Methods of Construction of Basements -

• Construction of basement is difficult for it must be carried out below deep ground in adverse
condition such as existence of ground water, muddiness or limited working space.
• Besides, works are needed to be done amidst layers of props, struts, walling’s and shores, which
cannot be removed until the permanent works are completed and capable of carrying the final
loads.
• For each case of basement construction, the method of soil support, sub-soil condition, structure
of the basement as well as the layout requirement of the entire building must be taken into
consideration before designing the method of works.

In basement construction there is a structural requirement to -

• Transfer the vertical load on the existing wall down to the new lower foundation level, and,
• Hold back the horizontal load of the ground, hydrostatic pressure and any other surcharge loads
acting on the outside walls of the basement.

Construction methods for existing basements (basement lowering techniques)

1. Foundation Benching

• Benching is a less costly and quicker way to create more space in your basement.
• It involves digging down to the depth you wish your new foundation floor to be and creating
new walls to extend from the new depth up to the existing.
• This new wall has to be reinforced and has a cap – which creates a bench-like structure around
your new foundation floor. You can use the new wall to create book cases, shelves or add
cupboards for storage.
• This method is good if what you need to do is create useable space to free up space elsewhere
in your home.
• However, benching may be the solution depending on the soil conditions around your home, the
nearness of your neighbour’s home, the sewage system your home uses, your budget or the
schedule in which you want to have the work completed.

2. Underpinning

• Underpinning and piling are by far the most common

techniques used for basements built underneath or
close to existing structures.
• Underpinning relies on the ability of a wall to span
unsupported for a short length (usually 1.2 meters’
maximum) and a new structure to be built directly
underneath.
• In this way, new sections of lower-level basement
foundation and wall can be built in a sequence until the
existing wall is supported to its full length.
• Underpinning is the technique by which
an existing foundation is provided with
increased depth. This method has been
used historically for foundation repair and
strengthening.
• There are several underpinning methods,
for instance, pier and beam
underpinning and pile underpinning are
more likely to be used for remedial works
when buildings have failed, and access
from the outside is good.

Typical Underpinning Construction

Sequence -

Stage 1 – Excavation

• The excavation must be fully supported by props and shoring and be

a max of 1.2 meters wide.
• Edge protection to prevent falls into the pit must be installed.
• A temporary vertical prop or support may be placed under the
existing wall to keep any loose bricks or masonry in place.
• The main load from the existing wall will span onto the wall and
foundations on either side of the excavation.

Stage 2 – Reinforcement

• A steel reinforcement is fixed into position.

Stage 3 – Concrete Placement

• Concrete is placed in the toe first.

• Once the toe is sufficiently cured the concrete wall is poured.
• Shuttering usually timber is used to hold the concrete while it is
poured.
• A gap of at least 75 mm is left between the top of the concrete and
the underside of the existing foundation.

Stage 4 – Dry Pack

• After a min of 24 hours dry pack is rammed into a void of 75 mm.

• Dry pack is a mix of sharp sand and cement which has a low shrink volume.
• The complete underpin must be supported horizontally by propping or backfill until ground slab
and other permanent works are in place.
Types of Underpinning –

Basic types of Underpinning for basements

Type Information Graphics

Traditional • Mass concrete underpins can sometimes be used
mass to form the walls of basement structures.
concrete • However, mass concrete underpins will not have
underpinni sufficient strength to act as the basement walls
ng and to retain the ground on their own.
• They quite often used to transfer vertical loads of
various elements to deeper levels either
temporarily or permanently.
• It can be used in conjunction with an inner
reinforced concrete retaining wall as part of the
permanent design. The inner reinforced concrete
wall can also be part of a strong complete inner
reinforced concrete box.
• In this option the mass concrete underpins will not
be sufficiently strong to act as a retaining wall in
the temporary condition, so horizontal temporary
propping and a somewhat complicated
construction sequence are usually needed to
provide support until the inner reinforced
concrete retaining wall, or box, is built and has
gained strength.
• This mass concrete underpin with an reinforced
concrete inner lining wall is generally not seen as
an efficient design.
 • In practice mass concrete underpinning is the
most used method because of access and the
need to work from the inside of the property of
most domestic properties.
• Historically for repair these underpins were
transferring vertical load from the existing
foundations down to a lower level where the
ground was stronger or more stable.

