Inclusiveness Hand out

II. Course Description

Development efforts of any organization need to include and benefit people with
various types of disabilities, people at risks of exclusion/discrimination and
marginalization, through providing quality education and training, creating equity,
accessibility, employability,
promoting prosperity, reducing poverty and enhancing peace, stability and
creating inclusive society. Unfortunately, this has not been the practice for the
majority of people with disabilities and vulnerable groups, due to unfavorable
attitude, negligence, inaccessibility and exclusion from all development
endeavors. It is obvious that people with disabilities are the large stand most
disadvantaged minority in the world. They are about 15 percent of the global
population (about one billion people), and 17.6 million in Ethiopia, with most
extended families including someone with a disability (World Health
Organization and World Bank and 2011). An exclusion practice of this large
number of persons with disabilities in
Ethiopia is an indicator of violating fundamental human rights that undermines
their potential/ability to contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth
within their household, their community and the country. It is clear that it is not
impairment, but, the exclusion practices that has contributed for insecurity
(conflict), poverty aggravation for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, that has highly demanding inclusive
practices.
Exclusion practices of persons with disabilities have a long history, affecting the
life of people with disabilities and the society at large. In the past and even today
people have been discriminated due to their disabilities.

Inclusiveness promotes effective developments through full participation of all

members of a population, people with disabilities and vulnerabilities, where all
are equal contributors of development and equitable beneficiaries. Through
inclusive practices, it is possible to identify and remove social and physical
barriers so that people with
disabilities and vulnerabilities can participate and benefit from all developments.
Genuine inclusion of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities allow of them to
actively participate in development processes and eliminate dependence
syndrome, leads to broader benefits for families and communities, reduces the
impacts of poverty, and positively contributes to a country‘s economic growth,
development and ultimately create inclusive society. All stages of development
processes of any organization should be inclusive through creating equal access to
education, health care services, work and employment, social protection and all
development center of human being.

Hence, in this course, the higher education students will learn how to assess,
understand and address the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities;
and provide relevant support or seek extra support from experts. He/she also
learns how to adapt and implementing services for an inclusive environment that
aimed to develop holistic development such as affective, cognitive and
psychosocial skills of the population with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Identification and removal/management of
environmental barriers would find a crucial place in the course. The students learn
how to give more attention and support for persons with; hearing impairments,
visual impairment, deaf-Blind, autism, physical and health impairments,
intellectually challenged, emotional and behavior
disorders, learning difficulty, communication disorders, vulnerable persons
including gifted and talented, and those at risk due to different reason (persons
who are environmentally and culturally deprived, abused, torched, abandoned,
and orphaned..etc.). All University students
should be given the chance to study the specific developmental characteristics of
each group of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Furth more, they also
indentify the major
environmental and social barriers that hinder the development of individuals; and
come up with appropriate intervention strategies in inclusive settings of their
respective professional environment and any development settings where all
citizens are equally benefited.

III. Course objective and Expected Learning outcomes

The objective of this course is to develop knowledge, skill and attitude of the
learners so that they can provide appropriate services, the tools and strategies that
help to create a convenient inclusive environment. This course encourages
learners exploring the benefits of collaborating with colleagues to design and
implement inclusion on all sphere of life. It also guides the discovery of ways to
modify environment as well as services and practices to meet the needs of all
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in inclusive environment. As a result
of reviewing various reading materials, completing the assignments, engaging in
related discussions, and strongly workings on activities, towards the completion
of the course, the students will be able to:

. Identify the needs and potentials of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
. Identify environmental and social barriers that hinder the needs, potentials and
full participations, in all aspects of life of persons disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Demonstrate desirable inclusive attitude towards all persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities in full participations
. Apply various assessment strategies for service provisions for evidence-based
planning and implementation to meet the needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
. Adapt environments and services according to the need and potential of the
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Utilize appropriate assistive technology and other support mechanisms that
address the needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Respect and advocate for the right of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Collaboratively work with special needs experts and significant others for the
life success of all persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in every endeavors
and in all environments.
. Create and maintain successful inclusive environment for persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Promote the process of building inclusive society
Chapter 1: Understanding Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Chapter objectives

