THE

WAYFINDING
HANDBOOK
Information Design for Public Places

DAVID GIBSON
Foreword by Christopher Pullman

Princeton Architectural Press

New York
Published by Princeton Architectural Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
37 East Seventh Street
New York, New York 10003 Gibson, David, 1950–
The wayfinding handbook : information design for public places /
For a free catalog of books, call 1.800.722.6657. David Gibson ; foreword by Christopher Pullman.
Visit our website at www.papress.com. p. cm. — (Design briefs)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
© 2009 Princeton Architectural Press ISBN 978-1-56898-769-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
All rights reserved 1. Signs and signboards—Design. 2. Public spaces—Psychological
Printed and bound in China aspects. 3. Communication in architectural design. I. Title.
12 11 10 09 4 3 2 1 First edition
NC1002.S54G53 2009
No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner 741.6—DC22
without written permission from the publisher, except in the
context of reviews. 2008025826

Every reasonable attempt has been made to identify owners

of copyright. Errors or omissions will be corrected in subsequent
editions.

Series Editor: Ellen Lupton

Project Editor: Linda Lee
Acquisitions Editor: Clare Jacobson
Consulting Editor: Juanita Dugdale
Designers: Laura Varacchi, Vijay Mathews, and Julie Park
of Two Twelve Associates

Special thanks to: Nettie Aljian, Sara Bader, Dorothy Ball,

Nicola Bednarek, Janet Behning, Becca Casbon, Carina Cha,
Penny (Yuen Pik) Chu, Russell Fernandez, Pete Fitzpatrick,
Wendy Fuller, Jan Haux, Aileen Kwun, Nancy Eklund Later,
Aaron Lim, Laurie Manfra, Katharine Myers, Ceara O’Leary,
Lauren Nelson Packard, Jennifer Thompson, Arnoud
Verhaeghe, Paul Wagner, Joseph Weston, and Deb Wood
of Princeton Architectural Press—Kevin C. Lippert, publisher
 Foreword 6
Preface 9

1 THE DISCIPLINE
1.1  People and Places 12
1.2 The Spectrum of Projects 17
1.3 The Wayfinding Designer 24

2 PLANNING
SYSTEMS
WAYFINDING
2.1 The Design Process 32
2.2 Planning and Strategy 36
2.3 The Categories of Signs 46
2.4 Sign Content and Locations 56

3 WAYFINDING DESIGN
3.1 Branding and Placemaking 68
3.2 Typography and Layout 74
3.3 Color 86
3.4 Symbols and Maps 96
3.5 Forms, Materials, and Media 106
3.6 Green Design for Sustainability 120

4 PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Initiating the Project 128
4.2 The Public Review Process 135
4.3 Code Requirements 137
4.4 Documentation and Fabrication 138

Acknowledgments 145
Bibliography 146
Resources 149
Image Credits 151
Index 152
1 The Discipline
1.1
1.2
People and Places
The Spectrum of Projects
1.3 The Wayfinding Designer
 1.1 people and places
Order is no guarantee of understanding. Sometimes just the opposite is true...
Cities don’t come in chapters with restaurants in one section and museums
in another; their order is organic, sometimes confusing, never alphabetic.
To really experience a city fully, you have to acknowledge confusion.
richard saul wurman, information anxiety

The heart of a civilization throbs wherever people come

together to work, play, shop, study, perform, worship, or
just interact. Crowded into bustling spaces, they share
the richness and diversity of human experience as well as
its challenges. In these spaces people may “find their way”
in the existential sense, but they also become overwhelmed
or disoriented if they physically lose their way. Wayfinding
design provides guidance and the means to help people feel
at ease in their surroundings.

learn about
The emergence of the
wayfinding discipline

12
People throughout history have gravitated to town and how to exit. Great wayfinding systems employ
centers, market squares, and vibrant public spaces explicit signs and information as well as implicit symbols
filled with global wares, such as New York City’s and landmarks that together communicate with accuracy
Rockefeller Center, Galleria Vittorio Emanuele in and immediacy. This handbook explores the purpose
Milan, or the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul. Houses of and scope of wayfinding systems for spaces where
worship once set apart from the fray, where people people convene and how they are planned, designed,