Reinforced • Basement walls need to support the vertical loads

concrete from the existing structure and resist the horizontal
underpinni forces from the ground, hydrostatic pressure and
ng from any other surcharge loads such as the
foundations of nearby structures or vehicles on
roads.
• These sorts of reinforced concrete underpin are
generally viewed as efficient underneath a
building as they maximise space, can be built in
a low number of construction operations and,
from a structural point of view, are low risk, as they
involve only one transfer of vertical loads.
• A reinforced concrete underpin can be designed
to achieve both of these functions in one of two
main ways:

1. Cantilever Needle Beam Method

A vertical cantilever with a turning moment acting

around the end of the toe of the base. In other
Cantilever Needle Beam Underpinning
words, the lower section of the underpin is held firmly
Method
in place and the vertical wall is sufficiently strong to
prevent the soil outside the basement, or any other
outside horizontal forces, from pushing the underpin
foundation wall out of vertical.
Uses -
• If the foundation has to be extended only to
one side and the plan possess a stronger
interior column, this method can be used for
underpinning.
• Especially when the loads are not uniformly
distributed.
Advantages -
• Faster than traditional method
• One side access only
• High load carrying capability
 Disadvantages:
• Digging found uneconomical when existing
foundation is deep
• Constraint in access restricts the use of
needle beams.

2. Pier and Beam Underpinning Method -

• It is also termed as base and beam method.

• This method progressed because the mass
concrete method couldn't work well for a huge
depth of foundation.
• It is found feasible for most of the ground
conditions. Here reinforced concrete beams are
placed to transfer the load to mass concrete
bases or piers as shown in the figure.
• The size and depth of the beams are based on
the ground conditions and applied loads.
• It is found economical for depth shallower than
6m.

3. Pile Method of Underpinning –

• In this method, piles are driven on adjacent sides

of the wall that supports the weak foundation.
• A needle or pin penetrates through the wall that
is in turn connected to the piles as shown in figure-
3.
• These needles behave like pile caps.
• Settlement in soil due to water clogging or clayey
nature can be treated by this method.

Multi-stage • Multi-stage underpinning can be used to build

underpinni deep reinforced concrete walls either as part of
ng a deep single level basement or when
constructing multi-level basements.
• Multi-stage underpins allow shallower individual
underpin excavations which can be
advantageous from a health and safety point of
view, especially in unstable soils.
• There are several important points to note when
undertaking multi-stage underpinning:
o Temporary propping - vertical and horizontal
propping must be designed and in place at all
times.
o There must be reinforcement continuity between
the different stages of underpinning.
 o The vertical load of the building must be
supported by each stage of the underpinning -
the base of each intermediate stage of
underpinning will often need to be thickened in
order to avoid increasing the temporary
foundation's bearing pressure.
o Any intermediate stage base thickening will
usually be trimmed off later to leave a flat vertical
wall
o The underpins at each stage should be offset
horizontally to avoid a continuous bottom to top
vertical construction joint.

Construction methods for basements –

Selection Criteria for Basement Construction Method

 1. Open Cut Method –

• This is the simplest and most straight forward

technique of providing an excavation to the
required depth.
• a very old method
• Used in open areas where there are no obstruction
& no building/structure nearby
• Economical compared to the other types.
• Beyond 6m deep, it is uneconomical as it will
involve a massive excavation work and will require
retaining wall
• Can be used in almost any soil condition.

Construction Sequence -

1. The sides of the excavation are sloped to provide stability, with possible slope protection to
maximise the angle of the slope.
2. Upon excavating to the required depth, the basement is constructed from bottom upwards.
3. After the completion of the basement, the remaining excavated areas between the basement
and the side slope are backfilled.

Construction -

• Rods are inserted into the soil alongside the slope, nets are cast over the slope and concrete are
sprayed onto them, to prevent the soil from eroding or sliding during rainy days.
• In some cases, pile sheeting may be provided to reduce differential settlement to the adjacent
buildings.
• In built-up urban areas, such a technique is often impractical in view of site constraints and the
need to restrict ground movements adjacent to the excavation.
• The main criteria to consider for an open cut technique is the geological condition of the site, as
this has a direct effect on the earth slope.
• The main limitation of this technique is that the site is exposed to the weather.
• Flooding usually occurs after a downpour.
• Provision of dewatering and temporary drainage system are necessary.
• When the trench is very deep and/or expensive backfill, materials are required, then a vertical
cut at the toe of the slope supported by shoring may be effective.

Advantages

• Allows continuous excavation, laying and backfilling operations.

• Minor breakdowns usually do not cause delays to all activities.
• The open trench needs only the design of the cut bank slope.
• Because there are no additional support operations and equipment, it is the Economical choice.
• The open trench provides easy access to the work because equipment and
• Construction materials are minimized.
• The open cut method is suitable for most ground conditions, except for oozing Mud (soft mud or
slime) and running sands

Disadvantages

• The slope of the bank requires more excavation and backfill volume than the Other options.
• The only bank support is the strength of the soil. If drying, flooding, or change Of soil properties
weakens the soil, then sloughing and collapse can happen with Little or no warning.
• The sloped banks require a wider work area.
• The bank slopes may force the use of larger equipment because the distance.
• To reach into the trench is increased and a greater volume of soil must be Excavated and
backfilled.

