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Unit 4 – Chemistry of the Environment

THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Describe the properties , sources and unique characteristics of water

• Explain the dissociation process of acids and bases in water and

interpret the importance of monitoring pH in our bodies of water.
• Identify different water contaminants and learn various water
treatment techniques.of water. Understand the movement and conservation of
water through hlogical


1.0 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
Water has various distinctive properties that are fundamental to life. These
astonishing properties are acquired from its molecular structure (see Figure 1) and the
interaction among individual molecules. There are few special characteristics of water which
includes: the tendency to form hydrogen bonds, its polar character, and capability to hydrate
metal ions. These properties are listed in Table 1.
H2O is the chemical formula of water, its bond is covalent in nature with a bent
molecular geometry (Figure 1). The water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms
bonded to an oxygen atom.

a) b)


Figure 1. (a) Lewis structures and structural formula; (b) space-filling model. (Fahlman,
2018)

Capability to hydrogen bond formation is another characteristic of the water molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are a special type of bond that can form between the hydrogen in one water
molecule and the oxygen in another water molecule. This bonding takes place because the
oxygen has a partial negative charge and the hydrogen a partial positive charge. This is an
example of an intermolecular force; that is, a force that occurs between molecules.

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Hydrogen bond is also described as an electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen

atom, which is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine), and a
neighboring oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom—either in another molecule, or in a different
part of the same molecule. Do not be baffled with hydrogen bond and a covalent bond
because covalent has a much stronger bonds which connects atoms within molecules.
Furthermore, the atoms involved in hydrogen bonding are farther apart than they are in
covalent bond (Figure 2).








Figure 2. Hydrogen and covalent bonding in water molecules (Fahlman, 2018)

The three atoms in water molecule (H-O-H) are not in a straight line (Figure 3);
instead, they form an angle of 104.5°. The bent structure of water molecule is due to fact that
there is a stronger attraction between oxygen and the negative electron than with the
hydrogen atoms and also the water molecule acts like a dipole having opposite electrical
charges at either end. The water dipole may be attracted to either positively or negatively
charged ions.
For example, when sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water as positive sodium ions
(Na+) and negative chloride ions(Cl-), the positive Na+ are surrounded by water molecules
with their negative ends pointed at the ions, and the Cl- are surrounded by water molecules
with their positive ends pointing at the negative ions (Figure 3). This kind of attraction for
ions is the reason why water dissolves many ionic compounds and salts that do not dissolve
in other liquids.

N 3
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(C) → 𝑁𝑎(1Y) + 𝐶𝑙(1Y)

Figure 3. Sodium Chloride dissolving in water. (Fahlman et al., 2018)

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At standard temperature and pressure (STP), water is a liquid with a temperature of

25 °C and pressure of 1 atm. Water has a high boiling point of 100 °C (212 °F) but this
property vary with liquids that has same molecular structures such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
that has much lower boiling points. Additionally, when water freezes, it expands while most
liquids contract when they solidify.

Table 1. Important Properties of Water (adapted from Manahan, 2010)

Property Effects and Significance
Excellent solvent Transport of nutrients and waste products, making
biological processes possible in an aqueous
medium
Highest dielectric constant of any common liquid High solubility of ionic substances and their
ionization in solution
Higher surface tension than any other liquid Controlling factor in physiology; governs drop
and surface phenomena
Transparent to visible and longer-wavelength Colorless, allowing light required for
fraction of ultraviolet light photosynthesis to reach considerable depths in
bodies of water
Maximum density as a liquid at 4 ̊C Ice floats; vertical circulation restricted in
stratified bodies of water
Higher heat of evaporation than any other material Determines transfer of heat and water molecules
between the atmosphere and bodies of water
Higher latent heat of fusion than any other liquid Temperature stabilized at the freezing point of
except ammonia water
Higher heat capacity than any other liquid except Stabilization of temperatures of organisms and
ammonia geographical regions