1.1
sought sanctuary, now often sit side by side with busy and produced.
commercial centers, libraries, schools, restaurants,
residential complexes, and cultural spaces. Any lively the origin of wayfinding
neighborhood is appealing, whether its evolution was Many wayfinding designers are baby boomers whose
organic, like Greenwich Village in New York, the hutongs political and environmental consciousness was in-
of Beijing, the medinas in Fez, or planned in the spirit formed by the futile Vietnam conflict and subsequent
of new urbanism, like Disney’s Celebration community social ferment of the 1970s. Motivated by a sense of
in Florida. The real fabric of human existence is woven public communal mission and zeal for creative exper-
together in settings where people go about their daily imentation, they gradually moved the wayfinding
routine. As the iconoclastic writer Bernard Rudofsky field into the twenty-first century, building upon the
points out in Streets for People (1969): “Altogether, foundation of experience established by earlier design
cities correspond closely to the ideas and ideals of pioneers over the course of the previous century.
their inhabitants. They are the tangible expression of a War—World War II, that is—had an inadvertently pos-
nation’s spirit, or lack of spirit.”1 itive impact on their careers as well, either by forcing
Over time cities, spaces, complexes, and buildings talented Europeans, such as Alvin Lustig, to emigrate
fill up with information, markers, and symbols. Some- to North America where opportunity awaited or by
times charming results emerge, as depicted in popular providing art and design training to many a veteran,
books on vernacular, “undesigned” signs, but the effect including John Follis of Pasadena, California.
can also be ugly or chaotic, or both. The wayfinding During the 1960s Cold War period, critics, scholars,
designer is responsible for enhancing how a space— and designers felt an urgent need to humanize increa-
whether public, commercial, or private—is experienced singly complex modern urban spaces. The design
by finding order in chaos without destroying character. discipline that evolved in response has been called
People will always need to know how to reach their architectural graphics, signage or sign-system design,
destination, where they are, what is happening there, environmental graphic design, and wayfinding. Over

13
People and Places

time, enterprising firms and individuals, such as Lance of the City. Lynch explains that “way-finding” relates
Wyman, who won early acclaim for his Mexico ’68 to the process of forming a mental picture of one’s
Olympics symbols, began to specialize in sign system surroundings based on sensation and memory.
design. Some firms offered wayfinding design in tandem “To become completely lost is perhaps a rather rare
with other services, including exhibition, product, experience for most people in the modern city. We are
interior, and corporate-identity design, the latter the supported by the presence of others and by special
1.1

precursor of branding services. way-finding devices: maps, street numbers, route signs,
The long and notable list of principals of pioneering bus placards. But let the mishap of disorientation once
The Discipline

American firms includes Ivan Chermayeff, Tom Geismar, occur, and the sense of anxiety and even terror that
Rudolph de Harak, and Lella and Massimo Vignelli. Their accompanies it reveals to us how closely it is linked to
contemporaries in the United Kingdom included founding our sense of balance and well-being.” 2
partners of Pentagram, now a global collaborative, Twenty years later Romedi Passini wrote Wayfinding
as well as the venerable designer F. H. K. Henrion. in Architecture and probed the subject in greater depth.
Wayfinding design has always attracted women, In 1992 he coauthored Wayfinding: People, Signs, and
particularly in the early years when the field offered Architecture with Paul Arthur, a Canadian professor-cum-
a much better platform for career advancement and designer who made a personal mission of advancing
business ownership than more established disciplines the field by reigniting interest in Lynch’s observations.
such as architecture. For example, Barbara Stauffacher In addition to coining the term signage, Arthur also
Solomon and Deborah Sussman (a protégée of Ray and developed innovative wayfinding projects and even-
Charles Eames) flourished in California, while Elaine tually became a fellow of the Society for Environmental
Lustig Cohen and Jane Davis Doggett made early inroads Graphic Design (SEGD), the international association
on the East Coast and were later followed by Sue Gould dedicated to advancing the field. Originally founded by a
and Ann Dudrow. handful of designers who wished to share their expertise
Three writers are largely responsible for popularizing in different fields, SEGD today serves many professionals
the term wayfinding, which seems to have stuck as the from architecture, planning, graphic design, exhibition
best name to describe both the process and profession design, product design, and interior design who practice
dedicated to helping people navigate. In 1960, urban wayfinding. Over time, environmental graphic design
planner and teacher Kevin Lynch coined the term in became the preferred umbrella term to describe any
his landmark book about urban spaces, The Image communications intended for spatial application,