2. Cut and Cover Method –

• This technique is usually employed in constrained sites where ground movements to the adjacent
surrounding has to be kept to the minimum.
• Retaining walls are required to support the excavation with the provision of bracing as the
excavation proceeds downward until the deepest basement level.
• The basement is then constructed in the conventional way, bottom upwards in sequence with
removal of the temporary struts.

Construction –

• The figure shows the construction of a five storey basement with diaphragm wall around the
perimeter in a congested site.
• The diaphragm wall is supported with wall bracing and heavy strutting.
• A working stage is erected to provide access in and out the site, and to provide the platform for
mechanical plants to operate on.
• The excavation is carried out mainly by two large excavators with boom arms that can reach to
basement level 4.
• Excavated earth is carted away by Lorries. As the excavation proceeds to a deeper level, smaller
excavators are mobilised into the basement for excavation under the stage.
• The side of the excavation is supported using heavy lateral bracing (strutting), installed at various
depths with the subsequent progress of excavation, and the intermediate vertical king posts and
bracings.
• The stresses in the struts are monitored to ensure proper load transfer using jacks and adjustable
connectors.
• After the excavation, the basement floor slabs are constructed with connection to the starter
bars pre-formed with the reinforcement cage of the diaphragm wall.
• The struts are subsequently removed with the construction and gaining of strength of the floors.
Sequence of Excavation-

The use of Ground Anchors -

• In situations where a clear space may be needed for access, or the shape of the site makes
supporting by horizontal strutting not economical ground anchors/soil nails may be used.
• Ground anchors are small diameter bored piles drilled at any inclination for the purpose of
withstanding thrusts from soil of external loading.
• A ground anchor consists of a tendon, which is fixed to the retained structure at one end whilst
the other end is firmly anchored into the ground beyond the potential place of failure.

The construction sequence and details of ground anchors are shown –

Disadvantages -

• The main disadvantages of a cut and cover construction are its disruptive effects in congested
urban environment.
• Cost of cut and cover construction increases sharply with increased depth.
 3. Top-Down Method -

• Top-down method is mainly used for two

types of urban structures, namely tall
buildings with deep basements and
underground structures such as car parks,
underpasses and metro stations.
• In this case the basement floors are
constructed as the excavation
progresses.
• Used for deep excavation projects where
tieback installation is not feasible and soil
movements have to be minimized.
• Significant saving of the overall
construction time.
• It involves the construction of successive
basement levels from the ground down to the lowermost subbasement.
• The sequence construction begins with flexible retaining wall installation and then load-bearing
elements that will carry the future super-structure.

Structural Members Required for Top-down Construction

Design and construction principles for Top-down method primarily call for two major structural
elements -

(i) Columns with sufficient capacity must be pre-founded in form of Bored Piles or Barrettes to
sustain the construction load and to utilize as part of bracing system. Excavation for
basement must be carried out with the support of permanent retaining wall so that basement
floor slabs can be utilized as lateral bracing.
(ii) Diaphragm wall of 0.8m to 1.2m in thickness with sufficient embedment in firm soil layers is
commonly used as a retaining wall, whereas prefabricated structural steel columns, also
known as Stanchions, embedded in either large diameter deep-seated bored piles or
barrettes are utilized as compression members.

Sequence of Construction –
• In this method, basement concrete slabs act as lateral bracing for the perimeter wall system.
Ground level and first basement slabs are poured, with access holes left to allow excavation
beneath.
• As each subsequent subgrade level is completed, the floors act as lateral bracing for the
perimeter wall system.
• Similar to the cut and cover technique, permanent perimeter walls are first constructed.
• Pre-founded columns are then constructed, followed by the construction of the ground floor slab.
• Pre-founded columns are structural columns/piles formed before basement excavation.
• Boreholes are formed to the hard strata.
• Steel stanchion/H-sections are inserted, and concrete pumped in to slightly over the lowest
basement slab level. The holes are then backfilled with soil.
• This lower part of the stanchions embedded in concrete will later form the integral part of the
foundation for the structure.
• The upper part of the stanchions not embedded in concrete serves as the column supports for
the subsequent basement floors.
• Excavation then proceeds downward, and basement slabs are constructed while construction
of the superstructure proceeds simultaneously
• Temporary openings are provided at various strategic locations on the basement floors to
provide access for removal of excavated earth as well as delivery of excavation machinery and
materials for the construction of the substructure.
• Excavation proceeds without the need for strutting to support the excavation as the slabs act as
the permanent horizontal supports. When the formation level is reached, pile caps and ground
beams are constructed.

1 - Installation of the retaining wall -

The underground retaining wall, either
a diaphragm wall or a secant piled
wall, is installed before excavation
commences

2 - Install bearing piles

with Plunged columns
3 – Casting the
ground floor slab

4 – Excavate and cast the

upper basement floor slab

5 - Extend columns and

cast first floor slab

6 - Excavate and cast

middle basement slab

7 - Extend columns and

cast second floor slab (not
shown)

8 - Excavate and cast the

lower basement slab.