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF WATER BY SOURCE
Potable water. A potable water is safe for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing
dishes. In contrast, non-potable water is contaminated with pollutants that include
particulates from dirt, toxic metals (e.g. arsenic), or bacteria that cause cholera. Although it
is not drinkable, non-potable water has its uses like washing sidewalks, reducing roadway
dust or for irrigation.
Surface water. Surface water is the most convenient source for human activities. It
can be found in lakes, rivers, and streams.
Groundwater. Groundwater is less convenient to access. It is the fresh water found
in underground reservoirs also known as aquifers. People worldwide pump groundwater
from wells drilled deep into these underground reservoirs. Fresh water is also found in our
atmosphere in the form of mists, fogs, and humidity. The characteristics of surface and
groundwater is shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. General Characteristics of Groundwater and Surface Water (adapted from Masten
& Davis, 2014)
Ground Surface
Composition is constant Composition is varying
Mineral content is high Mineral content is low
Turbidity is Low Turbidity is high
Has low or no color Has color
May be bacteriologically safe Presence of microorganisms
Absence of dissolved oxygen Presence of dissolved oxygen
Has high hardness Has low hardness
Presence of H2S, Fe, Mn Has taste and odor
Chemical toxicity is possible Chemical toxicity is possible

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
The hydrological cycle shown in Figure 4 is a cycle that includes all of the water
present on and in the earth which includes salt and fresh water, surface and groundwater,
water present in the clouds and trapped water in rocks far below the earth’s surface.
Hydrological cycle mainly describes the movement and conservation of water on Earth.
Two distinct processes for the transfer of water to the earth’s atmosphere:
a) Evaporation. Evaporation is the conversion of liquid water from lakes, streams,
and other bodies of water to water vapor.
b) Transpiration. Transpiration is the process by which water is emitted from plants
through the stomata, small opening on the underside of leaves that are connected to the
vascular tissue. Predominantly, it occurs at the leaves while the stomata are open for the
passage of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) during photosynthesis.
It is sometimes difficult to identify which process that has took place between true
evaporation and transpiration, this is the reason why hydrologists used the term
evapotranspiration to describe the combined losses of water due to transpiration and
evaporation.
Precipitation is the primary mechanism by which water is released from the
atmosphere. Precipitation takes several forms, the most common of which in temperate
climates is rain. Additionally, water can fall as hail, snow, sleet, and freezing rain.
As water falls to the earth’s surface, the droplets either run over the ground into
streams and rivers (referred to as surface runoff, overland flow, or direct runoff), move
laterally just below the ground surface (interflow), or move vertically through the soils to
form groundwater (infiltration or percolation).

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Figure 4. The hydrological cycle. The percentages represent the volume in each of the
different compartments (Masten & Davis, 2014).

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF BODIES OF WATER
The chemical and biological processes that occur in water was strongly influenced by
the physical condition of a body of water.
Surface water. Surface water occurs primarily in streams, lakes, and reservoirs.
Wetlands. Wetlands are flooded areas (permanently or seasonally) in which the
water is shallow enough to enable growth of bottom-rooted plants.
Estuaries. Estuaries are arms of the ocean into which streams flow. Estuaries has
unique chemical and biological properties because of the mixing of fresh and salt water. The
preservation of estuaries is very important because it is the breeding ground of much marine
life.
Water which has a unique temperature-density relationship produces the formation
of distinct layers within nonflowing bodies of water (Figure 5).
During the summer a surface layer (epilimnion) is heated by solar radiation and,
because of its lower density, floats upon the bottom layer, or hypolimnion. This
phenomenon is called thermal stratification. When an appreciable temperature difference
exists between the two layers, they do not mix but behave independently and have very
different chemical and biological properties. The shear-plane, or layer between epilimnion
and hypolimnion, is called the metalimnion or thermocline.

