Lecture 1- Review

• Maxwell’s equations
• Wave equations
• Plane Waves
• Boundary conditions
A. Nassiri - ANL

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators USPAS 2010 1
 Maxwell’s Equations

The general form of the time-varying Maxwell’s

equations can be written in differential form
as:
∂D
∇×H = J +
∂t
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
∇⋅D = ρ
∇⋅B = 0
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 A few other fundamental relationships

J = σE " Ohm' s law"

∂ρ
∇⋅J = − " continuity equation"
∂t
D = ε E
 " constitutive relationships"
B = µ H
here ε = ε 0ε r (permittivity) and µ = µ 0 µ r (permeability)
with ε 0 = 8.854 ×10 −12 F/m, µ 0 = 4π ×10 −7 H/m

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 A few other fundamental relationships

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 Integral form of the equations

  
∇⋅D = ρ ⇒ ∫ D ⋅ ds = Q
 S 
 ∂B   ∂B 
∇× E = − ⇒ ∫ E ⋅ d  = − ∫ ∂t ⋅ ds
∂t C S
  
∇⋅B = 0 ⇒ ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S
 
  ∂D     ∂D  
∇× H = J +
∂t
⇒ ∫ H ⋅ d  = ∫  J + ∂t  ⋅ ds
C S 

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 Wave Equations

In any problem with unknown E, D, B, H we have 12

unknowns. To solve for these we need 12 scalar equations.
Maxwell’s equations provide 3 each for the two curl
equations. and 3 each for both constitutive relations (difficult
task).

Instead we anticipate that electromagnetic fields propagate as

waves. Thus if we can find a wave equation, we could solve it
to find out the fields directly.

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 Wave equations

Take the curl of the first Maxwell:

∂
∇ × ∇ × H = ∇ × J + ∇ × (ε E )
∂t
∂
= ∇ × J+ ε (∇ × E)
∂t
∂  ∂H
= ∇ × J+ ε  − µ 
∂t  ∂t 
∂2 H
= ∇ × J − µε
∂t 2
Now use ∇ × ∇ × H ≡ ∇(∇ ⋅ H ) − ∇ 2 H on the LHS
0

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 Wave Equations

The result is:


 ∂ H 2 
∇ H − µε
2
= −∇ × J
∂t 2

Similarly, the same process for the second Maxwell produces

 
 ∂ E
2
∂J ρ
∇ E− µε 2 = µ
2
+∇
∂t ∂t ε

Note how in both case we have a wave equation (2nd order PDE)
for both E and H with fields to the left of the = sign and sources
to the right. These two wave equations are completely equivalent
to the Maxwell equations.
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 Solutions to the wave equations

Consider a region of free space (σ = 0) where there are no sources

(J = 0). The wave equations become homogeneous:
∂2 E
∇ E− µε 2 = 0
2

∂t
∂ 2
H
∇ 2 H − µε =0
∂t 2

Actually there are 6 equations; we will only consider one

component:
e.g. Ex(z,t)
∂ 2 Ex 1 ∂ 2 Ex 1
− = 0 wher e v 2
= = c 2

∂z 2 v 2 ∂t 2 µ 0ε 0

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 Solutions to the wave equation

Try a solution of the form f(z-vt) e.g. sin[β(z-vt)]. By differentiating

twice and substituting back into the scalar wave equation, we find
that it satisfies!

f(z) t=0
z

f(z-vt1) t=t1
z

f(z-vt2) t=t2
z

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 Plane Waves

• First treat plane waves in free space.

• Then interaction of plane waves with media.
• We assume time harmonic case, and source free situation.

We require solutions for E and H (which are solutions to the

following PDE) in free space

 
∇ E + k0 E = 0
2 2 No potentials here!
(no sources)

Note that this is actually three equations:

∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei ∂ 2 Ei
+ + + k 0 Ei = 0
2
i = x, y , z
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z 2

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 How do we find a solution?

Usual procedure is to use Separation of Variables (SOV).

Take one component for example Ex.

