9

Part I: Lectures

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Unit 1 – INTRODUCTION, LAB SAFETY, AND

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Laboratory Safety Policies, safety data

sheet and Waste Management

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• The students are expected to follow proper laboratory safety

protocol, proper waste disposal procedures and integrate current
good laboratory practices in performing each laboratory experiment

Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines

1. Dress appropriately in the laboratory. Wear a

laboratory gown or coat to protect your clothing and
minimize skin exposure. Shoes should completely cover
the feet area (sandals are not allowed and as much as
possible heeled shoes should not be used). Long hair
should be tied back.

2. Wear protective goggles or glasses at all times in the
laboratory. Goggles are eye-protection so that when
there are liquid that splashes it will not come into the
eyes. Contact lenses increase the risk of problems with
eye safety even when protective goggles are worn.

Inform your instructor if you are wearing contact
lenses.

3. Keep your working areas organized and clean as
you work. Put your personal belonging like bags and
books away from the work areas. Chairs and other
obstacles should be set aside. After each laboratory
experiments and activities, clean your work areas and
make sure that gas valves and water faucets are closed.
Clean and dry glassware and equipment before
returning to the stock room.

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4. Keep all chemical reagents (solids and liquids) in

the assigned dispensing area. Do not bring the
containers of any chemical reagents in your work
area. Use test tubes, beakers, weigh boats and other
applicable containers to obtain chemicals from the
dispensing areas.

5. Keep the balance and weighing area clean. Do not
place chemicals directly on the balance pans instead
use weighing papers or boats or any applicable
containers for your samples. Never weigh hot
objects.

6. Check the name on the chemical reagent bottles
before using them. Label every beaker, test tubes
and containers where chemicals are transferred.

7. Avoid contaminating chemical reagents.
a. Never return unused chemicals to the reagent
bottles. This is a possible source of possible
contamination on the entire content of the bottle.
Do not insert medicine droppers or pipets into
reagent bottles; instead pour a little into a smaller
container.
b. Use a clean, dry spatula in getting solids out of the
reagent bottle. A dirty spatula will contaminate
both the portion taken and that which is left in the
reagent bottle.
c. To put solids in a test tube, a folded piece of paper

about 2 inches long and slightly wider than the
diameter of the test tube is used. Hold the test tube
in a horizontal position and slide the folded paper
with a solid at one end. Incline the test tube and
gently tap the paper until all the solids are at the
bottom of the tube. In this way, the side of the tube
is kept clean.
d. The covers of the reagents bottle should not be
interchanged.

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e. To weigh solid reagents, a clean, dry watch glass

can be used as container. Weigh the container first,
then place the solid and get the total mass. To
determine the weight of the solid reagent, subtract
the mass of the container from the total mass.

8. Dispose waste properly. Do not put anything into
the trash or sink without thinking.

a. Broken glasses should be pick and return to the
stock area for proper disposal.
b. Organic solvents should not be poured into the
sink since they are immiscible with water. Return
the waste to the stock area to be put on the
“organic solvent wastes”. Solutions with heavy
metals should be put on containers for “heavy
metal waste”.
c. Solutions poured in the sink should be washed
with plenty of water.
d. Ask your instructor if you are not sure how to
properly dispose your wastes.
e. In order to minimize damage to the environment,
chemical wastes must be separated into categories
and carefully labelled as to their contents. Please
read and follow the labels on the waste bottles to
ensure that your chemical wastes are treated
safely and appropriately. You will find containers
for:
i. General Organic Waste (flammable)
ii. Halogenated Hydrocarbons (non-
flammable)
iii. Chromic Acid Solutions (these have been
phased out)
iv. Lead
v. Silver

vi. Other Heavy Metals
vii. Waste from specific experiments in some
cases
viii. Acids

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ix. Bases
In some experiments, acids and bases will be neutralized to a pH of 6 -
10 (State law) as part of the experiment and flushed down the drain with
lots of water. Your instructor will give you instructions in particular
cases. Indicator solution or paper will be available in the lab.
x. Broken thermometers. It create the special problem of spilled mercury (a
toxic heavy metal). Report such accidents immediately to your
instructor; usually any mercury which cannot be collected is reacted
with sulfur or absorbed with a special kit before disposal as heavy metal
waste.
xi. Broken glass. Broken glass or porcelain is swept up into a dust pan and
disposed of in a special container for broken glass. Please don't use your
fingers.