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Figure 5. Stratification of a Lake (Manahan, 2010)

Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions
Solvent. A substance often a liquid that is capable of dissolving one or more pure
substances.
Solute. A solid, liquid or gas that dissolves in a solvent.
Solution. A homogeneous (of uniform composition) mixture of a solvent and one or
more solutes.
Aqueous solution. A solution in which water is the solvent.
Concentration. It is the ratio of the amount of solute to the amount of solution. Solute
concentrations in aqueous solutions are expressed with different units—percent (%), parts
per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), and molarity (M).
Weight percent, P. It is frequently used to express approximate concentrations of
commercial chemicals or of solid concentrations of sludges. The term specifies the grams of
substance per 100 g of solution or suspension and is mathematically expressed as

𝑊
𝑃 = 𝑥 100%
𝑊 + 𝑊0

Where P = percent of substance by weight
W = mass of substance (grams)
𝑊0 = mass of solute (grams)

In case of many substances dissolved in drinking water that has a very low
concentration, parts per million (ppm) is more commonly used.
For example, water that contains 1 ppm of magnesium ions contains the equivalent
of 1 gram of magnesium (in the form of the magnesium ion) dissolved in 1 million grams of
water. The water we drink contains substances naturally present in the parts per million

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range. For example, the acceptable limit for nitrate ions, 𝑁𝑂+3 , found in well water in some
agricultural areas, is 10 ppm; the limit for fluoride ions, 𝐹 3 , is 4 ppm.
Although parts per million is a useful concentration unit, measuring 1 million grams
of water is not very convenient. We can do things more easily by switching to the unit of a
liter. One ppm of any substance in water is equivalent to 1 mg of that substance dissolved in
a liter of solution (1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 1 𝑚𝑔/𝐿).
In environmental science and engineering it is often assumed that the substance does
not change the density of the water. This is generally true in dilute solutes at constant
temperature, but it is not valid for concentrated solutions, in air, or in cases of large
temperature fluctuations.

1 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1000 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1000 𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 5
𝑥 𝑥 =
1𝑥10 𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1 𝐿 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 𝐿 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Some contaminants are of concern at concentrations much lower than parts per million, and
are reported as parts per billion (ppb). In aqueous solutions, 1 ppb = 1 μg/L.
One contaminant found in the range of parts per billion is mercury. One part per
billion of mercury (Hg) in water is equivalent to 1 gram of Hg dissolved in 1 billion grams of
water. In more convenient terms, this means 1 microgram (1 μg or 1 × 10–6 g) of Hg dissolved
in 1 liter of water. The acceptable limit for mercury in drinking water is 2 ppb:

2 𝑔 𝐻𝑔 1𝑥105 𝜇𝑔 𝐻𝑔 1000𝑔 𝐻! 𝑂 2𝜇𝑔 𝐻𝑔
2 𝑝𝑝𝑏 𝐻𝑔 = 𝑥 𝑥 =
1𝑥10I 𝑔 𝐻! 𝑂 1𝑔 𝐻𝑔 1𝐿 𝐻! 𝑂 1𝐿 𝐻! 𝑂

Molarity (M). It is defined as a concentration unit expressed by the number of moles
of solute present in 1 liter of solution.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑀) =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

A great advantage of molarity is that solutions of the same molarity contain exactly
the same number of moles of solute, and hence the same number of molecules (ions or
atoms) of solute. The mass of a solute varies depending on its identity. As an example,
consider a solution of NaCl in water. The molar mass of NaCl is 58.5 g/mol; therefore, 1 mol
of NaCl has a mass of 58.5 g. By dissolving 58.5 g of NaCl in some water and then adding
enough water to make exactly 1.00 L of solution, we would have a 1.00 M NaCl aqueous
solution.

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Example 1. A water sample has 150 ppm of dissolved mercury, Hg

2+. What is

this concentration expressed in molarity?

!N !N
150 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝐻𝑔!N = 150 𝑚𝑔 𝐻𝑔 𝑥 1 𝑔 𝐻𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔!N
𝑥
1 𝐿 𝐻! 𝑂 1000 𝑚𝑔 𝐻𝑔!N 200.6 𝑔 𝐻𝑔!N
3$ !N
7.5𝑥10 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑔
=
1 𝐿 𝐻! 𝑂

Thus, a sample of water containing 150 ppm of mercury also can be expressed

3𝟒 𝟐N
as 𝟕.
𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝑴 𝑯𝒈 .




