the simu-
lated energy flow rate between the wellbore bottom and the inlet point for 3kg/s, a
comparison can be made with that obtained in the conventional NWG 55-29 well.
Assuming constant parameters ṁ = 3kg/s, cP = 4200J/kg ◦ C for pure water
and ∆T = 331 − 12 = 319◦ C, then qT h = 4.02M W for the NWG 55-29 wellbore
in comparison to qT h = 1.16M W for the DBHE design. This concludes that the
closed-loop DBHE design offers an energy flow rate output approximately a factor
of 3.5 lower than that of the conventional design.
However, the highest energy flow rate obtained in the ṁ analysis was for 9kg/s
- yielding ∆qT h = 1.45 − (−0.614) = 2.06M W for a bottomhole temperature of
32.1◦ C in comparison to qT h = 12.1M W for the NWG 55-29 wellbore at a fixed
ṁ = 9kg/s. This yields an energy flow rate drop for the DBHE of approximately a
factor of 5.84 lower in comparison to the static NWG 55-29 bottomhole temperature
of 331◦ C.
Doran et al. Page 18 of 22

These mass flow rates were chosen for comparison because according to (Cladouhos
et al, 2016), similar values were obtained for an initial flow test (9.5kg/s down to
5.7kg/s after 1 hour, with an average flow rate 3.2kg/s).
The estimate of qT h for NWG 55-29 carries some uncertainty, especially when
defining cP because phase changes will occur with depth and the specific heat ca-
pacity will change as a result of this. In the T2Well/EOS1 software, these phase
changes are taken into account so the simulated energy flow rate values will carry
accuracy. Nevertheless, it can be inferred that the closed-loop design is associated
with a lower heat extraction potential compared to that of an operating EGS (as-
suming the EGS is successful) – especially when a lower ṁ results in lower wellhead
temperatures, according to (Alimonti et al, 2018).
However, a DBHE solution for the current NWG 55-29 well would not require
stimulation to create an artificial reservoir, and hence less energy consumption is
initially used up. Furthermore, the DBHE is a closed system, which enables easy
monitoring and prevents fluid losses and pipe corrosion/blockage. For EGS projects
where unexpected failures occur, the DBHE design could be an effective alternative.
For example, an EGS site at Rosemanowes in Cornwall failed to create artificial
fractures and suffered fluid loss of 70% - leading to project abandonment in 1991
(Lu, 2018). EGS activites in Cornwall, UK is ongoing and having the DBHE as a
backup option could be beneficial, especially if drilling does not meet expectations.
While supercritical depths in the Newberry reservoir could not be modelled in
this study due to software limitations, numerical wellbore-reservoir modelling will
need to be further developed by adopting a supercritical equation of state (EOS1sc),
see for example (Battistelli et al, 2020; Croucher and O’Sullivan, 2008), to assess
the true thermal potential in these ultra-high temperature environments, notably
targeted in the NDDP and IDDP projects.
It is also worth noting that only the thermal energy flow rate was quantified in
this study. In fact, the overall net thermal capacity and total efficiency of the system
should be investigated, considering the pumping power required for fluid circulation.
Other future work entails:
• The return flow pressure at the bottom of the wellbore should be validated
with another experimental study or Multiphysics software.
• Exploring a variety of working fluids, including water with salinity, carbon
dioxide (Sun et al, 2019), or isobutane as a supercritical fluid (Wang et al,
2019).
• Investigating more complex unconventional DBHE designs, such as an artifi-
cial geyser concept (Heller et al, 2014).
• Investigating the effects of anisotropic reservoir permeability/porosity on
DBHE thermal recovery.

Conclusion
An in-depth sensitivity analysis was performed with reference to a base-case DBHE
design from (Morita et al, 1992b), and was modelled into the NWG 55-29 Newberry
environment.
The best-case scenarios that offered maximal thermal efficiency was: ṁ = 5kg/s,
an insulated inner tubing for Casg1 of λ = 0.01038W/mK, maintaining a high
Doran et al. Page 19 of 22