At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:

. Define disability and vulnerability

. List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability
. Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion
. Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion
. Discuss models of disability

Chapter Contents

1.1 Definitions of disability and vulnerability

1.2 Types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
1.3 Causes of disability and vulnerability
1.4 Historical movements from segregation to inclusion
1.5 The effects of attitude on the move towards inclusion
1.6 Models of disability

Learning outcomes

At the end of completing this chapter, the students will be able to:

. Define disability and vulnerability

. List different types of disabilities and vulnerabilities
. Explain brief causes of disability and vulnerability
. Describe the brief historical movements from segregation to inclusion
. Describe the effect of attitude on the move towards inclusion
. Discuss models of disability

1.1 Definitions of Basic Terms (Impairment, Disability and Handicap)

A. Impairment

Impairment means a lack/abnormality of an anatomic, physiological or

psychological structure or function or deviation on a person.

It refers to any loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological or anatomical

structure or function. It is the absence of particular body part or organ. It could
also a condition in which the body exists but doesn‘t function. Some children, for
instance, have impairments such as eyes that do not see well, arms and legs that
are deformed, or a
brain not developing in a typical way etc.

B. Disability

The term disability is ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept

(Mitra, 2006)

It is not synonymous with AKAL-GUDATENGA (.... ....) meaning impairment

The concept of disability is complex, dynamic, multidimensional, and contested

(WHO and World Bank, 2011).

The full inclusion of people with impairments in society can be inhibited by:

1. Attitudinal (societal barriers, such as stigma)

2. Physical barriers (environmental barriers, such as absence of stairs), and
3. Policy barriers (systemic barriers),

Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive
development.
They are disabling factors

If these problems addressed, impairment may not lead to disability

Where all together can create a disabling effect and inhibit disability inclusive
development.

Societal, environmental, and systemic barriers are the most popular disabling
factors:

. A disabled persons
. Persons with disability
What is disability?

1. Medical Approach

Disability is pathology (physiological, biological and intellectual). Disability

means
functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or psychic impairment, health
or psychic disorders on a person (WHO,1996). The medical definition has given
rise to the idea that
people are individual objects to be .treated., .changed" or .improved" and made
more .normal.. The medical definition views the disabled person as needing to .fit
in .rather than thinking about how society itself should change. This medical
definition does not adequately
explain the interaction between societal conditions or expectations and unique
circumstances of an individual

2.The social definition of disability:

• Disability is a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications

for social identity and behavior.
• Disability largely depends on the context and is a consequence of
discrimination, prejudice and exclusion.
• Emphasizes the shortcomings in the environment and in many organized
activities in society, for example on information, communication and education,
which prevent persons with disabilities from participating on equal terms.

Medical model: Social model:

Child is faulty Child is valued
Diagnosis and labeling Strengths and needs identified
Impairment is focus of attention Barriers identified and solutions
developed
Medical model: Social model:
Segregation and alternative Resources made available
services
Re-entry if normal enough or Diversity welcomed; child is
permanent exclusion welcomed
Society remains unchanged Society evolves

Causes of disability

What do you think is the causes of disability?

Some people, especially in the past times, wrongly believe that disability is a
punishment from God.

There are some who still believe that disability is a form of personal punishment
for individual with disability, a kind of karma for their past mistakes, which is
totally unacceptable now days.

Disability can be caused by the following factors.

1.Genetic Causes

Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause intellectual disability in

children. In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic
condition. Sometimes, diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a
genetic disorder. .