3.0 REACTION OF ACIDS AND BASES IN WATER (pH Measurement)
Acid (at a molecular level) is a compound that releases hydrogen ions (𝐻N ), in aqueous
solution. A hydrogen atom is electrically neutral and consists of one electron and one proton.
If the electron is lost, the atom becomes a positively charged ion, H N . Because only a proton
remains, sometimes 𝐻N is referred to as a proton.
For example, consider hydrogen chloride (HCl), a compound that is a gas at room
temperature. Hydrogen chloride is composed of HCl molecules that dissolve readily in water
to produce a hydrochloric acid solution. As the polar HCl molecules dissolve, they become
surrounded by polar water molecules. Once dissolved, these molecules break apart into two
ions producing aqueous hydrogen ion, H+(aq) and aqueous chloride ion, Cl–(aq). This
equation represents the two steps of the reaction:

7* Z
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) –⎯˜ 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻N (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 3 (𝑎𝑞)

HCl dissociates into H+ and Cl+. No HCl molecules remain in solution because they
dissociate completely in water, which is referred to as a strong acid.
When dissolved in water, each HCl molecule donates a proton (H+) to an H2O
molecule, forming a hydronium ion (H3O+). Here is a representation of the overall reaction:

N 3
𝐻𝐶𝑙(1Y) + 𝐻! 𝑂(2) → 𝐻+ 𝑂(1Y) + 𝐶𝑙(1Y)

A chemical reaction with the presence of H3O+ has the characteristic property of an
acid but chemists often simply write H+ when referring to acids and it is understood that this
means H3O+ in aqueous solutions.
Hydrogen chloride is but one of several gases that dissolves in water to produce an
acidic solution. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are two others. These two gases are

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emitted during the combustion of certain fuels (particularly coal) to produce heat and
electricity. SO2 and NO2 both dissolve in rain and mist which produce acids that in turn fall
back to Earth’s surface in rain or snow.
As compared to more polar compound such as SO2 and NO2, carbon dioxide is far
soluble in water. Even so, it dissolves to produce a weakly acidic solution.

𝐶𝑂! (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻! 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻! 𝐶𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞)
The carbonic acid (𝐻! 𝐶𝑂! ) dissolves to produce H+ and the hydrogen carbonate ion,
also known as the bicarbonate ion 𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 :

𝐻! 𝐶𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) ⟺ 𝐻N (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 (𝑎𝑞)

The double-arrow symbol indicates that this reaction occurs only to a limited extent,
producing small amounts of 𝐻N and 𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 . Thus, a carbonic acid is considered to be a weak
acid; that is, an acid that dissociates only to a small extent in aqueous solution.
For base, it is a compound that releases hydroxide ions (OH–) in aqueous solution.
Aqueous solutions of bases have their own characteristic properties attributable to the
presence of OH–(aq). Common examples of bases include household ammonia (an aqueous
solution of NH3) and NaOH (sometimes called lye). Many common bases are compounds
containing the hydroxide ion. For example, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), a water-soluble ionic
compound, dissolves in water to produce sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH–):

7* Z
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(C) –⎯˜ 𝑁𝑎N (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞)

Although sodium hydroxide is very soluble in water, most compounds containing the
hydroxide ion are not, according to the solubility rules of ionic compounds. Bases that
dissociate completely in water, such as NaOH, are called strong bases.
For the reaction of molecules of aqueous ammonia in water, the water molecule
transfers H+ to the NH3 molecule. An ammonium ion, NH4+(aq), and a hydroxide ion, OH–(aq),
are formed. But the reaction only occurs to a small extent and that small amount of OH-(aq)
is produced.
𝑁𝐻+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻! 𝑂(𝑙) ⟺ 𝑁𝐻$N (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞)
weak base acid conjugate acid conjugate base

In the reaction above, an acid will donate a proton, H+, to a base. In this case, water
acts as the acid, which donates a proton to NH3. The double-arrow of this reaction indicates
that this is an equilibrium reaction, one that proceeds in both directions to continually form
both products and reactants. In the reverse (right–left) direction, the 𝑁𝐻$N ion donates a
proton to 𝑂𝐻3 . Hence, 𝑁𝐻$N is referred to as a conjugate acid of the base NH3, and OH– is
the conjugate base of the acid H2O.