λ for the outer casings (Casg2, Casg3) and the cement layers (Ceme1, Ceme2)
and increasing the annulus radii (Case2), with a resulting thermal output qT h =
1.50M W .
Each parameter change offered some interesting insights. Altering the mass flow
rate influenced the working fluid’s velocity and its residence time down the annu-
lus. An insulated inner tubing limits heat losses and minimises ∆T up the tubing.
The outer casing properties do not significantly affect the heat transfer inside the
wellbore, but should not be insulated to ensure sufficient heat transfer occurs be-
tween the reservoir and wellbore. The cement properties lead to a higher qT h when
λ was maximised and the use of graphite flakes in a conductive filler as opposed to
conventional cement appears to be an efficient, though unproved concept, yielding
a percentage increase in energy flow rate of 14.4% (qT h = 2.32M W ). Adjusting the
radii dimensions will affect the residence time of the working fluid, similar to the
sensitivity analysis conducted for varying the mass flow rate.
An energy flow rate comparison was made between this study and the conventional
NWG 55-29 EGS well. The results showed that the DBHE was a factor of 3.5 and
5.84 lower when assuming constant mass flow rates of 3kg/s and 9kg/s, respectively.
While the DBHE design has a lower heat extraction and efficiency compared to
conventional EGS designs, when the latter are feasible, it can mitigate typical EGS
risks e.g. induced seismicity, fluid losses and contamination. Future EGS projects
should therefore consider the DBHE as an alternative design in situations where
drilling may achieve original projects expectations.
Further work is needed to fully quantify the potential of the DBHE concept. The
use of Multiphysics software and/or experimental data will be useful to validate the
uncertainties in the pressure losses from the return fluid at the wellbore bottom.
In addition, a variety of working fluid’s and unconventional DBHE designs should
be explored. Numerical wellbore-reservoir modelling tools will need to be further
developed for supercritical environments, using the IDDP and NDDP projects for
initial verification and calibration.

Abbreviations
List of symbols
κ: index for the working fluid; V : volume (m3 ); n: outward normal vector; Γ: surface area of well side (m2 ); M κ :
mass accumulation term; F κ : key mass/energy transport terms; q κ : key source/sink terms; φ: porosity; S: local
saturation of phase; ρ: density of phase (kg/m3 ); X mass fraction of water in phase; u: velocity of fluid (m/s); c
specific heat capacity (J/kg ◦ C); T : temperature (◦ C); U : specific thermal energy in the phase; λ: thermal
conductivity (W/mK); h: specific enthalpy in phase; (kJ/kg); k: permeability (m2 orDarcy); µph : phase
viscocity of the fluid (P aseconds); P : pressure (P a); g: gravitational acceleration (m/s2 ); z: elevation in well
(m); θ: inclination angle of wellbore (◦ ); A: cross sectional area of wellbore (m2 ); C0 : profile parameter; j:
volumetric flux of mixture (m/s); K: function to smooth transition of drift velocity from fluid stages; Ku :
Kutateladze number; m(θ): inclination of wellbore; γ: slip between two phases; f : apparent friction coefficient; ṁ:
mass flow rate (kg/s); r: horizontal radii dimension (m); ∆T : change in temperature up tubing or down annulus
(◦ C); qT h : energy flow rate (M W ).

Subscripts
ph: phase; L: liquid phase; G: gaseous phase; R: rock properties; a: absolute permeability; r, ph: relative
permeability of a certain phase d: drift velocity; c: characteristic velocity; m mixture;i: inlet; o: outlet; F : working
fluid at wellbore bottom.

Acronyms
DBHE: deep borehole heat-exchanger; EGS: Enhanced Geothermal System; SEGS: Supercritical Enhanced
Geothermal System; NDDP: Newberry Deep Drilling Project; IDDP: Icelandic Deep Drilling Project; HDR: hot deep
rock; SHR: super hot rock.

Acknowledgements
I would like to Acknowledge Dr Xiaolei Liu for initial assistance in T2Well/EOS1 software manipulation.
Doran et al. Page 20 of 22

Author’s contributions
TR assisted in numerical validation section and general advice on journal layout. LP and TR assisted in
T2Well/EOS1 software manipulation. All Authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding
This research is supported by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) [Grant number
EP/RS13222/1]

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on
reasonable request.

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Author details
1
James Watt, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, UK. 2 Energy and Power, Cranfield
University, MK43 0AL Cranfield, UK. 3 Earth Sciences Division 90-1116, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
95720, CA USA.

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