E x = f (x )g ( y )h(z )
ghf ′′ + fhg ′′ + fgh′′ + k02 fgh = 0
f ′′ g ′′ h′′
+ + + k02 = 0 Functions of a single
f g h variable ⇒sum = constant = -k02
f ′′ g ′′ h′′
= −k x2 ; = −k y ;
2
= −k z2
f g h
2π ω
and so k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = k02 with k0 = =
λ c

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 Mathematical Solution

We note we have 3 ODEs now.

d2 f
2
+ k x f =0
2
solution is f = e ± jk x x
dx
d 2g ± jk y y
2
+ k yg =0
2
solution is g = e
dy
d 2h
2
+ k zh =0
2
solution is h = e ± jk z z
dz

(
± j kx x+k y y+kz z )
Ex = A e

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 But, what does it mean physically?

(
± j kx x+k y y+kz z )
Ex = A e
This represents the x-component of the travelling wave E-field
(like on a transmission line) which is travelling in the direction
of the propagation vector, with Amplitude A. The direction of
propagation is given by

k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ

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 Physical interpretation

The solution represents a wave travelling in the +z direction with

velocity c. Similarly, f(z+vt) is a solution as well. This latter
solution represents a wave travelling in the -z direction.
So generally,
E x (z , t ) = f [(x ± vt )( y ± vt )(z ± vt )]
In practice, we solve for either E or H and then obtain the
other field using the appropriate curl equation.
What about when sources are present? Looks difficult!

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 Generalize for all components

If we define the normal 3D position vector as:


r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ
 
then k ⋅ r = k x x + k y y + k z z

− jk ⋅ r
so E x = Ae +sign dropped
here

General expression − jk ⋅ r
for a plane wave similarly E y = Be

− jk ⋅ r
E z = Ce
  − jk⋅r 
E = E0 e where E0 = Axˆ + Byˆ + Czˆ

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 Properties of plane waves

For source free propagation we must have ∇·E = 0. If we satisfy

this requirement we must have k·E0= 0. This means that E0
is perpendicular to k.

The corresponding expression for H can be found by

substitution of the solution for E into the ∇×E equation. The
result is:   k0
H= nˆ × E
ωµ 0
Where n is a unit vector in the k direction.

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 Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) wave

Note that H is also perpendicular to k and also perpendicular to

E. This can be established from the expression for H.

Note that:
E
Eˆ × Hˆ = nˆ or kˆ
E and H lie on the
plane of constant
phase (k·r = const) H k,n
Direction of propagation

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 Plane waves at interfaces (normal incidence)

Consider a linearly polarized (in x-direction) wave travelling in

the +z direction with magnitude Ei

µ1ε1σ1 µ2ε2σ2
Ei
Incident
Et
Hi Transmitted
Ht

Er
Reflected
Hr x
Arbitrary
z orientation!

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 Metallic Boundary

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 Metallic Boundary

Dielectric Metal

H
Skin depth

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 Boundary conditions

Maxwell’s equations in differential form require known boundary

values in order to have a complete and unique solution. The
so called boundary conditions (B/C) can be derived by considering
the integral form of Maxwell’s equations.

We deal with a general dielectric interface and two special

cases. First the general case. For convenience we consider
the boundary to be planar.

ε1µ1σ1 n

ε2µ2σ2

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 General case

Ht1
ε1µ1σ1 Et1 n ε1µ1σ1 n

ε2µ2σ2 Et2 ε2µ2σ2 Ht2

Tangential E continuous n x (H1-H2)=Js
Equivalent
ε1µ1σ1 Bn1 n
ε1µ1σ1 D1n n

ε2µ2σ2 Bn2 ε2µ2σ2 D2n

Normal B continuous n·(D1-D2)=ρs

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 Special case (a) Lossless dielectric

ε1µ1σ1=0 n

ε2µ2σ2=0

Et1=Et2 tangential E fields continuous)

Ht1=Ht2 tangential H fields continuous (no current)

Dn1=Dn2 normal D fields continuous (no charge)

Bn1=Bn2 normal B fields continuous

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 Special case (b) Perfect Conductor

ε1µ1σ1=0 n

σ2 → ∞ Perfect Electric Conductor Et2=Ht2=0

Et1= 0 Tangential Electric field on conductor is zero.

n × H1=Js H field is discontinuous by the surface current

n . D1= ρ Normal D(E) field is discontinuous by surface charge

Bn1= 0 Normal B(H) field is zero on conductor.