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The Use of pH Scale in Quantifying Acidity/Basicity:

a) The notation pH is always written with a small p and a capital H that stands for
“power of hydrogen”.
b) pH is usually between 0 and 14 that indicates the acidity (or basicity) of a solution.
c) pH 7 separates acidic from basic solutions, this is at the midpoint on the scale.
d) Solutions with a pH less that 7 are acidic, those with a pH greater than 7 are basic
(alkaline).
e) Solutions of pH 7 (e.g. pure water) have equal concentrations of H+ and OH- and are
said to be neutral.
f) pH is related to the concentration of hydrogen ion concentration thru this equation:
𝑝𝐻 = −log [𝐻N ]

pH and the Environment
The balance in our oceans and other sources of water can be affected by a change in
pH. It is known that ocean water have small amounts of carbonate ion, bicarbonate ion and
carbonic acid that arise from dissolved carbon dioxide which play a role in maintaining the
pH of ocean at approximately 8.2. These three species (Figure 6) also help maintain the pH
of our blood at about 7.4.




carbonate ion bicarbonate ion carbonic acid
3! 3
𝐶𝑂+ 𝐻𝐶𝑂+ 𝐻! 𝐶𝑂+

Figure 6. Lewis structures for the carbonate and bicarbonate ion and carbonic acid.

Many organisms, such as mollusks, sea urchins, and coral have relation to the
chemistry of our oceans because they build their shells out of calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
Changing the amount of one chemical species in the ocean (such as carbonic acid) can affect
the concentration of the others, in turn affecting marine life. In the past years, the amount of
carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere has increased. As a consequence, the pH of
seawater has dropped that corresponds to a 26% increase in the amount of H+ in seawater.
The lowering of pH in our ocean due to the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide is called
ocean acidification. Figure 7 shows the chemistry of carbon dioxide in the ocean and the
interaction of carbonate ion, bicarbonate ion and carbonic acid.

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Figure 7. Chemistry of Carbon dioxide in the ocean (Fahlman et al., 2018).

In surface waters, organisms experience a difference in environment when acid rain
(also called acidic precipitation) fills lakes and streams. Healthy lakes have a pH of 6.5 or
slightly above. If the pH is lowered below 6.0, fish and other aquatic life are affected (see
Figure 8). Only a few hardy species can survive below pH 5.0. At pH 4.0, lakes become
essentially dead ecosystems. Numerous studies have reported the progressive acidification
of lakes and rivers in certain geographic regions, along with reductions in fish populations.
Monitoring pH in our bodies of water is important, humans are not the only creatures
bearing the costs of acidification.








Figure 8. Aquatic life and pH (Fahlman et al., 2018)

When acid rain falls on or runs off into a lake, the pH of the lake drops (becomes more
acidic) unless the acid is neutralized, or somehow used by the surrounding vegetation. In
some regions, the surrounding soils may contain bases that can neutralize the acid. The
capacity of a lake or other body of water to resist a decrease in pH is called its acid-
neutralizing capacity.
For example, If a lake has a geology of much is limestone, CaCO3, then it has a high
acid-neutralizing capacity because limestone slowly reacts with acid rain. Perhaps most

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importantly, the lakes and streams also have a relatively high concentration of calcium and
bicarbonate ions. This occurs as a result of the reaction of limestone with carbon dioxide and
water:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂+ (𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂! (𝑔) + 𝐻! 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶𝑎!N (𝑎𝑞) + 2 𝐻𝐶𝑂+3 (𝑎𝑞)

Because acid is consumed by the carbonate and bicarbonate ions, the pH of the lake
remains more or less constant.



Example 2. The pH of rainwater collected in a certain region of the northeastern

United States on a particular day was 4.82. Calculate the 𝐻N ion concentration of

the rainwater.