9 - Extend columns and

cast upper floor slabs (not
shown)
Column Installation Techniques -

• Column installation method is usually selected by the piling contractor who takes into
consideration three main factors such as installation depth, size of column and size of bored or
barrette piles.
• Though installation details may be different from one contractor to another, column installation
can be categorized under two types, namely, Post-concreting or Plunging installation and Pre-
concreting installation or placing column prior to concreting.
• This operation required personnel to trim the pile, set pile caps or make in-situ bases for final
column installation at final basement level.

(i) Post-concreting Installation or Plunging Method –

• In this method, column is installed immediately after completion of bored pile concreting process.
General construction sequence involved in this method is demonstrated in Fig. 3. Guide frame or
Jigs is used to install the column at the correct position.
• On several occasions in the old past, installation of steel columns on the wet concrete were
rejected because of the risk of inaccurate placing of columns.
• More recently in abroad, specialist firms have developed jigs to enable the steel plunge column
to be placed very accurately both in verticality and position within the unlined box supported by
bentonite slurry.
• The general accuracy of placing the plunged column into the wet concrete is of the same order
as bored pile construction (1:75); but with the refined site controls, accuracy even upto 1: 200 to
1:400 could be maintained.

(ii) Pre-concreting installation method

• In this method, column is installed immediately after completion of drilling and reinforcement
lowering prior to concreting process.
• In some projects column is attached to the last section of reinforcement and installed.
Advantages

• Superstructure works can be constructed without affecting the basement works

• Speed – an estimated saving of 3-6 months in construction period
• Fast completion, early return on investment
• Strutting is not necessary.
• It also allows early enclosure of the excavation which would permit work to be carried out even
in adverse weather condition.
• Ground movement to the adjacent area is minimised as excavation is always strutted during
construction.

Disadvantages

• Problems of excavating in dark & dusty situation even with artificial lighting
• Limited head room & working area during casting of concrete slab, boring of holes and inserted
pre-founded column
• Cost of construction is high as it involves installation of more sophisticated temporary support such
as prefounded columns.
• Provision of mechanical ventilation and artificial lighting is necessary during construction.
• In cases where pre-founded columns are to be removed or enlarged, great care must be taken
to ensure effective load transfer.
• The constraints with headroom, access etc. can also make the removal of unwanted soil, e.g.
boulders, a tedious job as great care is required so as not to weaken the ‘pre-constructed’
surrounding structures.
Basement Foundations –

• A basement foundation is an architectural structure that basically secures a house or other

building about a floor below ground level.
• Nearly all foundations are sunk into the ground to a certain extent, but the distinguishing thing
about a specifically basement style is that it allows owners to create a “finished” basement that
can serve as a normal room or multipurpose space beneath the rest of the structure.
• Homes that have basements are almost always built on this sort of foundation.

1. Slab Foundation –

• A slab basement is the simplest building foundation. In

essence, it is a slab of concrete placed directly onto the
ground. It also acts as the floor of the basement.
• Around the outside of the slab, the concrete forms a 2-
to 3-foot deep beam that supports the rest of the house
being built above.
• Basement slabs are usually designed to span in two
directions and as a consequence have relatively
heavy top and bottom reinforcement.
• To enable them to fulfil their basic functions they
usually have a depth in excess of 250mm.
• The joints, preferably of the construction type, should
be kept to a minimum and if water bars are specified
they must be placed to ensure that complete
compaction of the concrete is achieved.

Process –

• Pouring - Before pouring the concrete, all sewer and electrical lines are put in place.
• The pipes are embedded in the concrete.
• Below the concrete is a 6 inch pile of gravel covered by a plastic sheet to prevent excess moisture
from reaching the slab. The slab itself is usually 4-6 inches thick.
• Once the concrete is poured over the surface, a screed board is used to smooth out any
imperfections.
• A jitterbug tool is then used to
bring any sand, water and
cement to the surface.
• This ensures that the concrete
has a smooth, durable surface.
• This is especially important
because the slab will become
the basement floor. Any large
pieces of aggregate are
pushed as close to the earth as
possible.
Advantages

• Slab basements require little preparation and are suited for warm, level sites. Little labour is
necessary and only light formwork construction.
• The home is closer to the ground than in other designs, so fewer stairs are required during the rest
of construction.
• The slab prevents water and other gases, such as radon, from entering the home because there
is no space between the ground and the slab.

Disadvantages

• Slab basements are more prone to insect infestations.

• In cold climates the slab may crack, causing costly structural damage to the home. In winter the
floor is cold, causing more expensive heating problems.
• Slabs are sensitive to tree roots and soil movement, and any repairs to the slab are difficult and
expensive.