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 Boundary conditions

Continuity at the boundary for the tangential fields requires:

Ei + Er = Et (1) Fix signs when

defining impedance!
Hi + Hr = Ht (2)
Ei Er Et
Now define : = Z1 = − Z1 = Z2
Hi Hr Ht
Substituting into (1) and (2) and eliminating Er gives
Et 2Z 2
Transmission coefficient τ= =
Ei Z1 + Z 2

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

 Recall the Maxwell’s equations:

  
∇ × E = − jω B  
E ( x , y , x; t ) = E ( x , y , z )e jωt
   
∇ × B = jω D + J  
∇× E = −
∂B
  ∂t
∇⋅B = 0 
   ∂B
∫ ∇ ×E ( x , y , z )e = − ∫ ∂t
j ωt
∇ ⋅ D = ρv
1      
(∇ × E ) = B ⇒ ∇ × E = − jωB
jω

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

• So far, for lossless media, we considered J=0, and ρv=0 but,

there are actually two types of current and one of them should
not be ignored.
• Total
current is a sum of the Source current and Conduction
current.
  
J = Jc + Jo
 
set J c = σE
   
∇ × H = j ωD + J
      σ  
∇ × H = jωεE + σE + J o = jω ε − j  E + J o
 ω

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

Defining complex permittivity

σ
ε = ε− j
ω
Maxwell’s equations in a conducting media (source free) can be
written as
  
∇ × E = − jωµH
  
∇ × H = jωεE
 
∇⋅H = 0
 
∇⋅E = 0
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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

We have considered so far:

Plane Waves Plane Waves Plane Waves Plane Waves

in Free space in Isotropic in anisotropic in Dissipative
Dielectric Dielectric Media
           
∇ × E = − jωµ 0 H ∇ × E = − jωµH ∇ × E = − jωµH ∇ × E = − jωµH
           
∇ × H = jωε 0 E ∇ × H = jωε 0 E ∇ × H = jωεE ∇ × H = jωεE
       
∇⋅H = 0 ∇⋅E = 0 ∇⋅D = 0 ∇⋅E = 0
       
∇⋅E = 0 ∇⋅H = 0 ∇⋅B = 0 ∇⋅H = 0

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

Wave equation for dissipative media becomes:

    
∇ × (∇ × E ) = − jωµ∇ × H
   2  
∇(∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ E = − jωµ( jωεE )
2  
∇ E = −ω µεE2
2  
∇ H = −ω µεH 2

The set of plane-wave solutions are:


E = x̂E0 e − jκz
  E0  − jκz
H = ŷ e
 η
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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

2  2  
Substituting into ∇ E = −ω µεE and ∇ H = −ω µεH
2 2

yields the dispersion relation

κ 2 = ω2µε
and
µ
η=
ε
Is the complex intrinsic impedance of the isotropic media.

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

Denoting the complex values:

κ = κ R − jκ I
η = η e jφ
then,
 − j ( κ R − jκ I ) z
E = x̂E0 e − jκz
= x̂E0 e = x̂E0 e − jκ R z e − κ I z = x̂ E x
  E 0  − j ( κ R − jκ I ) z E 0 − j ( κ R − jκ I ) z − jφ
H = ŷ e = ŷ e e
 η η

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

Loss tangent is defined from

 σ
κ = κ R − jκ I = ω µ ε = ω µ ε − j 
 ω
 σ
= ω µε 1 − j 
 ωε 
σ
is defined as loss tangent
ωε
σ  σ
ε = ε − j = ε1 − j  = ε′ − jε′′
ω  ωε 
ε′′
tan δ =
ε′
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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

σ
Slightly lossy case: << 1
ωε
 σ  σ 
κ = ω µε 1 − j  = ω µε 1 − j 
 ωε   2ωε 
κ R = ω µε
σ σ µ
κ I = ω µε =
2ωε 2 ε
2 ε
dp =
σ µ

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

σ
Highly lossy case: >> 1
ωε
 σ  σ 
κ = ω µε 1 − j  = ω µε  − j 
 ωε   2ωε 
σ
= ωµ (1 − j )
2
2
dp = ≈ δ Skin depth
ωµσ

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 Plane Wave in Dispersive Media

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 Reflection & Transmission

Similarly, substituting into (1) and (2) and eliminating Et

E r Z 2 − Z1
Reflection coefficient ρ= =
Ei Z 2 + Z1
Not 1-ρ
We note that τ = 1+ρ, and that the values of the reflection
and transmission are the same as occur in a transmission line
discontinuity.