Solution: pH is defined as 𝑝𝐻 = −log [𝐻N ] then we can solve for [𝐻N ] by

taking the antilog of the pH; that is, [𝐻N ] = 103M7

Therefore,

𝑝𝐻 = −log [𝐻N ] = 4.82

𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐻N = −4.82

𝐻4 = 1056.89 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎5𝟓 𝑴




AQUATIC LIFE
The living organisms (biota) in an aquatic ecosystem may be classified as either
autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Autotrophic. These are organisms that use solar or chemical energy to fix elements
from simple, nonliving inorganic material into complex life molecules that compose living
organisms. Algae are the most important autotrophic aquatic organisms because they are
producers that utilize solar energy to generate biomass from CO2 and other simple inorganic
species.
Heterotrophic. These are organisms that use the organic substances produced by
autotrophic organisms as energy sources and as the raw materials for the synthesis of their
own biomass.
Decomposers (or reducers). These are a subclass of the heterotrophic organisms
and consist of chiefly bacteria and fungi, which ultimately break down material of biological
origin to the simple compounds originally fixed by the autotrophic organisms.
The ability of a body of water to produce living material is known as its productivity.
Productivity results from a combination of physical and chemical factors. High productivity
requires an adequate supply of carbon (CO2), nitrogen (nitrate), phosphorus

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(orthophosphate), and trace elements such as iron. Excessive productivity results in decay
of the biomass produced, consumption of dissolved oxygen, and odor production, a condition
called eutrophication .
Dissolved oxygen (DO) (pronounced “dee oh”). It is frequently considered as the key
substance in determining the extent and kind of life in a body of water. Deficiency in oxygen
is fatal to many aquatic animals such as fish but in contrast, the presence of oxygen can be
equally fatal to many kinds of anaerobic bacteria.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). It refers to the amount of oxygen utilized when
the organic matter in a given volume of water is degraded biologically.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) . It is produced by respiratory processes in water and
sediments and can also enter water from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is required for the
photosynthetic production of biomass by algae and in some cases is a limiting factor. High
levels of carbon dioxide produced by the degradation of organic matter in water can cause
excessive algal growth and productivity.

SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS IN WATER
Point Sources. These are domestic and industrial wastes that are usually collected by a
network of pipes or channels and transmitted to a single point of discharge into the receiving
water. Domestic sewage along with any industrial wastes that are permitted to be discharged
into the sanitary sewers are termed as municipal sewage.

Nonpoint Sources. These are urban and agricultural runoff which are characterized by
multiple discharge points. The polluted water usually flows over the surface of the land or
along common drainage channel to the nearest body of water. Storm water run off from
different sources can transport pollutants such as nitrogen from fertilizers, herbicides
applied to lawns and golf courses, oil, greases, ethylene glycol and other organic debris.

4.0 WATER POLLUTANTS
Oxygen-Demanding Material. These are anything that can be oxidized in the receiving
water resulting in the consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen. This material is usually
biodegradable organic matter but also includes certain inorganic compounds. The
consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) poses a threat to fish and other higher forms of
aquatic life that must have oxygen to live. The critical level of DO varies greatly among
species. For example brook trout may require about 7.5 mg · L-1 of DO, whereas carp can
survive at 3 mg · L-1. As a rule, the most desirable commercial and game fish require high
levels of dissolved oxygen.

Nutrients. Two nutrients (i.e. nitrogen and phosphorus) of primary concern, are considered
pollutants when they become too much of a good thing. These nutrients are required for the
growth of all living things. But excessive nutrient level can be a problem when some

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organisms multiply or propagate at the expense of others. For example, too much nutrients
can cause large growths of algae, which in turn become oxygen-demanding material when
they die and settle to the bottom. Phosphorus-based detergents, fertilizers, food-processing
wastes, as well as animal and human excrement are some of the majors sources of nutrients.

Pathogenic Organisms. Pathogenic microorganisms found in wastewater include bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa excreted by diseased persons or animals. When discharged into
surface waters, they make the water unfit for drinking (i.e., nonpotable). If the concentration
of pathogens is sufficiently high, the water may also be unsafe for swimming and fishing.
Certain shellfish can be toxic because they concentrate pathogenic organisms in their tissues,
making the toxicity levels in the shellfish much greater than the levels in the surrounding
water.

Suspended Solids (SS). These are organic and inorganic particles that are carried by
wastewater into a receiving water. When the speed of the water is reduced by flow into a
pool or a lake, many of these particles settle to the bottom as sediment. In common usage,
the word sediment also includes eroded soil particles that are being carried by water even if
they have not yet settled. Colloidal particles, which do not settle readily, cause the turbidity
found in many surface waters. As excessive sediment loads are deposited into lakes and
reservoirs, the turbidity increases, light penetration decreases, the bacterial population
often increases, and the solids deposit on the bottom of the water body, destroying the
habitat for many benthic organisms.