2. Piled Foundations

• These can be defined as a series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit
the load(s) of a structure to a lower level of subsoil.
• Piled foundations can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not present at or near
ground level making the use of deep traditional foundations uneconomic.
• The lack of suitable foundation conditions may be caused by:

1. Natural low bearing capacity of subsoil.

2. High water table † giving rise to high permanent dewatering costs.

3. Presence of layers of highly compressible subsoils such as peat and recently placed filling
materials which have not sufficiently consolidated.

4. Subsoils which may be subject to moisture movement or plastic failure.

Types of Pile Foundation

 ➢ Types of Pile Foundations Based on Construction Method:

Types Description Graphics

➢ Cast-in-situ piles are concrete pile. These piles are
constructed by drilling holes in the ground to the
Cast-in-situ required depth and then filling the hole with
Pile concrete.
Foundations ➢ Reinforcements are also used in the concrete as per
the requirements. These piles are of small diameter
compared to drilled piers.
➢ Cast-in-situ piles are straight bored piles or with one
or more bulbs at intervals are casted.
➢ The piles with one or more bulbs are called as under-
reamed piles.

➢ Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles -

o Driven and cast-in-situ piles have the advantages of
both driven and cast-in-situ piles.
o The procedure of installing a driven and cast-in-situ
pile is as follows:
o A steel shell of diameter of pile is driven into the
ground with the aid of a mandrel inserted into the
shell.
o After driving the shell, the mandrel is removed and
concrete is poured in the shell.
o The shell is made of corrugated and reinforced thin
sheet steel (monotube piles) or pipes (Armco welded
pipes or common seamless pipes). The piles of this
type are called a shell type piles.
o The shell-less type is formed by withdrawing the shell
while the concrete is being placed.
o In both the types of piles the bottom of the shell is
closed with a conical tip which can be separated from
the shell.
o By driving the concrete out of the shell an enlarged
bulb may be formed in both the types of piles.
o Franki piles are of this type. In some cases the shell
will be left in place and the tube is concreted.
o This type of pile is very much used in piling over
water.

➢ Bored cast in situ concrete pile

o Applications of bored cast in situ concrete pile

o bored cast in situ pile is a strong choice in the
following conditions:
o If noise prevention to the buildings located around
the construction is mandatory or undesired, then the
construction of bored cast in situ pile is the most
suitable option.
 o Bored cast in situ pile is ideal as end bearing pile,
exclusively when it need to be socketed into rock.
o When high capacity pile is required, then this type of
pile is an ideal choice. According to IS 2911 part 01-
Section 02- 2010, such type of pile preferred for
weights ranges from 150tonnes to 300tonnes.

➢ Advantages of Cast-in- situ Concrete Piles

o The shells are light weighted, so they are easy to
handle.
o Length of piles can be varied easily.
o The shells may be assembled at sight.
o No excess enforcement is required only to prevent
damage from handling.
o No possibility of breaking during installation.
o Additional piles can be provided easily if required.

➢ Disadvantages of Cast-in- situ Concrete Piles

o Installation requires careful supervision and quality
control.
o Needs sufficient place on site for storage of the
materials used for construction.
o It is difficult to construct cast in situ piles where the
underground water flow is heavy.
o Bottom of the pile may not be symmetrical.
o If the pile is un-reinforced and uncased, the pile can
fail in tension if there acts and uplifting force.

Pre – cast and ➢ Driven precast concrete piles are constructed by

Driven Pile hammering the piles into the soil to a depth greater
Foundations than 40m by an adjustable hydraulic or diesel
hammer.
➢ Driven precast concrete piles are widely used
because of their versatility and suitability for most
ground conditions. These piles can be used for the
foundation of all types of engineering structures
under nearly every soil condition.
➢ Driven pile foundations can be made from concrete,
steel or timber.
➢ Driven precast concrete piles are particularly suited
where the founding stratum is overlain by soft
deposits and aggressive or contaminated soils. Piles
are manufactured in factories under high-quality
control, and consist of segmental lengths of
reinforced concrete sections of lengths between 3m
and 15m with required or standard cross-section.
➢ These piles are prefabricated before placing at the
construction site.
➢ When driven piles are made of concrete, they are
precast. These piles are driven using a pile hammer.
 ➢ When these piles are driven into the granular soils,
they displace the equal volume of soil.
➢ This helps in compaction of soil around the sides of
piles and results in the densification of soil.
➢ The piles which compact the soil adjacent to it is also
called as compaction pile.
➢ This compaction of soil increases its bearing
capacity.
➢ Saturated silty soils and cohesive soils have poor
drainage capability. Thus these soils are not
compacted when driven piles are drilled through it.
➢ The water have to be drained for the soil to be
compacted. Thus stresses are developed adjacent to
the piles have to be borne by pore water only.
➢ This results in increase in pore water pressure and
decrease in bearing capacity of the soil
➢ Advantages of Pre-cast Piles -
o Provides high resistance to chemical and biological
cracks.
o They are usually of high strength.
o To facilitate driving, a pipe may be installed along the
center of the pile.
o If the piles are cast and ready to be driven before the
installation phase is due, it can increase the pace of
work.
o The confinement of the reinforcement can be
ensured.
o Quality of the pile can be controlled.
o F any fault is identified, it can be replaced before
driving.
o Pre-cast piles can be driven under the water.
o The piles can be loaded immediately after it is driven
up to the required length.
➢ Disadvantages of Pre-cast Piles -
o Once the length of the pile is decided, it is difficult to
increase or decrease the length of the pile afterward.
o They are difficult to mobilize.
o Needs heavy and expensive equipment to drive.
o As they are not available for readymade purchase, it
can cause a delay in the project.
o There is a possibility of breakage or damage during
handling and driving of piles.