9. Avoid all direct contact with chemicals.
a. Wash your hands immediately anytime
you get chemicals on them and after every
laboratory activities.
b. Clean immediately all spillage before it
dries up or goes into your skin and things.
c. Never use your mouth when using a pipet.
d. Never eat or drink in the laboratory.
e. Do not look directly into the open end of a

test tube while a reaction is being
conducted. Do not point the open end of a
test tube at someone while heating or
mixing.
f. Inhale odors and chemicals with great
caution. To determine the odor of any
chemicals, do not inhale the fumes directly.
Waft vapors with your hand toward your
nose. Use the fume hood for all irritating and
toxic vapors.

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10. Handle glasses with precautions.

a. Do not heat graduated cylinders, burets,
pipets or bottles with a Bunsen burner
flame.
b. Do not hold a test tube in your hands during
a chemical reaction.
c. In heating a small amount of solid or liquid
I a test tube, hold the test tube with a test
tube holder then incline it at an angle of 450
while moving it back and forth over the
flame on the Bunsen burner. Avoid looking
at the test tube directly while it is being
heated. Never point the mouth of the test
tube towards anyone while heating
d. Do not touch glass that has been near a

flame. Use proper holder to handle them.
Do not put directly on the laboratory table
any heated containers.
e. Always fire-polish the ends of freshly cut
glass tubing. NEVER attempt to force glass
tubing through the hole of a stopper.
Instead, make sure that both tubing and
hole are wet with soapy water. Protect
hands with several layers of towel when
inserting glass into a stopper and insert the
tubing with a screw-like motion.
f. Never use a thermometer as a stirrer!
Always support a thermometer in a beaker
or flask with a clamp. If a mercury
thermometer breaks, immediately contact
the laboratory instructor and restrict

access to the area of contamination until
cleanup can be arranged.

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10. Learn the location and proper use of safety

equipment (fire extinguisher, eye wash, safety
shower and first aid kits).

a. Fire extinguisher can be used on small or minor fire

or for smothering fires. To use the fire extinguisher:

Pull the pin.

Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire

Squeeze the handle.
Sweep the fire.

b. Eye Wash Fountain for rinsing chemicals from the
eyes.

c. Safety Shower for rinsing chemicals off the body.

11. Be aware of Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). It
is a document that provides workers with
procedures for safely handling or working with a
particular substance. It includes technical
information like boiling points, toxicities,
reactivities, and various numbers. It also includes
instructions regarding necessary protective
equipment, how to handle spills, first aid
suggestions, storage and disposal, and the general
health effects. Its main purpose is to safeguard
occupational health.

12. Never work alone in the laboratory area.
13. Report all accidents to your instructor no
matter how small it may seem.
14. Do not perform unauthorized experiments.
15. Do not enter the laboratory room without your
instructor.

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Common Laboratory Glassware and

Materials

Glassware used in all chemistry courses:

Glassware commonly used for conducting reactions and purifications:

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Tools used in all chemistry courses:

Various equipment in the organic chemistry laboratory:

Clamps for securing apparatuses

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Burners and tubing:

Glassware used in microscale work

LEARNING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Watch the video on the Chemical Laboratory by Rebelen Cabello

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ni5UOGp0hk&feature=youtu.be

SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

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Measurements
Making observations is fundamental to all science. These observations can be
qualitative or quantitative. A quantitative observation is called a measurement, which
always has two parts: a number and a scale (called a unit). Both parts must be present for a
measurement to be meaningful. It is the process of getting the actual measure of an object’s
dimension or property in comparison with the standard unit of acquiring the value. A
qualitative observation does not involve a number.
Scientists recognized long ago that standard systems of units had to be adopted if
measurements were to be useful. Different standards were adopted in different parts of the
world. The two major systems are the English system used in the United States and the metric
system used by most of the rest of the industrialized world.
Most scientists in all countries have used the metric system for many years. In 1960,
an international agreement set up a system of units called the International System (le
Systè me International in French), or the SI system. This system is based on the metric system
and units derived from the metric system. The fundamental SI units are listed in the Table 1.
Table 1. Fundamental SI Units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela Cd

Because the fundamental units are not always convenient, prefixes are used to change
the size of the unit. These are listed in Table 2.