14
ranging from wayfinding sign programs to branded hindsight, this realization seems obvious, but at the
spaces, exhibitions, and even public art. SEGD’s annual time the assertion that more information does not equal
competitions, website, and publications provide a lively better understanding had a major impact on designers
forum for new work to be shared and discussed by the and the general public.
global community of practitioners. Most successful Wurman’s ideas; brilliant books by author-publisher
wayfinding designers start with a solid design education Edward Tufte about the visualization of data, notably

1.1
that leads to an entry-level position in a major firm, his much-heralded Visual Display of Quantitative
and soon join SEGD to stay abreast of professional and Information (1983); and the growing demand for good
technical developments. information design in the public realm have all had a
positive trickle-down effect on wayfinding. Greater
the age of information emphasis on the need for experienced information
architecture designers has in turn validated the profession of the
In 1976 architect Richard Saul Wurman chose “The practitioners, who often work in anonymity. Tufte’s
Architecture of Information” as the theme for an annual books, for instance, consistently receive enthusiastic
convention of the American Institute of Architects, endorsements from mainstream press such as the
setting the precedent for a book he produced two New York Times and Scientific American. While his
decades later entitled Information Architects (1996). works are carefully researched and beautifully crafted,
Individually, the projects discussed in the book are they are not just visually appealing but also satisfy an
conventional communication vehicles—maps, dia- apparent public appetite for arcane content expressed
grams, books, sign systems, symbols, and websites— diagrammatically. One of his most popular examples
but presented as a collection, they represent a design turns a map of the Napoleonic army’s doomed march
specialization that had been maturing for much of the to and from Russia into a dramatic graph depicting the
twentieth century without a name until Wurman coined radical reduction in troops due to illness and death, all
information architecture. cleverly revealed in a simple, extraordinary chart.
In one of his most popular books, Information Map design is an important subset of wayfinding
Anxiety (1989), Wurman warned of the emotionally with its own fascinating history. Existing since the
disturbing effects of information overload at a time dawn of language, maps represent a chronology of all
when people were captivated by the novelty of per- kinds of human pursuits, whether cultural, intellectual,
sonal computing technologies. With twenty years’ economic, or political. The most iconic examples of

15
People and Places

wayfinding maps were designed to help the public Sophisticated international communications, fueled
navigate early transportation systems such as railway by the internet explosion, have accelerated concern
networks and subways. Though global positioning and about the pace of global change and inspired the newest
other digital technologies have moved spatial diagrams generation of designers to mobilize for action like never
off sign panels and into cars or handheld devices, before. These young professionals face an exciting era
mapping remains at the forefront of the field today. of technological invention, social upheaval, and radical
1.1

Symbol design is equally important to wayfinding. creativity. The beginning of the twenty-first century may,
Symbols provide a shortcut way for large groups of in fact, become wayfinding’s renaissance, with a number
The Discipline

people who may not share a common language to of capable firms springing up each year and more than
communicate. Authorities who manage transportation enough work to go around to sustain them.
facilities and other public places are indebted to Tom There is no question, however, that the wayfinding
Geismar. The landmark symbol-sign study project he field is very competitive, which puts pressure on firms
directed for the American Institute of Graphic Arts, to produce outstanding work and stay current with
started in the 1970s, organized a coherent family of technological developments. Designers who once sealed
fifty symbols that today serves as a foundation for deals with a handshake must now follow bureaucratic
many symbol sets developed for use in parks and other procedures to secure a client contract, and principals
venues (see chapter 3.4). must negotiate good employee compensation packages
to attract and keep talented staff on board. These trends
today and tomorrow demonstrate the health of the profession: wayfinding
Wayfinding design has finally come of age and not a remains an open-ended field with a promising future for
moment too soon. As predicted by many a twentieth- young practitioners who think spatially, love to travel,
century prophet, our cities continue to sprawl as their and have a knack for communicating. For the wayfinding
infrastructures grow unwieldy. Getting people from profession to remain healthy and prosper, students
place to place and orienting them in complex spaces need to recognize the fascinating, multidisciplinary
is increasingly complicated, especially with all the opportunities it offers.
transportation options now available—from highway
to Segway. The expanding complexity of the world’s 1 Bernard Rudofsky, Streets for People: A Primer for Americans (Garden City,
built environment seems to be growing in direct pro- NY: Doubleday, 1969), 17.
2 Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1960), 4.
portion to the demise of the natural one.