Z1 Z2

ρ τ

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 Special case (1)

(1) Medium 1: air; Medium 2: conductor

1+ j
Z1 = 377Ω >> Z 2 = Z m =
σδ
2Z 2
So Et = τ Ei ≈ Ei
Z1
Et 2
then use H t = ⇒ H t = Ei ≈ 2 H i
Z2 Z1
This says that the transmitted magnetic field is almost doubled
at the boundary before it decays according to the skin depth.
On the reflection side Hi ≈ Hr implying that almost all the
H-field is reflected forming a standing wave.

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 Special case (2)

(2) Medium 1: conductor; Medium 2: air

Reversing the situation, now where the wave is incident

from the conducting side, we can show that the wave is
almost totally reflected within the conductor, but that the
standing wave is attenuated due to the conductivity.

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 Special Case (3)

(2) Medium1: dielectric; Medium2: dielectric

ε1
−1
µ0 µ0 ε2
Z1 = , Z2 = ⇒ ρ=
ε1 ε2 ε1
+1
ε2

This result says that the reflection can be controlled by varying

the ratio of the dielectric constants. The transmission analogy
can thus be used for a quarter-wave matching device.

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 λ/4 Matching Plate

Air: εr=1 Plate εr'=? Dielectric εr=4

Z0 Zp Z2

λ/4
Transmission line theory tells us that for a match
Z p = Z0Z2 We will see TL lectures later
376.7 Z0
Z 0 = 376.7Ω, Z 2 = = = 188Ω
εr 2
Z0
So Z p = 266Ω and ε r' = =2
Z2

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 Applications

The principle of λ/4 matching is not only confined to transmission

line problems! In fact, the same principle is used to eliminate
reflections in many optical devices using a λ/4 coating layer on
lenses & prisms to improve light transmission efficiency.
Similarly, a half-wave section can be used as a dielectric window.
Ie. Full transparency. (Why?). In this case Z2=Z0 and the
matching section is λ/2. Such devices are used to protect antennas
from weather, ice snow, etc and are called radomes.

Note that both applications are frequency sensitive and that the
matching section is only λ/4 or λ/2 at one frequency.

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 Oblique Incidence

The transmission line analogy only works for normal incidence.

When we have oblique incidence of plane waves on a dielectric
interface the reflection and transmission characteristics become
polarization and angle of incidence dependent.

We need to distinguish between the two different polarizations.

We do this by first, explaining what a plane of incidence is, then
we will point out the distinguishing features of each polarization.
We are aiming for expressions for reflection coefficients.

We note again that we are only dealing with plane waves

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 Plane of Incidence

Surface y
Plane of incidence contains
normal both direction of propagation
vector and normal vector.
Direction of
propagation

Dielectric
interface in
z x-z plane

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 Parallel & Perpendicular Incidence

Plane of incidence is the x-y plane

y y

E H
H E

x x

E is Parallel to the E is Perpendicular to the

plane of incidence plane of incidence

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 Perpendicular incidence

y
Hr
Hi Ei
Er θr θi

ε1µ1
x
ε2µ2

Ht θt
Et

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 Write math expression for fields!

Ei = zˆE0 exp[ jβ1 (x sin θ i + y cosθ i )]

H i = (− xˆ cosθ i + yˆ sin θ i ) exp[ jβ1 ( x sin θ i + y cosθ i )]

E0
Z1

Er = zˆρ ⊥ E0 exp[ jβ1 ( x sin θ r − y cosθ r )]

ρ ⊥ E0
H r = ( xˆ cosθ r + yˆ sin θ r ) exp[ jβ1 ( x sin θ r − y cosθ r )]
Z1
Et = zˆτ ⊥ E0 exp[ jβ 2 ( x sin θ t + y cosθ t )]
τ ⊥ E0
H t = (− xˆ cosθ t + yˆ sin θ t ) exp[ jβ 2 ( x sin θ t + y cosθ t )]
Z2

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 How did you get that?