Pesticides. These are chemicals used by farmers, households, or industry to regulate and
control various types of pests or weeds. The major types of pesticides are herbicides,
insecticides, and fungicides. Herbicides are used to kill unwanted plants (i.e., weeds).
Insecticides are used to kill insects that would otherwise destroy crops, gardens, or
structures. Fungicides are employed to control the growth of fungi, many of which cause
plant diseases.

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs). These are a class of compounds
that are applied externally or ingested by humans, pets, and other domesticated animals.
They are released to the environment through the disposal of expired, unwanted, or excess
medications to the sewage system by individuals, pharmacies, or physicians. Another source
of PPCPs in the environment is through metabolic excretion—the excretion of the chemically
unaltered parent compound and metabolized by-products in urine and feces. PPCPs, such as
deodorants and sunscreens, can be washed into our waterways during bathing, washing, and
swimming. Some PPCPs are also used as pest-control agents.

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Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs). These are class of chemicals known as endocrine

disrupters. EDCs include the polychlorinated biphenyls, commonly used pesticides such as
atrazine and other triazine chemicals, and the phthalates. EDCs can mimic estrogens,
androgens, or thyroid hormones, or their antagonists, although the structures of many EDCs
bear little resemblance to that of natural hormones with which they interfere. The chemicals
can also alter the normal physiological function of the endocrine system and can affect the
synthesis of hormones in the body. EDCs can also target tissues where the hormones exert
their effects.

Other Organic Chemicals. There are numerous other organic chemicals whose release into
the environment can be problematic. These chemicals include hydrocarbons from
combustion processes and oil and gasoline spills, and solvents used in dry cleaning and metal
washing. The hydrocarbons formed during combustion include chemicals such as methane,
benzene, and a class of compounds called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contain two or more fused benzene rings. Several of the PAHs
are known human carcinogens.

Toxic Metals. These are heavy metals that enter aquatic environments through the
discharge of industrial waste and waste-water treatment plants, storm-water runoff, mining
operations, smokestack emissions, and other diffuse sources (such as from vehicles). The
most commonly occurring heavy metals are arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel,
lead, and mercury. As heavy metals persist in the environment, they tend to accumulate in
soils, sediments, and biota. Heavy metals can also bioaccumulate and biomagnify.

Nanoparticles. Defined as those particles that have a dimension less than 100 nm. Included
in this group of chemicals are naturally occurring humic material (derived from plant and
animal matter); titania particles used in painkilling creams; fullerene nanotube composites
used in the manufacture of tires, tennis rackets, and video screens; fullerene cages used in
cosmetics; and protein-based nanomaterials used in the production of soaps, shampoos, and
detergents. As a result of their small size and large specific surface area, nanoparticles can
sorb and transport toxic pollutants, which when inhaled can cause a number of pulmonary
diseases in mammals.

5.0 WATER TREATMENT
In the development of a water supply system, it is necessary to examine carefully all
the factors that might adversely affect the intended use of a water supply source.
The following four categories are used to describe the quality of a drinking water:
1. Physical: Physical quality correlate to the characteristic of water for domestic use and
are usually associated with the appearance of water, color or turbidity, temperature,
and, in particular, taste and odor.

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2. Chemical: The chemical classification of drinking water includes the identification of

its components and their concentrations.
3. Microbiological: Microbiological agents are important to public health and may also
be significant in modifying the physical and chemical characteristics of water.
4. Radiological: Radiological factors must be considered in areas where the water may
have come in contact with radioactive substances. The radioactivity of the water is
of public health concern.