➢ Classification of pile foundation w.r.t function or use -

Types Description Graphics
Sheet Piles
➢ This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral
support.
➢ Usually, they resist lateral pressure from loose soil,
the flow of water, etc.
➢ They are usually used for cofferdams, trench
sheeting, shore protection, etc.
➢ They are not used for providing vertical support to
the structure.
➢ They are usually used to serve the following
purpose-
o Construction of retaining walls.
o Protection from river bank erosion.
o Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
o For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
o For confinement of soil and thus increase the
bearing capacity of the soil

Bearing Piles ➢ Load Bearing Piles

o This type of pile foundation is mainly used to
transfer the vertical loads from the structure to the
soil.
o These foundations transmit loads through the soil
with poor supporting property onto a layer which
is capable of bearing the load.
o Depending on the mechanism of load transfer
from pile to the soil, load-bearing piles can be
further classified as flowed.
➢ End Bearing Piles
o In this type of pile, the loads pass through the lower
tip of the pile.
o The bottom end of the pile rests on a strong layer
of soil or rock.
o Usually, the pile rests at a transition layer of a weak
and strong slayer.
o As a result, the pile acts as a column and safely
transfers the load to the strong layer.
o The total capacity of end bearing pile can be
calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of the
pile and the bearing capacity of at that particular
depth of soil at which the pile rests.
o Considering a reasonable factor of safety, the
diameter of the pile is calculated.
Friction ➢ Friction pile transfers the load from the structure
Pile to the soil by the frictional force between the
surface of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile
such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc.
➢ Friction can be developed for the entire length of
the pile or a definite length of the pile, depending
on the strata of the soil.
➢ In friction pile, generally, the entire surface of the
pile works to transfer the loads from the structure
to the soil.
➢ The surface area of the pile multiplied by the safe
friction force developed per unit area determines
the capacity of the pile.
➢ While designing skin friction pile, the skin friction
to be developed at a pile surface should be
sincerely evaluated and a reasonable factor of
safety should be considered.
➢ Besides this one can increase the pile diameter,
depth, number of piles and make pile surface rough
to increase the capacity of friction pile.

Soil ➢ Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed

Compacto intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
r Piles compacting.
 ➢ Classification of Piles Based on Materials -

• Primarily piles can be classified into two parts.

1. Displacement piles Non-displacement
2. Replacement piles.
• Piles which causes the soil to be displaced vertically and radially as they are driven to the ground is known as
Displacement piles.
• In case of Replacement piles, the ground is bored and the soil is removed and then the resulting hole is either
filled with concrete or a pre-cast concrete pile is inserted.
• On the basis of materials of pile construction and their installation process load-bearing piles can be classified as
follows:

Materials Description Graphics

Timber ➢ Timber piles are placed under the water level.
Piles ➢ They last for approximately about 30 years.
➢ They can be rectangular or circular in shape.
➢ Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16
inches.
➢ The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the
top width.
➢ They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons.
Additional strength can be obtained by bolting
fish plates to the side of the pile
➢ Advantages of Timber Piles-
o Timber piles of regular size are available.
o Economical.
o Easy to install.
o Low possibility of damage.
o Timber piles can be cut off at any desired
length after they are installed.
o If necessary, timber piles can be easily pulled
out.
o Disadvantages of Timber Piles-
o Piles of longer lengths are not always available.
o It is difficult to obtain straight piles if the
length is short.
o It is difficult to drive the pile if the soil strata
are very hard.
o Spicing of timber pile is difficult.
o Timber or wooden piles are not suitable to be
used as end-bearing piles.
o For durability of timber piles, special measures
have to be taken. For example- wooden piles
are often treated with preservative.
Concrete ➢ Pre-cast Concrete Pile
Piles o The precast concrete pile is cast in pile bed in
the horizontal form if they are rectangular in
shape.
o Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical
forms.
o Precast piles are usually reinforced with steel
to prevent breakage during its mobilization
from casting bed to the location of the
foundation.
o After the piles are cast, curing has to be
performed as per specification.
o Generally curing period for pre-cast piles is 21
to 28 days.