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Table 2. Prefixes Used in the SI System

Prefix Symbol Meaning Exponential Notation
exa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1018
peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000 1015
tera T 1 000 000 000 000 1012
giga G 1 000 000 000 109
mega M 1 000 000 106
kilo k 1 000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
- - 1 100
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro μ 0.000001 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10-18

One physical quantity that is very important in chemistry is volume, which is not a
fundamental SI unit but is derived from length.
The most common conversion factors for volume is shown below.
1 L = 1 (dm)3 = (10 cm)3 = 1000 cm3
1cm3 = 1 mL
1L = 100 cm3 = 100 Ml

1.0 Basic Types of Quantity:
a. Fundamental Quantities. It is referred to as the basic quantities. Quantities which
are measured by the direct method. The units assigned to the fundamental quantities
are called fundamental units.
The fundamental units meter, kilogram and second (MKS) are the standard units
for length, mass, and time, respectively. However for smaller quantities, centimeter,
gram, and second are used as fundamental units (CGS). It is important to consider these
units, particularly in solving problems.

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b. Derived Quantities. Quantities that emanate or a result of the combination of

fundamental quantities after a set of operations. Area, volume, and density are some
examples of derived quantities.

2.0 Significant Figures
It is very important to realize that a measurement always has some degree of
uncertainty. The uncertainty of a measurement depends on the precision of the measuring
device. Consider the measurement of the volume of a liquid using a buret.

Table shows that the first three numbers (20.1) remain the same regardless of who
makes the measurement; these are called certain digits. However, the digit to the right of the
1 must be estimated and therefore varies; it is called an uncertain digit. We customarily
report a measurement by recording all digits that are known with certainty plus the first
uncertain digit. This is done by always recording the certain digits and the first uncertain
digit (the estimated number). These numbers are called the significant figures of a
measurement.

Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Non-zero integers. Non-zero integers always count as significant figures. The number
1458 has four (4) non-zero digits, all of which count as significant figures.
2. Zeros. There are three classes of zeros:
a. Leading zeros are zeros that precede all the non-zero digits. These do not count
as significant figures. The number 0.0025, the three zeros simply indicate the
position of the decimal point. This number has only two (2) significant figures.
b. Captive zeros are zeros between non-zero digits. These always count as significant
figures. The number 1.008 has four (4) significant figures.

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c. Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number. They are significant only
if the number contains a decimal point. The number 100 has only one significant
figure, whereas the number 1.00 x 102 has three (3) significant figures. The
number one hundred written as 100. Also has three (3) significant figures.

3. Exact numbers. Many times calculations involve numbers that were not obtained
using measuring devices but were determined by counting: 10 experiments, 3 apples,
8 molecules. Such numbers are called exact numbers. They can be assumed to have
an infinite number of significant figures. Other examples of exact numbers are the 2
in 2πr (the circumference of a circle) and the 4 and the 3 in 4/3πr3 (the volume of a
sphere). Exact numbers also can arise from definitions. For example, 1 inch is defined
as exactly 2.54 centimeters. Thus, in the statement 1 in 5 2.54 cm, neither the 2.54
nor the 1 limits the number of significant figures when used in a calculation.

Note that the number 1.00 x 102 is written in exponential notation. This type of
notation has at least two advantages: the number of significant figures can be easily
indicated, and fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small number. For
example, the number 0.000060 is much more conveniently represented as 6.0 x 10-5. (The
number has two significant figures.) It is often necessary to set the decimal point using the
power-of-10 notation to avoid introducing the appearance of unwanted significant figures.

