General Chemistry: Southern Leyte State University Hinunangan Campus
General Chemistry: Southern Leyte State University Hinunangan Campus
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
MODULE 1
MERYL V. CAPAPAS
Instructor
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Course Overview
Course Code: CHEM 0001
Descriptive Title: General Chemistry (Bridging Subject)
Credit Units: 3
School Year/ Term: Final Term, A.Y. 2020-2021
Mode of Delivery: Blended Instruction (Moodle and Modular)
Name of Instructor: Meryl V. Capapas
Course Description: This course covers the fundamental laws, theories and concepts of chemistry,
methods of writing chemical formulas and equations, structure of the atom and
matter, periodic classification related to the properties of typical elements and
compounds and electrolytic dissociation and solutions. This course serves as the
prerequisite requirement for advanced work in chemistry and other fields of
science.
Course Outcomes: After navigating the 4 module, the students must have:
1. Demonstrate and illustrate the basic components of atoms, the periodic
relationship among elements and chemical bonding that govern therein.
2. Compute the mass relationships in chemical reactions and other important
scientific conversions
3. Demonstrate the reactions in aqueous solutions and the intermolecular forces
in liquids and solids.
4. Prepare various laboratory reports from conducted laboratory activities
SLSU Mission: SLSU will
a. Develop Science, Technology and Innovation leaders and professionals;
b. Produce high-impact technologies from research and innovations;
c. Contribute to sustainable development through responsive community
engagement programs;
d. Generate revenues to be self-sufficient and financially-viable
SLSU Vision: A high quality corporate University of Science, Technology and Innovation.
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1. This is a self-pacing module that you can work on at your convenient time within
the term. The lessons are arranged according to the expected outcomes and you
are expected to achieve the task from the first lesson to the last.
2. You are required to answer the Pre-test before going over to the lesson.
3. Perform the activities given before every lesson in each module.
4. The module is given to you to read, learn and enjoy.
5. Learning Tasks are given as part of the lesson as an application or assessment to
evaluate how much you have learned, thus all of it should be answered.
6. Answer the Post Test at the end of all the lessons.
7. Pre-test and Post Test can be answered using the module or in the online
platform.
8. Do not hesitate to ask questions through Messenger (Meryl Velarde Capapas) or
through email ([email protected]) preferably on weekdays within office
hours.
9. Cheating is punishable by university policy, which might result to failing this
course.
Pre- Test:
PRE-TEST TABLE OF SPECIFICATION:
Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter that corresponds as the best answer.
3. An unused flashbulb contains magnesium and oxygen. After use, the contents are
changed to magnesium oxide but the total mass does not change. This observation
can best be explained by the
e) Law of Constant Composition.
f) Law of Multiple Proportions.
g) Avogadro's Law.
h) Law of Conservation of Mass.
11. The properties that cannot be observed with the five senses are called
a) Sub-microscopic properties
b) Macroscopic properties
c) Physical properties
d) Biological properties
d) Crystallization
Introduction to Chemistry
As you begin your study of college chemistry, those of you who do not intend to
become professional chemists may well wonder why you need to study chemistry. You will
also discover that an understanding of chemistry helps you make informed decisions about
many issues that affect you, your community, and your world. A major goal of this text is to
demonstrate the importance of chemistry in your daily life and in our collective
understanding of both the physical world we occupy and the biological realm of which we
are a part.
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that material substances undergo.
Of all the scientific disciplines, it is perhaps the most extensively connected to other fields of
study. It is essential for understanding much of the natural world and central to many other
scientific disciplines, including agriculture, astronomy, geology, biology, and medicine.
The objectives of this chapter are twofold: (1) to introduce the breadth, the
importance of chemistry and (2) to present some of the fundamental concepts and
definitions you will need to understand how chemists think and work.
■ COMMON TERMS
Quiz
Organic or Inorganic?