➢ Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles

o This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil
up to the desired depth and then, depositing
freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting
it cure there.
o This type of pile is constructed either by
driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling
it with concrete and leaves the shell with the
concrete or the shell is pulled out while
concrete is poured.

Steel Piles ➢ Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe.

They are filled with concrete.
➢ The size may vary from 10 inches to 24 inches
in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches.
➢ Because of the small sectional area, the piles
are easy to drive.
➢ They are mostly used as end-bearing piles.
➢ Advantages of Steel Piles
o They are easy to install.
o They can reach a greater depth comparing to
any other type of pile.
o Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil
due to the less cross-sectional area.
o It is easy to splice steel piles
o Can carry heavy loads.
➢ Disadvantage of Steel Piles
o Prone to corrosion and expensive
o Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
Pile Accessories

Accessory Description Graphics

Pile cap
➢ A pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast
on the head of a group of piles, to transmit
the load from the structure to the group of
piles.
➢ To protect the top of pile from blow of
hammer on top, pile cap is provided.
➢ Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the
structures to a pile group, then the load
further transfers to firm soil.
➢ External pressures on a pile are likely to be
greatest near the ground surface. Ground
stability increases with depth and pressure.
➢ The top of the pile therefore, is more
vulnerable to movement and stress than the
base of the pile.
➢ Pile caps are thus incorporated in order to tie
the pile heads together so that individual pile
movement and settlement is greatly reduced.
➢ Thus stability of the pile group is greatly
increased

➢ The functions of a pile cap are:

o To distribute a single load equally over the
pile group and thus over a greater area of
bearing potential.
o To laterally stabilise individual piles thus
increasing overall stability of the group.
o To provide the necessary combined
resistance to stresses set up by the
superstructure and/or ground movement
Pile shoe ➢ Pile shoe is fitted at bottom end of pile to
protect the pile and to facilitate easy pile
driving.
➢ Pile shoe is made of cast iron, steel or
wrought iron.
➢ Types of pile shoe:
o Square pile shoe
o Wedged shaped pile shoe
o Round pile shoe
o Steel trap pile shoe for timber pile
o Socket type pile shoe for timber pile
o closed end shoe for pipe piles
Raft foundations
• A raft foundation is a continuous slab of concrete
usually covering an area equal to or greater than the
base of the building or the structure to provide
support for walls or lightly loaded columns and serve
as a base for the ground floor.
• It spreads the load of the building over a larger area
than other foundations, lowering the pressure on the
ground.
• These are special cases of combined footings where all
the columns of the building are having a common
foundation.
• The word raft is used in the sense that the slab of concrete floats on the surface as a raft does on water.
• Raft foundations are used for lightly loaded structures on soils with poor bearing capacity and where variations in soil conditions
necessitate a considerable spread of loads.
• Beam and raft and cellular raft foundations are used for more heavily loaded structures, where the beams or cells of a raft are used
to provide wide spread of loads.
• This is an alternative if you can't use a traditional strip or trench fill foundations.

Applicability of Raft (Mat) Foundations

• Low bearing capacity soil, where
ground conditions are poor and strip or pad
foundations would require
significant excavation, for example on
soft clay, alluvial deposits, compressible fill,
and so on.
• Where spread footings cover about
70% of the structure
• High structure loads
• For structures like chimneys, silos,
tanks, large machines
• Structures and equipment sensitive
to differential settlement
• Watertight construction under
basements below groundwater table
• Highly compressible soil and extends
to a great depth
• When floor areas are small
and structural loadings are low, such as in one or two-storey domestic construction.
• It is employed for the construction of commercial buildings where the loads are commonly large. Mat foundations are popular in
areas where basements are common.
• Where a basement is required.
• Where it may be impractical to create individual strip or pad foundations for a large number of individual loads. In very general
terms, if strip or pad foundations would cover 50% or more of the floor area, then a raft may be more appropriate.
• When the columns and the Shear walls are placed so closely, where the individual footings overlap each other.
Construction of Mat or Raft Foundations
• Remove dirt and excavate soil to a uniform and flat level.
• The foundation bed is then compacted by ramming.
• Then, a waterproof plastic sheet is laid over the earth.
• After that, pour around 7cm layer of plain cement concrete
to create a perfectly flat and level base for the foundation.
• Lay reinforcement on spacers over the foundation bed.
Reinforcements are provided in both directions in the form of steel
mesh. Two meshes are reinforced at the top and bottom of the
foundation to balance upward and downward bending forces.
• After all the steel has been put in place, concrete is poured
to the desired thickness, which is usually in the range of 200mm to
300mm thick for small buildings: this can be much thicker if heavy
loads are to be carried. A minimum rebar cover of 50mm should be
maintained.
• Finally, a suitable curing regime should be used to make sure
that concrete achieves the designated compression strength.
Basic framework of raft foundations –