Within the exponential: This tells the direction of propagation

Of the wave. E.g. for both the incident Ei and Hi

jβ1 ( x sin θ i + y cosθ i )

Propagating A component in the – x direction
In medium 1
Another component in the –y direction

Outside the exponential tells what vector components of the field

Are present. E.g. for Hr
Perpendicular reflection
coefficient
ρ ⊥ E0
(xˆ cosθ r + yˆ sin θ r )
Z1 E0/Z1 converts E to H
+x and +y components of Hr

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 Apply boundary conditions

Tangential E fields (Ez) matches at y=0

Tangential H fields (Hx) matches at y=0
exp( jβ1 x sin θ i ) + ρ ⊥ exp( jβ1 x sin θ r ) = τ ⊥ exp( jβ 2 x sin θ t )
We know that τ =1+ ρ, so then the arguments of the
exponents must be equal. Sometimes called Phase matching
in optical context. It is the same as applying the boundary
conditions.
jβ1 sin θ i = jβ1 sin θ r = jβ 2 sin θ t

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 Snell’s laws and Fresnel coefficients

The first equation gives θ r = θi

2π µ1ε1
and from the second using β = sin θ t = sin θ i
λ µ 2ε 2

By matching the Hx components and utilizing Snell, we can

obtain the Fresnel reflection coefficient for perpendicular
incidence.
Z 2 cosθ i − Z1 cosθ t
ρ⊥ =
Z 2 cosθ i + Z1 cosθ t

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 Alternative form

Alternatively, we can use Snell to remove the θt and write it in

terms of the incidence angle, at the same time assuming
non-magnetic media (µ= µ0 for both media).

ε2
cosθ i − − sin 2 θ i
ε1 Note how both forms
ρ⊥ = reduce to the transmission
ε line form when θi=0
cosθ i + 2 − sin 2 θ i
ε1

This latter form is the one that is most often quoted in texts,
the previous version is more general

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 Some interesting observations

• If ε2 > ε1 Then the square root is positive, ρ ⊥ Is real

• If ε1> ε2 i.e. the wave is incident from more dense to
less dense
AND
ε2
sin θ i ≥
2

ε1
Then ρ ⊥ is complex and ρ ⊥ = 1
This implies that the incident wave is totally
internally reflected (TIR) into the more dense
medium

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 Critical angle

When the equality is satisfied we have the so-called critical

angle. In other words, if the incident angle is greater than or
equal to the critical angle AND the incidence is from more
dense to less dense, we have TIR.
ε2
θ ic = sin −1

ε1

For θi> θic Then ρ ⊥ = 1 as noted previously.

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 Strange results

ε1
Now sin θ t = sin θ i so since ε1 > ε 2 ⇒ sin θ t > 1 !
ε2
cosθ t = 1 − sin 2 θ t = jA cosθ t is imaginary!
ε1
where A = sin 2 θ i − 1
ε2

What is the physical interpretation of these results? To see

what is happening we go back to the expression for the
transmitted field and substitute the above results.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 62

 Transmitted field

previously Et = zˆτ ⊥ E0 exp[ jβ 2 (x sin θ t + y cosθ t )]

cos θt=jA
= zˆτ ⊥ E0 exp[ jβ 2 x sin θ t ]exp[− αy ]

ε1
where α = β 2 A = ω µ 2ε 2 sin 2 θ i − 1
ε2
Physically, it is apparent that the transmitted field propagates
along the surface (-x direction) but attenuates in the +y direction
This type of wave is a surface wave field

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 63

 Example

2 air Assume:
1 water x
εr = 81
σ=0
Hi µr = 1
Ei

Let θi = 45°
1
evaluate θ ic = sin −1 = 6.38° so θ i > θ ic ⇒ TIR
81

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 64

 Example (ctd)

81 Choose + sign
Using Snell sin θ t = sin 45° = 6.38
1 to allow for
attenuation
cosθ t = ± j 81sin 2 45° − 1 = + j 6.28 in +y direction
2π 39.5
α = β2 A = 6.28 = Nep / m
λ0 λ0
This means that if
the field strength on τ = 1 + ρ⊥
the surface is1Vm-1,
1
then 0.707 − − 0.5
= 1+ 81
Et = τ Ei = 1.42Vm -1 1
0.707 + − 0.5
81
= 1.42∠ − 44.6°

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 65

 Evaluate the field just above the surface

Lets evaluate the transmitted E field at λ/4 above the surface.