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Methane CH4
Hydrochloric Acid HCl
Ethane C2H6
■ Types of Properties
■ Types of Properties
Includes all changes of state (physical changes of a substance from one state to
another)
Endothermic Exothermic
Introduction A process or reaction in which the A process or reaction that releases
system absorbs energy from its energy from the system, usually in
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■ States of Matter
Changes of State
Solid
– definite volume
– definite shape
Liquid – atoms are packed together in fixed positions
– – strong attractive forces
definite between atoms
volume
– – only vibrateindefinite
in place shape
– atoms are close
together
– atoms can overcome
attractive forces to flow
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Gases
– indefinite volume
– indefinite shape
– atoms move very quickly
– atoms are far apart
– pretty weak attractive forces
– Plasma
Plasma
– high temperature state in which atoms lose
their electrons
– There is plasma in stars (including our Sun);
the solar wind in our Solar System is made of
plasma.
■ Separation Techniques
• Filtration - solid part is trapped by filter paper and the liquid part runs through
the paper
• Vaporization - where the liquid portion is evaporated off to leave solid
• Decanting - when liquid is poured off after solid has settled to bottom
• Centrifuge - machine that spins a sample very quickly so that components with
different densities will separate
• Paper Chromatography - used to separate mixtures because different parts
move quicker on paper than other
• Simple distillation - best for separating a liquid from a solution. In a way, the
concept is similar to evaporation, but in this case, the vapor is collected by
condensation
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■ Types of Matter
PURE SUBSTANCES - has a definite and constant composition — like salt or sugar. A
pure substance can be either an element or a compound, but the composition of a
pure substance doesn’t vary
Elements – composed of a single kind of atom, the simplest form. They cannot
be broken into anything else by physical or chemical means.
■ Elements
■ Compounds
■ Solutions
Saturated solution – contains all of the solute it can hold at a given temperature.
o If you add even one more molecule of the solute, it will fall out of solution
and rest on the bottom
Unsaturated Solutions - contains less solute than it can hold at a given temperature
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o Can add more solute and it won’t fall out of the solution
Supersaturated Solution - solution that holds more than it usually would at a given
temperature
■ Concentration
– The comparison of solute to solvent
– When there is small amount of solute compared to solvent, the solution is dilute
– When there is high amount of solute in the solvent, the solution is concentrated
■ Solubility
■ Suspensions
■ Colloids
Periods
– horizontal rows
– properties changes consistently across a period
– All of the elements in a period have the same
number of atomic orbitals
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■ Types of Elements
1. Metals
– found in the left, center and lower parts of the periodic table
– tend to lose electrons, thus often conductive to electricity
– at room temperature, most are solids
– most have silvery or grayish white luster
– Malleable - can be rolled or hammered into sheets
– Ductile - can be made into wire
– High tensile strength - can resist breakage when pulled
– Aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury and lead are metals
2. Nonmetals
– some are solids: usually brittle, not malleable, dull (not shiny)
3. Metalloids
– are semiconductors
4. Noble Gases
■ Types of Compounds
1. Organic compounds
– will include things like the nucleic acids, found in DNA, lipids and fatty acids
found in the cells of living organisms, proteins and enzymes that are
necessary for cellular processes to take place, and more
2. Inorganic compounds
■ The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the forces between molecules and the energy
that they possess. This theory has 3 basic assumptions.
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■ Chemical Reaction
A chemical rxn is a rearrangement of atoms in which reactant compounds are
converted into product compounds.
During a chem rxn, chemical bonds in the reactants are broken and chemical
bonds in the products are created.
A rxn is accompanied by a change in energy (i.e. heat can be absorbed or given
off), color, state of matter, etc.
■ Chemical Equation
1. Qualitative aspect
– identity of reactants [R] and products [P]; use study of nomenclature to write
equations
– Identify the state of matter for each [R] and [P]
– identify reaction type
2. Quantitative aspect
– how much reactant is consumed and how much product is formed
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STOICHIOMETRY
Atomic Mass
By international agreement, atomic mass (sometimes called atomic weight) is the
mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. Nowadays, the atomic
mass of an element can be determined directly by looking at your periodic table. For
example, carbon, C, has an atomic mass of 12 amu, calcium, Ca, has 40.1 amu and
oxygen, O2, has 16.0 amu. For simplicity, we will only use atomic masses of elements up
to one (1) decimal place only.