Rigid Frame ➢ In this type of raft, the foundation walls

Mat/Cellular act as a deep beam.
Raft ➢ Cellular raft or framed raft with
Foundation foundation slab, walls, columns and one
of the floor slabs act together to give a
very rigid structure.
➢ Rigid frame mat is referred when
columns carry extremely heavy loads
and the connecting beams exceeds
90cm depth.
➢ It consists of two slabs with two-way
interlocking ground beams. The upper
(suspended) slab and the lower (ground-
bearing) slab are usually incorporated
within the beams to form I-sections,
with voids between them.
➢ They are very rigid, making them
suitable for
heavy loads or loose soil that can be
subject to uneven settlement.
Where ground heave is likely to be a
problem, cellular raft foundations may
be installed to reduce the
upward force of heave from
transmitting to the structure above.
➢ Here two concrete slabs are placed, one
on top of another and connected with
foundation walls in both directions and
thus forms a cellular raft foundation.
➢ The required depth of the raft, in the
case of overburden removal, may be
influenced more by the amount
of excavation required to achieve an
adequate load reduction than by the
resistance of the cellular raft to
the bending moment.
➢ However, if the raft is required to be
 resistance to seismic loads of
mining subsidence, then the depth of
the raft can be influenced more by the
likely bending moments that will be
induced.
➢ This type of raft is very rigid and is
economical when the required slab
thickness is very high. They are
commonly found on sites that have
been used for heavy mining activity or in
poor ground where large bending
moments need to be resisted. While
often being an economic solution for
such situations, they are one of the
most expensive foundation types.
➢ The foundation walls act as a deep
beam. Rigid frame mat referred when
columns carry extremely heavy loads
and the connecting beams exceed 90 cm
depth. Here two concrete slabs are
placed, one on top of another and
connected with foundation walls in both
directions and this from cellular raft
foundations. It is very rigid and
economical when the required slab
thickness is very high
➢ Bearing capacity can often be increased
by the removal of overburden (waste or
spoil), which is the material that lies
above an area to be developed.
➢ Advantages and disadvantages -
o Suitable for loose soil or soils that
tends to settle unevenly such as back
filled inactive mining site. The
thickness of the constructed
foundation may exceed 1 m. Other
types of foundation are not
economical for this type of soil.
o A cellular raft consists of an
arrangement of two-way interlocking
foundation beams with a ground
bearing slab at the underside and a
suspended slab at the top surface.
o The upper and lower slabs are usually
incorporated within the beams to
form I sections.
o The intersecting beams effectively
break the large slab into two-way
spanning continuous small panels.
o The top slab is cast using precast
soffits or other forms of permanent
formwork such as lightweight infill
blocks.
o These rafts are used on sites subject
to severe mining activity or in areas of ➢ Usage –
poor ground where large bending o They are commonly found on sites that have been used for
moments are to be resisted. heavy mining activity
o in poor ground where large bending moments need to be
resisted.
 o They are also used in locations where
a valuable increase in
o bearing capacity can be achieved by
the removal of the overburden and
where deep foundation beams are
required
Lidded ➢ The lidded cellular raft is very similar in
Cellular Raft profile to the cellular raft and is used in
similar locations, i.e. severe
mining conditions, areas of poor ground
where the raft will be subjected to large
bending moments, etc.
➢ The main difference however is the use
of a lighter form of upper slab designed
to be separate to the main foundation.
➢ The detail at the seating of the upper
floor depends upon the need for re-
levelling and the possible number of
times adjustments to line and level may
be necessary.
➢ Due to its formation tends to be a little
less stiff than the true cellular raft. The
design calculations however follow
similar lines with the exception that the
cross-section of the beams tends to be
restricted to inverted T and L shapes.
➢ The advantage of this form over the
pure cellular raft is that the upper slab
can be detailed to allow it to be re-
levelled should the floor tilt or distortion
become excessive for the building’s use.
Also in some locations the top of the
lidded raft can be constructed in precast
units and may prove more economic,
avoiding the possible need for
permanent formwork.
➢ The raft is usually designed as a number
of intersecting inverted T beams taking
advantage of the lower ground slab as
the flange of the T but ignoring the
upper slab which could be constructed
in timber joists and boards or other
form to suit the design requirements.
Remember that the strength advantage
of the T beam can only be used for
midspan, where compression occurs in
the bottom of the beam. The section
below the column must be designed as
rectangular.
➢ The detail at the seating of the upper
floor depends upon the need for re-
levelling and the possible number of
times adjustments may need to be
made.
➢ As explained in the section, the upper
floor of the lidded raft is a separate
structure to the main inverted T and L
 beams forming the concrete raft. remainder of the design follows the same procedure as before with the
➢ Sizing the design exception already mentioned that the element sections become
The design procedure is similar to that inverted T or L beams rather that I or box sections.
of the cellular raft except that the upper
deck is simply designed to span as a
floor between the up-standing ribs. The