 − 39.49 λ0 
Et = 1.42 exp  = 73. 2 µ Vm −1

 λ0 4 
 73.2 × 10 −6 
= 20 log  = −85.8dB
 1.42 

This means that the surface wave is very tightly bound to the
surface and the power flow in the direction normal to the
surface is zero.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 66

 What about the factor k0 ?
ωµ0

k0 2π 2πf 1 ε0
= = = =
ωµ 0 λ0ωµ 0 cωµ 0 cµ 0 µ0
This term has the dimensions of admittance, in fact

1 1 ε0
Y0 = = =
Z 0 η0 µ0
where Z0 = impedance of free space ≈ 377Ω
 1 
And now H = nˆ × E
η0

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 67

 Propagation in conducting media

We have considered propagation in free space (perfect dielectric

with σ = 0). Now consider propagation in conducting media where
σ can vary from a finite value to ∞.
∂2 E ∂J ρ
Start with ∇ E− µε 2 = µ 2
+∇
∂t ∂t ε
Assuming no free charge
 andthe time harmonic
 form, gives
∇ 2 E + ω 2 µεE = jωµσE
  Complex propagation
∇ E −γ E = 0
2 2
coefficient due to
finite conductivity
where γ 2 = jωµσ − µεω 2

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 68

 Conduction current and displacement current

In metals, the conduction current (σE) is much larger than the

displacement current (jωε0E). Only as frequencies increase to
the optical region do the two become comparable.

E.g. σ = 5.8x107 for copper

ωε0 = 2πx1010x 8.854x10-12 = 0.556

So retain only the jωµσ term when considering highly conductive

material at frequencies below light. The PDE becomes:
 
∇ E − jωµ 0σE = 0
2

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 69

 Plane wave incident on a conductor

Consider a plane wave entering a conductive medium at normal

incidence.
Free space Conducting medium

Ex

Hy

Mostly reflected Some transmitted

x
z

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 70

 Mathematical solution

The equation for this is: ∂ 2 Ex

− jωµ 0σE x = 0
∂z 2

The solution is: − jωµ 0σ z

E x = E0 e
ωµ 0σ
We can simplify the exponent: γ= jωµ 0σ = (1 + j )
2
So now γ has equal real
−α z − β z ωµ 0σ
and imaginary parts. E x = E 0 e e with α = β =
2
−z − jz
Alternatively write E x = E0 e δ
e δ

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 71

 Skin Depth

The last equation −z − jz

E x = E0 e δ
e δ

2 1 1
gives us the notion of skin depth: δ= = =
ωµ 0σ α β
On the surface at z=0 we have Ex=E0
at one skin depth z=δ we have Ex=E0/e field has decayed to 1/e
or 36.8% of value on the
surface.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 72

 Plot of field into conductor

E0

E0/e

z
δ 2δ …….

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 73

 Examples of skin depth

6.61×10 −2
2 σ = 5.8x107 S/m
Copper δ= =
ωµ 0σ f

at 60Hz δ=8.5x10-3 m
at 1MHz δ=6.6x10-5 m
at 30GHz δ=3.8x10-7 m

2.52 ×10 2
Seawater δ= σ = 4 S/m
f
at 1 kHz δ=7.96m

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 74

 Characteristic or Intrinsic Impedance Zm

Define this via the material µ0 µ0

Zm = =
as before: εc σ
ε−j
ω
But again, the conduction current predominates, which means
the second term in the denominator is large. With this
approximation we can arrive at:

ωµ 0 1 + j
Z m = (1 + j ) =
2σ σδ

For copper at 10GHz Zm= 0.026(1+j) Ω

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 75

 Reflection from a metal surface

So a reflection coefficient at metal-air interface is

Zm − Z0
ρ= ≈ −1 since Z m << Z 0
Zm + Z0

We also note that as σ→ ∞, Zm→ 0 and that ρ= -1 for the case

of the perfect conductor. Thus the boundary condition for a PEC
is satisfied in the limit.

The transmission coefficient into the metal is given by τ = 1+ρ

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 76

 Conductors and dielectrics

Materials can behave as either a dielectric or a conductor

depending on the frequency.
recall ∇ × H = σE + jωεE
Displacement current density

Conduction current density

3 choices
ωε >> σ displacement current >> conductor current ⇒ dielectric
ωε ≈ σ displacement current ≈ conductor current ⇒ quasi conductor
ωε << σ displacement current << conductor current ⇒ conductor

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 77

 A rule for determining whether dielectric or conductor

σ 1
Dielectrics <
ωε 100
1 σ
Quasi Conductors < < 100
100 ωε
σ
Conductors 100 <
M
ωε
conductor
2
σ 1
= 10M copper
ωε 0
quasi conductor
-1
-2
dielectric
ground seawater
N Freq=10N
8 9 10 11