Atomic mass units provide a relative scale for the masses of the elements. But
because atoms have such small masses, no usable scale can be devised to weigh them in
calibrated units of atomic mass units.
In the SI system the mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as
many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or other particles) as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon-12 isotope. One (1) mole of carbon-12 atoms
has a mass of exactly 12 g and is numerically equal to its atomic mass (12 amu).
Likewise, the atomic mass of sodium (Na) is 22.99 amu and its molar mass is 22.99
g/mol; the atomic mass of phosphorus is 30.97 amu and its molar mass is 30.97 g/mol;
and so on. If we know the atomic mass of an element, we also know its molar mass.
Molecular Mass
If we know the atomic masses of the component atoms, we can calculate the
mass of a molecule. The molecular mass (MM) (sometimes called molecular weight) is
the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance.
Example 1:
Calculate the molecular mass of H2O
Solution:
MM of H2O = (no. of H atoms present x atomic mass of H) + (no. of O atoms present x atomic
mass of O)
= 2(1.0 amu) + 1(16.0 amu) = 18.0 amu
In general, we need to multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of
atoms of that element present in the molecule and sum over all the elements.
Example 2:
Calculate the molecular mass of SO2.
Solution: There is 1 atom of S and 2 atoms of O.
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1. From your periodic table, determine the atomic mass and the molar mass of
the following elements:
2. Determine the molecular mass and molar mass of the following compounds:
Knowledge of the molar mass enables us to calculate the numbers of moles and
individual atoms in a given quantity of a compound as illustrated in the example below:
Solution: The molar mass of water is 18.0 g/mol (as shown in example 1). Because 1
mol H2O = 18.0 g H2O, the conversion factor we need should have mol in the
denominator so that the unit mol will cancel, leaving the unit g in the numerator. To
18.0 g
have this, we will write the molar mass in the form of . This will serve as
1 mol
conversion factor to convert 0.25 mol H2O into g:
18 g
= 0.25 mol H2O ( ) = 4.5 g H2O. Thus, 0.25 mol H2O is equal to 4.5 grams H2O.
1mol
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The conversion factor we need should have grams in the denominator so that the
unit g will cancel, leaving the unit mol in the numerator. To have this, we will write the
16.0 g
molar mass in the form of . This will serve as conversion factor to convert 6.07
1 mol
g of CH4 into mol:
1 mol
= 6.07 g CH4 ( ) = 0.379 mol CH4. Thus, 6.07 g of CH4 is equal to 0.379 mol of CH4.
16.0 g
A basic question raised in the chemical laboratory is “How much product will be
formed from specific amounts of starting materials (reactants)?” Or in some cases, we
might ask the reverse question: “How much starting material must be used to obtain a
specific amount of product?” To interpret a reaction quantitatively, we need to apply
our knowledge of molar masses and the mole concept. Stoichiometry is the quantitative
study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
For example, the combustion of carbon monoxide in air produces carbon dioxide
according to the balanced equation:
2CO + O2 2CO2
This equation can be read as “2 moles of carbon monoxide combine with 1 mole
of oxygen to form 2 moles of carbon dioxide.” In stoichiometric calculations, we say that
two moles of CO are equivalent to two moles of CO2, that is, 2 mol CO = 2 mol CO2.
The mole ratio between CO and CO2 is 2:2 or 1:1, meaning that if 10 moles of CO
are reacted, 10 moles of CO 2 will be produced. Likewise, if 0.20 mole of CO is reacted,
0.20 mole of CO2 will be formed. This relationship enables us to write the conversion
factors:
2 mol CO 2mol CO 2
or
2mol CO 2 2 mol CO
For example, if 4.8 moles of CO react completely with O 2 to form CO2. To calculate the
amount of CO2 produced in moles, we use the conversion factor that has CO in the
denominator and write:
2mol CO 2
moles of CO2 produced = 4.8 mol CO x = 4.8 mol CO2
2 mol CO
Remember that the conversion factors use the coefficient of a balanced chemical
equation.