16
1.2 THE SPECTRUM
OF PROJECTS
We believe that the designer should be able to design anything,
“from spoon to the city” because the basic discipline of design is one,
the only things that change are the specifics. ­­
lella and massimo vignelli, design–vignelli

During the past forty years, as the

environmental graphic design profession
matured, the range of wayfinding projects
rapidly expanded. In the 1970s the early
professional practice of architectural graphics
mainly entailed designing signs for architects’
and developers’ buildings. Today almost
every type of public space
and most private complexes
require a wayfinding scheme. The clients
who commission signage systems for these
venues—together with the designers and
fabricators who create them—belong to a
dynamic, creative industry.
learn about
Different types of clients who hire
wayfinding designers and the kinds
of projects they commission

17
 wayfinding markets and A corporate client, for example, may need to complete
project types interior signage for a new office building to obtain a
Visual surveys on the following two spreads give an legal certificate of occupancy and set up the building
overview of the diversity of client and project types. Who for tenants. That same corporation may also wish to use
Hires a Wayfinding Designer? on pages 20–21 presents branded signage to advertise and attract customers, or
the different industries and market sectors that require to signal a change of corporate ownership by rebranding
wayfinding systems. On one hand are large centers signage at multiple branch locations (see chapter 3.1).
for transportation, education, and healthcare, where Other private institutions have their own particular
effective and efficient signage is crucial; on the other signage specifications. In the case of a hospital, for
are sports arenas, hotels, and mixed-use developments, instance, the facilities department may issue a Request
The Spectrum of Projects

where good wayfinding can support a rich customer for Proposal (RFP) for wayfinding signage to connect a
experience. In urban areas wayfinding systems become new building to a larger campus. In their view the primary
a part of the civic infrastructure and the public narrative audience for the signage consists of the patients and
of the city. visitors who need to find physicians, treatment centers,
Within various business sectors there are many and other destinations quickly. Secondary audiences
different kinds of projects. What Do Wayfinding Clients include internal groups like doctors, nursing staff, and
Need? on pages 22–23 provides a typology. These can maintenance and service people.
vary from a signage system for an individual building, As in most multidepartmental organizations,
or for a whole campus or building complex. These two the hospital sign system affects many departments
visual surveys offer a framework for understanding the and personnel. For example, the development office
1.2

scope of wayfinding design. may be obligated to name the new building after a
major donor. The architect of the new building will be
why people need wayfinding systems
The Discipline

concerned that signage is integrated effectively with

Successful wayfinding design depends on understanding the architectural design intent. The communications
three variables: the nature of the client organization, department may decide to use the opportunity to roll
the people with whom the organization communicates, out a new institutional identity. Operators of the hospital
and the type of environment in which the system will be cafeteria or gift shop may have requirements or even
installed. It is important to research and define all three lease agreements that need to be considered regarding
of these variables clearly at the outset of a project. In the scope of their signage. An effective wayfinding
developing the wayfinding strategy and designing the program can easily balance the needs of the different
sign system, the designer will have to create a family of constituencies, supporting and enabling a positive
sign types that not only addresses primary information experience.
and wayfinding needs but also recognizes secondary
issues and audiences with an appropriate information who is the client?
hierarchy and sign-messaging protocols. The client is either an individual or a large team of
The wayfinding requirements of a municipal client people that provides direction and supervision and sets
must often address different user groups in various project parameters. A typical client could be the owner
settings. The institution interacts with a diverse com- of a single property or developer of a large complex,
munity—locals and tourists—all coming to visit city the operator of a transit line, or a facility manager of
centers, city parks, or other public spaces. In addition, a hospital. Clients often act on their own behalf but
the environmental graphics need to attract commercial can also enlist people, such as a project-management
developers in urban-development opportunities. consultant or company, to represent them at various