Scientific notation is a form of shorthand used to write an extremely large and

exceedingly small numbers. A number in scientific notation has two parts. The first part is a
number between 1 and 10 (N). The second part is a power of 10 (10n) as shown below
N x 10n
The exponent n can be a positive or negative integer. To write numbers in scientific
notation, move the decimal point such that you have a number between 1 and 10. Determine
the correct exponent by counting the number of times the decimal point is moved. When the
decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent is written as a negative number. When the
decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent is written as a positive number.

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 23

Example:
a. 0.00567 5.67 x 10-3 b. 456000 4.56 x 105

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

a. For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is the same
as the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation. For example,
consider the calculation
4.56 x 1.4 = 6.38 Final answer = 6.4

Limiting term has two Two significant
significant figures figures

The product should have only two significant figures, since 1.4 has only two significant
figures.

b. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the
least precise measurement used in the calculation. For example, consider the sum
22.13
17.0 Limiting term has one
2.024 decimal place
_____________

41.154 Final answer 41.2

One decimal place

The correct result is 31.1, since 18.0 has only one decimal place.

3.0 Precision and Accuracy
Two terms often used to describe the reliability of measurements are precision and
accuracy. Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value. Precision
refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity.
Precision reflects the reproducibility of a given type of measurement. The difference between
these terms is illustrated by the results of three different dart throws shown below

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a b c

Poor precision Good precision Good precision
Poor accuracy Poor accuracy Good accuracy

Two different types of errors are illustrated in Figure above. A random error (also
called an indeterminate error) means that a measurement has an equal probability of being
high or low. This type of error occurs in estimating the value of the last digit of a
measurement. The second type of error is called systematic error (or determinate error).
This type of error occurs in the same direction each time; it is either always high or always
low. Fig. (a) indicates large random errors (poor technique). Fig. (b) indicates small random
errors but a large systematic error, and Fig. (c) indicates small random errors and no
systematic error.

4.0 Dimensional Analysis
It is often necessary to convert a given result from one system of units to another. The
best way to do this is by a method called the unit factor method or, more commonly,
dimensional analysis. The pattern to illustrate the use of this method is shown below.

Desired unit

Given unit x ___________________ = Desired unit
Given unit


Some equivalents in the English and metric systems are given below.

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 25

Example 1

A pencil is 7.00 in long. What is its length in centimeters?

Solution
Since we want to convert from inches to centimeters, we need the equivalence
!.#$ &'
statement 2.54 cm = 1 in. The correct unit factor in this case is
( )*

!.#$ &'
7.00 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ( )*
= 7.00 (2.54)𝑐𝑚 = 17.8 𝑐𝑚

Here the inch units cancel, leaving centimeters, as requested.

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Example 2
A student has entered a 10.0 km run. How long is the run in miles?

Solution

This conversion can be accomplished in several different ways. Since we

have the equivalence statement 1 m = 1.094 yd, we will proceed by a path
that uses this fact. Before we start any
calculations, let us consider our
strategy. We have kilometres, which we want to change to miles. We can do

this by the following route:


kilometers meters yards miles


Sample Problem 3
To proceed in this way, we need the following equivalence statements.

1 km = 1 000 m

1 m = 1.094 yd

1760 yd = 1 mi
1000 𝑚 1.094 𝑦𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖
10.0 𝑘𝑚 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 6.216 𝑚𝑖
1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑚 1 760 𝑦𝑑


Note in this case that 1 mi equals exactly 1760 yd by designation.
Thus 1760 is an exact number.