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Any stoichiometric calculation usually involves the steps illustrated in the diagram
below:
■ Atomic Masses
Absolute masses of atoms cannot be obtained – too small to measure the mass
directly;
Relative atomic masses are used instead – masses relative to a chosen standard
or reference.
Carbon-12 is used as atomic mass reference – it is assigned an atomic mass of 12
u exactly;
Other atoms are assigned masses relative to that of carbon-12;
Relative atomic masses are determined using mass spectrometer;
■ Molar Quantity
The Mole:
A quantity that contains the Avogadro’s number of items;
Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023
12.01 g of carbon contains the Avogadro’s number of carbon atoms.
1 mole of carbon = 12.01 g= 6.022 x 1023 carbon atoms
1 carbon atom = 12.01 u (or amu)
■ Gram-Atomic Mass
Examples:
Molecular Mass Molar Mass
N2 28.02 u 28.02 g/mol
H2 O 18.02 u 18.02 g/mol
C8H18 114.22 u 114.22 g/mol
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■ Formula of Compounds
1. Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that represents a simple whole number ratio of the
number of moles of elements in the compound.
2. Molecular Formula
A formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each type in a molecule.
■ Types of Reactions
5. Combustion reactions
Example C + O2
Example: Zn + CuCl2
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5. Combustion Reactions
In order to burn something you need the 3 things in the “fire triangle”:
1) Fuel (hydrocarbon)
2) Oxygen
3) Heat, thing to ignite the reaction (spark)
■ Bonds
- Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them function as a unit.
Bonding Forces
1. Ionic bond
This chemical bond involves a transfer of an electron, so one atom gains an electron while
one atom loses an electron. One of the resulting ions carries a negative charge (anion), and
the other ion carries a positive charge (cation). Because opposite charges attract, the atoms
bond together to form a molecule.
2. Covalent bond
The most common bond in organic molecules, a covalent bond involves the sharing of
electrons between two atoms. The pair of shared electrons forms a new orbit that extends
around the nuclei of both atoms, producing a molecule. There are two secondary types of
covalent bonds that are relevant to biology — polar bonds and hydrogen bonds.
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3. Polar bond
Two atoms connected by a covalent bond may exert different attractions for the electrons in
the bond, producing an unevenly distributed charge. The result is known as a polar bond, an
intermediate case between ionic and covalent bonding, with one end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged and the other end slightly positively charged.
4. Hydrogen bond
Because they’re polarized, two adjacent
H2O (water) molecules can form a linkage
known as a hydrogen bond, where the
(electronegative) hydrogen atom of one
H2O molecule is electrostatically attracted
to the (electropositive) oxygen atom of an
adjacent water molecule.
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
■ Intermolecular Forces
1. London Forces (a.k.a. Dispersion Forces) Weakest
2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
3. Ion-Dipole Interactions
4. -(Salt dissolving in solution; Na+ and Cl- )
5. 4. Hydrogen Bonding (STRONGEST)
- Occur between every compound and arise from the net attractive forces amount
molecules which is produced from induced charge imbalances
■ Dipole-Dipole Forces
■ Ion-Dipole Forces
- Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule
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■ Hydrogen Bonding
The second exception is helium which does not form bonds because it is already
“full” with its two electrons
References:
Heasley VL, Christensen VJ, Heasley GE. 1982. Chemistry and Life in the Laboratory.
Experiments in General, Organic and Biological Chemistry. Third Edition. Pretice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
Holt, Rinehart, Winston. 2005. Modern Chemistry.
Pauling, L. 2014. College Chemistry: An Introductory Textbook of General Chemistry.
Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
https://books.google.com.ph/books/about/General_Chemistry.
Pauling L and Freeman W.H. 1950. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
https://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=_8HQAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_book_similarbooks