18
 The Design Principal
Our company, Two Twelve Associates, has always been ded- identification sign? Highlighting world-class architecture
icated to creating designs and public information systems with special details? Or maybe it’s just helping to get the
that improve the dynamics between people and the places building to market faster by getting the code-required
they visit. As Two Twelve evolved from a small studio to a signage installed within two months.
planning consultancy, it soon won bigger contracts that Other kinds of projects have other objectives. The builder

other voices: ann harakawa

demanded a higher level of supervisory responsibility. of a stadium delivers value by giving home-team fans a good
The core lesson we’ve learned over time is that designing wayfinding experience via festive, team-branded signage
a great product goes hand in hand with delivering value that adds to the excitement of game day and makes it easy to
for the money. get from street to seat and back again. This is a form of brand
Whether your client for a wayfinding project is a corpo- extension that gives the fans subtle incentive to come back,
ration or an institution, this means paying attention to game after game, season after season. Loyal fans, in turn,
the bottom line: understanding the budget and managing add value to the home-team franchise, and that value enables
it all the way through the project, letting the client know the stadium owner to charge a premium for sponsors and
when requests for changes will push fees over estimate and concessionaires to promote their brands and products within
offering solutions to cut production costs or streamline the the stadium environment.
work process. Beyond meeting these basic expectations, Project objectives can be that simple, and that complex.
designers should look for unique ways to add value to the The designer’s job is to do the necessary homework: research-
project or product. You need to understand your client’s ing and understanding the client’s business goals well
business objectives, both explicit and inherent, and ensure enough to add significant value through the signage and
that your design solutions meet them. wayfinding program.
A developer of a new building, for example, seeks the
highest rents possible, so the designer needs to figure out Ann Harakawa,principal of Two Twelve Associates and a Yale University
graduate, has over twenty-five years’ experience working in the design
where value can be built into every aspect of the solution.
industry.
Is it emphasizing a desirable address with a striking

stages in the process. Many wayfinding projects are

managed by architects who represent the interests
of their clients and also strive to ensure the holistic
interpretation of their design vision for the building or
complex. Often, a construction manager may be hired to
supervise the fabrication and installation of wayfinding
elements along with the rest of the architecture.

19
 Who Hires a Wayfinding
Designer?
These images illustrate the diversity of clients who
need wayfinding systems and the kinds of facilities they
operate. Even though every space is unique, venues in
each category share typical wayfinding challenges.

Education
The Spectrum of Projects

and Culture
Colleges and universities,
museums, cultural
centers, visitor centers,
zoos, and aquariums

Hospitality
Hotels and resorts,
1.2

planned communities,
convention centers
The Discipline

Sports and
Entertainment
Arenas and stadiums,
sports complexes, theme
parks, performance spaces
Commercial
Real Estate
Buildings, mixed-use
developments with
residential, hospitality,
and retail spaces

20
 Corporations
Private office interiors,
corporate campuses,
building complexes, branch
or franchise location

Retail
Individual stores,
department stores,
shopping centers

1.2
Health Care
Hospitals, hospital
complexes, research
campuses

Government
Municipal centers, state Transportation
and federal complexes, Airports; public
urban spaces and plazas, transportation: subway,
streetscapes, downtowns, bus, commuter rail,
public parks, playgrounds intercity trains, ferry
services; ship terminals
and ports

21
 What Do Wayfinding
Clients Need?
These images illustrate the range of design projects.
The complexity of the assignment grows in direct
proportion to the scale and challenges of the client’s
property. Developing a signage program for a single
building can take a few months; a rail system might
take years.
The Spectrum of Projects

Individual Sign
A single landmark
or feature sign
1.2
The Discipline

Wayfinding for
System Signage Building Complexes
Signage for multiple Exterior and interior
locations, branches, or signage for a group of
franchises operated by buildings, public or private
one owner or manager,
ranging from park systems
to consumer banks

22