Since the distance was originally given as 10.0 km, the result can
have only three significant figures and should be rounded to 6.22 mi. Thus,

10.0 km =6.22 mi

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 27

Example 3
The speed limit on many highways in the United States is 55 mi/h. What
number would be posted in kilometres per hour?
Solution
We use the following unit factors to make the required conversion:

55 𝑚𝑖 1760 𝑦𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖 1 𝑘𝑚
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 88 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
ℎ 1 𝑚𝑖 1 .094 𝑦𝑑 1 000 𝑚
Result obtained by
rounding only at the
end of the calculation

Note that all units cancel except the desired kilometres per hour



Example 4


A Japanese car is advertised as having a gas mileage of 15 km/L. Covert this
rating to miles per gallon.
Solution
We use the following unit factors to make the required conversion:

15 𝑘𝑚 1000 𝑚 1.094 𝑦𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖 1 𝐿 4 𝑞𝑡
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 35 𝑚𝑖/𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝐿 1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑚 1 760 𝑦𝑑 1.06 𝑞𝑡 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙

Result obtained by
rounding only at the
end of the calculation


Example 5
The latest model Corvette has an engine with a displacement of 6.20 L. What
is the displacement in units of cubic inches?
Solution
We use the following unit factors to make the required conversion:
1 𝑓𝑡 + (12 𝑖𝑛)+
6.20 𝐿 𝑥 𝑥 = 378 𝑖𝑛+
28.32 𝐿 (1 𝑓𝑡)+

Note that the unit factor for conversion of feet to inches must be cubed to

accommodate the conversion of ft3 to in3

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7.0 Temperature
Although many of the SI units have found their way gradually into everyday use, the
units for temperature may be the least familiar. Temperature scales arise from the choice of
two standard reference points that can be used to calibrate temperature with the use of a
thermometer. The familiar Fahrenheit scale originally chose body temperature as one
reference and set it at 100°F. The second reference point was the coldest temperature that
could be achieved by adding salt to ice water, a practice that lowers the melting point of ice.
This established 0°F, and the temperature range between the two points was divided into
100 equal units. The scale is now defined by setting the freezing point of water at 32°F and
the boiling point of water at 212°F. The Celsius scale was developed in a similar way, but
with the freezing point of pure water set at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C.
Conversions between the two scales are given by the following expressions:
°F = (1.8 × °C) + 32 (1.1)
°C = (°F − 32) /1.8
Conversions between Celsius degrees and kelvins are common in science and are also
more straightforward.
K = °C + 273.15
°C = K − 273.15

References:
Brown, L., Brown, L. S., & Holme, T. (2011). Chemistry for engineering students. Nelson
Education.

Macalalada A. A. & Magoling B. A. (2015). Laboratory Manual in Organic Chemistry for Allied
Health Sciences.

Skoog, D., West, D., Holler, J., Crouch, S., Chen, S. (2011). Introduction to Analytical Chemistry.
(Philippine Edition), Cengage Learning,

Zumdahl S. S. & Zumdahl S. A. (2014). Chemistry (9th edition), Cengage Learning.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/material-safety-data-sheet-msds-definition-
purpose.html

https://chem.libretexts.org/

SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

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ASSESSMENT TASK

I. Give the number of significant figures for each of the following data.
a. 0.0105 g ________
b. 8.050 x 10-3 s ________
c. 0.0035 cm ________
d. 55.0 cm3 ________
e. 0.8900 kg ________
f. 26.030 m3 ________
II. Write the following number in scientific notation:
a. 0.000 543
b. 0. 000 000 870
c. 50.7 x 105
d. 63.8 x 10-3
e. 0. 0000234
f. 560 000 000 000.0
III. Perform these calculations and express the result with the proper number of
significant figures.
a. (4.850 g – 2.34 g)/1.3 mL
b. (4.66 ´ 10–3) ´ 4.666
c. 0.003400/65.2
IV. Solve the following problems correctly:
1. How far in centimeters is a distance of one femtometer?
2. The density of gold is 19.32 grams per cubic centimeter. How many kilograms per
cubic meter is this?
3. In many ideal gas problems, room temperature is considered to be at 300 K to make
calculations easier. What is this temperature in Celsius?
4. Dry ice, or frozen carbon dioxide sublimes (phase change between solid to gas) at -
78.5 °C under normal atmospheric pressures. What is this temperature in
Fahrenheit?

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