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 78

 General case: (both conduction & displacement currents)

 σ 
γ = jωµσ − µεω = −ω µε 1 +
2 2

2

 j ωε 

If we now let γ = α+jβ, square it and equate real and imaginary

parts and then solve simultaneously for α and β. We obtain:

1
    2
σ 
2
1 
α = ω µε  1+   − 1  Np/m
 2   ωε  

1
    2
σ 
2
1 
β = ω µε  1+   + 1  rad/m
 2   ωε  


Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 79

 Approximations

By taking a binomial expansion of the term under the radical

and simplifying, we can obtain:
Good dielectric Good conductor
σ µ ωµσ
α
2 ε 2
ωµσ
β ω µε
2
µ ωµ
Zw (1 + j )
ε 2σ

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 80

 Example Problem 1:

An FM radio broadcats signal traveling in the y-dirrection in air

has a magnetic field given by the phasor
H (y ) = 2.92 × 10 −3 e − j 0.68πy (− xˆ + zˆ j )A − m −1
(a) Determine the frequency (in MHZ) and wavelengt h (in m).
(b) Find the corresponding E (y ).
(a) we have
β = ω µ o ε o = 0.68π rad − m −1
from which
ω
≈ 102MHz
f =
2π
∂H z ∂H x
∇ × H = xˆ − zˆ = jωε o E
∂y ∂y
⇒ E (y ) ≈ 1.1e − j 0.68πy (− xˆ j − zˆ )V − m −1

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 81

 Example Problem 2:

A uniform plane wave of frequency 10 GHz propagates in a sufficiently

large sample of gallium arsenide (GaAs, εr≈12.9,µr ≈1, tanδc ≈5x10-
5),which is a commonly substrate material for high-speed solid-state

devices. Find (a) the attenuation constant α in np-m-1,(b) phase velocity

νpin m-s-1,and (c) intrinsic impedance ηc in Ω.

Since tan δ c = 5 × 10 − 4 << 1, we can use the approx for a good dielectric.
(a) We have
σ µ ωε tan δ c µ 2π × 1010 × 5 × 10 − 4 µ
α≈ = =
2 ε 2 ε 2 ε
2π × 1010 × 5 × 10 − 4 µ r ε r µ 0 ε 0
=
2
2π × 1010 × 5 × 10 − 4
= 12.9 ≈ 0.188 np − m −1
2 × 3 × 108

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 82

 Example Problem 2:

ω
(b) Since phase velocity ν p =
β
where β ≈ ω µε , we have
1 3 × 108
νp ≈ ≈ ≈ 8.35 × 10 7 m − s −1 .Note that the
µε 12.9
phase velocity is ~ 3.59 times slower that in the air.
µ 377
(c) The intrinsic impedance ηc ≈ ≈ ≈ 105Ω.
ε 12.9
Note that the intrinsic impedance is ~ 3.59 times smaller
that that in air.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 83

 Example Problem3:

A recent survey conducted in USA indicates that ~50% of the population

is exposed to average power densities of approximately 0.005 µW-(cm)-
2due to VHF and UHF broadcast radiation. Find the corresponding

amplitude of the electric and magnetic fields.

Consider the uniform plane wave propagatin g in a lossless medium :

Εx = E 0 cos(ωt − βz )
1
H y = E 0 cos(ωt − βz )
η

where β = ω µε and η = µ . The Poynting vector for this wave is given by

ε
E0  E 02
Ρ = Ε× H = zˆE 0   cos (ωt − βz ) = zˆ
2
[1 + cos 2(ωt − βz )]
 η  2η

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 84

 Example Problem3:

2
1 Tp 1 Tp E 0 [1 + cos 2(ωt − β z )]dt
S av = ∫ Ρ (z ,t )
dt = ∫ z
ˆ
Tp 0 Tp 0 2η
2
E0
⇒ S av = zˆ
2η

E 02
S av = zˆ = 0.005µW − (cm )− 2
2η
so E 0 ≈ 2 × 377 × 5 × 10 −9 10 − 4 ≈ 194 mV − m −1
E 0 194 mV − m −1
H0 = = = 515µA − m −1
η 377Ω

Massachusetts Institute of Technology RF Cavity and Components for Accelerators 85