In a typical water treatment plant (Figure 9), the first step is to pass the water through
a screen that physically removes large impurities. The next step is to add aluminum sulfate
(Al2(SO4)3) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).
Aluminum sulfate and calcium hydroxide are flocculating agents; that is, they react
in water to form a sticky floc (gel) of aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3. This gel collects
suspended clay and dirt particles on its surface. As the Al(OH)3 gel slowly settles, it carries
particles with it that were suspended in the water. Any remaining particles are removed as
the water is filtered through charcoal or gravel and then sand.
𝐴𝑙! (𝑆𝑂$ )+ (𝑎𝑞) + 3 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)! (𝑠) → 2 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)+ (𝑠) + 3 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂$ (𝑎𝑞)

Figure 9. A typical municipal water treatment facility. (Fahlman et al., 2018).

The crucial step comes next—disinfecting the water to kill disease-causing microbes.
In the United States, this is most commonly done with chlorine-containing compounds.
Chlorination is accomplished by adding chlorine gas (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO), or
calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2). All of these compounds generate the antibacterial agent
hypochlorous acid, HClO. A very low concentration of HClO, 0.075 to 0.600 ppm, remains to

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protect the water against further bacterial contamination as it passes through pipes to the
user. Residual chlorine refers to the chlorine-containing chemicals that remain in the water
after the chlorination step. These include hypochlorous acid (HClO), hypochlorite ions
(ClO−), and dissolved elemental chlorine (Cl2). When used properly, chlorine is effective, and
practical. It has several advantages over other disinfectants. It is long-lasting and, therefore,
provides a residual in the distribution system. The major disadvantages of chlorine are the
formation of chlorinated by-products due to the reaction of chlorine with naturally occurring
organic matter and the lack of effectiveness of chlorine in inactivating Cryptosporidium
oocysts.
Fluoridation, the addition of fluoride to strengthen teeth enamel and reduce the
number of cavities, especially in children, can also be a part of the treatment process
Many European and a few U.S. cities use ozone to disinfect their water supplies. One
advantage is that a lower concentration of ozone relative to chlorine is required to kill
bacteria. Furthermore, ozone is more effective than chlorine against water-borne viruses.
But ozonation also comes with disadvantages. One is cost. Ozonation only becomes
economical for large water-treatment plants. Another is that ozone decomposes quickly, and
hence does not protect water from possible contamination as it is piped through the
municipal distribution system. Consequently, a low dose of chlorine must be added to
ozonated water as it leaves the treatment plant.
Disinfecting water using ultraviolet (UV) light is gaining in popularity. By UV, we
mean UVC, the high-energy UV radiation that can break down DNA in microorganisms,
including bacteria. Disinfection with UVC is fast, leaves no residual by-products, and is
economical for small installations, including rural homes with unsafe well water. Like ozone,
however, UVC does not protect the water after it leaves the treatment site. Again, a low dose
of chlorine must be added.

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LEARNING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Click the link below and watch the videos for more understanding about the topic.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A88ih2PQDNs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgdlAt4CR-4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=al-do-HGuIk&t=100s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yEci6iDkXYw

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9z14l51ISwg




References:

Fahlman, B. D., Purvis-Roberts, K. L., Kirk, J. S., Bentley, A. K., Daubenmire, P. L., Ellis, J. P., &
Mury, M. T. (2018). Chemistry in Context: Applying Chemistry to Society (No. 540 C517cc).
McGraw-Hill,.

Manahan, S. E. (2010). Environmental Chemistry. CRC press.

Masten, S. J., & Davis, M. L. (2014). Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science.
McGraw-Hill Education.

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ASSESSMENT TASK



1. Define the following terms:

a) potable water f) ocean acidification

b) surface water g) acid rain

c) wetlands h) dissolved oxygen (DO)

d) estuaries i) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

e) thermal stratification j) autotrophic



2. (a) Explain what the dashed lines between water molecules in Figure 2

represent.

(b) In the same figure, label the atoms on two adjacent water molecules with

𝛿 N 𝑜𝑟 𝛿 3 . How do these partial charges help explain the orientation of the

molecules?


3. What makes water unique from other compound in terms of its properties
and characteristics?

4. Briefly discuss the hydrological cycle.

5. Briefly discuss the dissociation process of acids and bases in water.

6. What are the importance of pH monitoring in our bodies of water?

7. Make a brief discussion about different water pollutants (choose only five).

8. Describe the step by step process about how a typical municipal water
treatment plant facility undergo its water treatment operation.











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