2.Environmental

Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency in vital

minerals and result in deformation issues in the unborn child. After birth, poverty
and malnutrition can also cause poor development of vital organs in the child,
which can eventually lead to disability. The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the
exposure to certain toxic chemicals and illnesses, toxoplasmosis,
cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can cause intellectual
disability to the child. Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles,
and chicken pox may lead to meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage
to the brain of the child. Toxic material such as lead and mercury can damage the
brain too.
Unfortunate life events such as drowning, automobile accidents, falls and so on
can result in people losing their sight, hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their
body and cause
disability.
3. Unknown Causes

The human body is a phenomenal thing. Scientists have still not figured out what
and how some things in the body, cells, brain, and genes come about. Humans
have still not found all the answers to all the defects in the human body .

4. Inaccessible environments

Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some impairment to function
freely.
When society develops infrastructure such as houses, roads, parks and other
public places without consideration to people with impairment, the basically make
it impossible for them to take care of themselves. For example, if a school is built
with a ramp in addition to stairs,
it makes it easy for people with wheelchairs to move about freely. This way, their
impairment is not made worse. Lack of education, support services, health and
opportunities for people with impairment can cause additional disability to people
with disabilities and
even people with no disability.

Some type of disabilities: Some nine major disabilities are listed and briefly
discussed in the coming pages below.

1.Visual impairment

Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications. These are

blindness and low vision.
1.1 Blindness, total or partial inability to see because of disease or disorder of
the eye,optic nerve, or brain. The term blindness typically refers to vision
loss that is not correctable with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Blindness may
not mean a total absence of sight, however. Some people who are
considered blind may be able to perceive slowly moving lights or colors.

1.2 Low vision: The term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision.
People with low vision may have a visual impairment that affects only central
vision—the area directly in front of the eyes—or peripheral vision—the area to
either side of and slightly behind the eyes.

Activities

1. How can we educate people with visual impairment?

2. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them?
3. What will be the consequences if we excludes them from all walks of life?
4. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life?
5. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness?

2. Hearing Impairment

Different people define the term hearing impairment differently. The definitions
given to hearing impairment convey different meaning to different people.
Different definitions and terminologies may be used in different countries for
different purpose. Pasonella and Carat
from legal point of view, define hearing impairment as a generic term indicating a
continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-
classifications of the hard of hearing and deaf.

2.1 Hard of Hearing: "A hearing impairment, whether permanent or fluctuating,

which adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not
included under the definition of 'deaf'." Whelan, R. J. (1988). This term can also
be used to describe persons with enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary
modality of acquisition of language and in communication with others.
2.2. Deaf: Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing
aids but can successfully communicate in sign language. Cultural definitions of
deafness, on the other hand, emphasize an individual‘s various abilities, use of
sign language, and connections with the culturally deaf community.

Activities

1. How can we educate people with hearing impairment?

1. What will be the consequences if we do not educate them?
2. What will be the consequences if ewe excludes them from all walks of life?
3. What support they demand for education, work and living daily life?
4. What is your role as an individual and group to create inclusiveness?
3. Specific learning disability

Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken
or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations.

The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal
brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not
include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
disabilities; of intellectual
disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage.
Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which are
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual
disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic
disadvantages.

Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above

average intelligence. There often appears to be a gap between the individual‘s
potential and actual achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to
as .hidden disabilities.: the
person looks perfectly .normal. and seems to be a very bright and intelligent
person, yet may be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone
of a similar age. A learning disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong
challenge. However, with appropriate
support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in
school, at work, in relationships, and in the community.

Types of Specific Learning Disabilities

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that

adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed
or interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle
differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear
enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming
from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background
noises.

A. Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s ability to

understand numbers and learn math. Individuals with this type of LD may also
have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and
organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting.

B. Dysgraphia

Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s handwriting

ability and fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting,
inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty
composing writing as well as thinking
and writing at the same time.

C. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-
based processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect
reading fluency;decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and
sometimes speech and can
exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a
Language-Based Learning Disability.

D.Language Processing Disorder

Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder

(APD) in which there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form
words, sentences and stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all
sounds coming into the brain, a
Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language.
LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive language.

2. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities

Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which is usually characterized by a
significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-
spatial and social skills.
Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal
cues like facial expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination.

3. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit

Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding

of information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic
seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it
can result in missing
subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles
with cutting,holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
4.Speech and Language Impairments

Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as

stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that
adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely
affects the child's ability to
talk, understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two
groups:
A. speech impairments
B. language impairments.

A. Speech Impairments

There are three basic types of speech impairments:

1. articulation disorders,
2. fluency disorders,
3. voice disorders.

1. articulation disorders,Articulation disorders are errors in the production of

speech sounds that may be related to anatomical or physiological limitations in
the skeletal, muscular, or
neuromuscular support for speech production
. These disorders include:
. Omissions: (bo for boat)
. Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
. Distortions: (shlip for sip)

2. fluency disorders, Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing
of speech characterized by hesitations, repetitions, or prolongations of sounds,
syllables, words, or phrases. Common
fluency disorders include:

. Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the

beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal
blocks
. Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
3. voice disorders. Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one's
voice resulting from disorders in the larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by
abnormal production and/or absences of
vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.

B. Language Impairments

There are five basic areas of language impairments:

1. phonological disorders,
2. Morphological disorders,
3. semantic disorders,
4. syntactical deficits,
5. pragmatic difficulties.

1 phonological disorders, Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal

organization of the phonological system, or a significant deficit in speech
production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be
described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia
of speech is a specific phonological disorder where the student may want to
speak but has
difficulty planning what to say and the motor movements to use.
 2. Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological
inflections (inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different
kinds of meanings).

3. Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development,

inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word
meanings. These students will demonstrate restrictions in word meanings,
difficulty with multiple word meanings,excessive use of nonspecific terms
(e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., thatand there).

4. Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that

govern word order and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb
agreement. Typically, these students produce shorter and less elaborate
sentences with fewer cohesive conjunctions than their peers.

5. Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and

using language in different social contexts. These students may lack an
understanding of the rules for making eye contact, respecting personal
space, requesting information, and introducing topics.

Inclusive life for persons with speech and language difficulties

1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with speech and
language difficulties? Discuss
2. How persons with speech and language difficulties should be employed and
live independent life?
3. How can persons with speech and language difficulties lead independent life in
the community?
4. What kind of technology they require for speech and language communication
and daily life activities?

5.Autism

Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and

nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age
three that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. Other
characteristics often associated with autism

are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to

environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to
sensory experiences. The term
autism does not apply if the child‘s educational performance is adversely affected
primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in #5 below.
A child who shows the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as
having autism if the criteria
above are satisfied.

Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and

communication development, accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behavior
and interest (Landa, 2007). Autism is pervasive developmental disorder
characterized by lack of normal sociability, impaired communication and
repetitive obsessive behavior such as politeness,
turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005). Linked to Profound Learning Disability
(PLDs) are
further impairments in the production of speech. Among these are (i) personal
pronouns reversal for instance the use of .I. instead of .you. and vice-versa, (ii) the
misuse of such prepositions as .in., .on., .under., .next to. (...), and (iii) the
prevalence, in speech, of
echolalia formal repetition of other‘s utterances (Arron and Gittens, 1999).

Children with autism vary literally in their use of words, (Rutter, 1966).
Communication deficiencies may leave a lasting mark of social retardation on the
child. The link, between social skills and language is made evident by the often
spontaneous appearance of affectionate and dependent behavior in these children
after they have been trained to speak
(Churchill, 1966 & Hewett, 1965).

6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of
the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree
that adversely affects educational performance

1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health

factors;
2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with
peers and
teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or

5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or

school problems.

Classification of behavioral and emotional disorders

An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied

types of behavior. Therefore, different classification systems of behavioral and
emotional disorders can be used for special education. Different professionals
have developed a classification
system, which shows some promise for educational practice.
These include:

1. Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out.
The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert
(with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).
2. Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are
openly disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents. Common are
delinquency and dropping out of school.
Early symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying,
cruelty to animals, and fire setting.

3. Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily
destructible and have poor concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may
not think the consequence of their actions.
4. Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure
of themselves. They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate
activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
5. Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior. They may
hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish.
6. Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor listen to
others nor keep their attention focused.

Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two
broad classifications:
1) Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such
problems disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums,
irresponsibility, jealous, anger, attention seeking etc…
2) Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such
problems anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy
(inferiority), guilt, depression and worries a great deal
 Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders

Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the
following.

1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and alnutrition, allergies,

temperament and damage to the central nervous system.
2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse,
neglect, and poor disciplinary practices at home.
3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for
example watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs.
4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and
schooling practices that are unresponsive to individual needs.

Inclusive life for persons with behavioral difficulties

1. Do you think it is right to dismiss students with behavioral disorder from

schools?
2. How can schools create inclusive education for students with behavioral
disorders? Discuss
3. How persons with behavioral disorder should employed and live independent
life?
4. How can persons with behavioral disorder lead independent life in the
community?

7.Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both

intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday
social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. An
individual is considered to
have an intellectual disability based on the following
three criteria:

1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such

as learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure
intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or
as high as 75 indicates a limitation in
intellectual functioning.
2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the
collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed
by people in their everyday lives.

. Conceptual skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts;

and self-direction.

. Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility,

innocence (i.e., suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow
rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized.
. Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills,
healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of
the telephone.
People with intellectual disabilities academic learning can be affected, as well as
their ability to adapt to home, school, and community environments are presented
under the following
sub-headings:

1. General Cognition: People with intellectual disabilities vary physically and

emotionally, as well as by personality, disposition, and beliefs. Their
apparent slowness in learning may be related to the delayed rate of
intellectual development (Wehman, 1997).
2. Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of people
with intellectual disabilities are significantly below average in comparison
to peers without disabilities.
Children with intellectual disabilities may not spontaneously use appropriate
learning or memory retention strategies and may have difficulty in realizing the
conditions or actions
that aid learning and memory. However, these strategies can be taught (Fletcher,
Huffman, &
Bray, 2003; Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Werts, Wolery, Holocombe, & Gast, 1995;
Wolery &
Schuster, 1997).

3. Attention: To acquire information, children must attend to the learning task

for the required length of time and control distractions. Children with
intellectual disabilities may have difficulty distinguishing and attending to
relevant questions in both learning and social
situations (Saunders, 2001). The problem is not that the student will not pay
attention, but rather that the student does not understand or does not filter the
information to get to the salient features (Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Meyen &
Skrtic, 1988).

4. Adaptive Skills: The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities

are often not comparable to those of their peers without disabilities. A child
with intellectual disabilities
may have difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of reasons,
including a higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness, failure to read social
cues, and impulsive behavior (Hardman et al., 2008). The lack or
underdevelopment of these skills notably affects
memory, rehearsal skills, organizational ability, and being in control of the
process of learning (Erez & Peled, 2001; Hunt & Marshall, 2002).

5. Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have

delayed speech, language comprehension and formulation difficulties.
Language problems are generally associated with delays in language
development rather than with a bizarre use of language
(Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Moore-Brown & Montgomery, 2006).
People with intellectual disabilities may show delayed functioning on pragmatic
aspects of language, such as turn taking, selecting acceptable topics for
conversation, knowing when to speak knowing when to be silent, and similar
contextual skills (Haring, McCormick, & Haring, 1994; Yoder,
Retish, & Wade, 1996).

6. Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described as

lacking motivation, or outer-directed behavior. Past experiences of failure
and the anxiety generated by those
failures may make them appear to be fewer goals directed and lacking in
motivation. The result of failure is often learned helplessness. The history of
failure is likely to lead to dependence on external sources of reinforcement or
reward rather than on internal sources of reward. They are less likely to self-
starters motivated by self-approval (Beirne-Smith et al., 2002; Taylor et al.,
2005).

7. Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with mild to

moderate intellectual disabilities lead to persistent problems in academic
achievement (Hughes et al.,
2002; Macmillan, Siperstein, & Gresham, 1996; Quenemoen, Thompson, &
Thurlow, 2003; Turnbull et al., 2004),
unless intensive and extensive supports are provided.

8. Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with

differing biological etiologies, may exhibit coexisting problems, such as
physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and auditory impairments, and health
problems (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006).
 A relationship exists between the severity of the intellectual disabilities and the
extent of physical differences for the individual (Drew & Hardman, 2007; Horvat,
2000).
The majority of children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities have
multiple disabilities that affect nearly every aspect of intellectual and physical
development (Westling & Fox, 2004).

Levels of support for individuals with intellectual disabilities

Levels of support range from intermittent (just occasional or .as needed. for
specific activities) to pervasive (continuous in all realms of living).
Level of Duration of Frequency of Setting of Amount of
support support support support professional
assistance
Intermittent Only as Occasional or Usually only Occasional
needed infrequent one or two consultation
(e.g. 1–2 or monitoring
classes or by
activities) professional
Limited As needed, Regular, but Several Occasional or
but frequency settings, but regular
sometimes varies not usually contact with
continuing all professionals
Extensive Usually Regular, but Several Regular
continuing frequency settings, but contact with
varies not usually professionals
all at least once a
week
Pervasive May be Frequent or Nearly all Continuous
lifelong continuous settings contact and
monitoring
by

Source: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002: Schalock &

Luckassen, 2004.

Activities

Inclusive life for persons with intellectual disabilities

1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with intellectual
disabilities? Discuss
2. How persons with intellectual disabilities should employed and live
independent
life?
3. What kind of employment opportunities you can create for persons with
intellectual disabilities
4. How can persons with intellectual disabilities lead independent life in the
community?

8. Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health impairment

Physical disability is a condition that interferes with the individual‘s ability to use
his or her body. Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic
impairments. (The term orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of
muscular or skeletal system and
sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous system).

Health impairment is a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It

includes asthma, heart defects, cancer, diabetes, hemophilia. HIV/AIDS, etc.

Classification and Characteristics

How can you classify physical impairment?

Physical disabilities:- based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and

motor skills,
it is divided into three. These are:-

A. Mild physical disability:- these individuals are able to walk without aids and
may make normal developmental progress.
B. Moderate physical disability:- individuals can walk with braces and crutches
and may have difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech production.
C. Severe physical disability:-these are individuals who are wheel-chair
dependent and may need special help to achieve regular development.

The physical disability could be broadly classified in to two

I. The neurological system (the brain ,spinal cord & nerve) related problems.
II. Musculo skeletal system ( the muscles, bones and joints) are deficient due to
various causes.
I. Neurological system:-with a neurological condition like cerebral palsy or a
traumatic brain injury, the brain either sends the wrong instructions or interprets
feedback incorrectly.
In both cases, the result is poorly coordinated movement. With the spinal cord
injury or deformity, the path ways between the brain and the muscles are
interrupted, so messages are transmitted but never received. The result is muscle
paralysis and loss of sensation beyond
the point where the spinal cord or the nerve is damaged. These individuals may
have motor
skill deficits that can range from mild in coordination to paralysis of the entire
body. The most severely affected children are totally dependent on other people
or sophisticated equipment to carry out academic and self-care task

Additional problems that can be associated with cerebral palsy include learning
disabilities, mental retardation. Seizures, speech impairments, eating problems,
sensory impairments, and
joint and bone deformities such as spinal curvatures and contractures
(permanently fixed, tight muscles and joints). Approximately 40 percent of those
with cerebral palsy have normal
intelligence; the remainders have from mild to severe retardation. This is an
extremely heterogeneous group having unique abilities and needs.

Epilepsy:-is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are not working properly
and is often called a seizure disorder.

- Some children and youth will epilepsy have only a momentary loss of attention
(petit mal seizures); others fall to the floor and then move uncontrollably
- Fortunately, once epilepsy is diagnosed, it can usually be controlled with
medication and does not interfere with performance in school. Most individuals
with epilepsy have normal intelligence.
- Epilepsy is a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of the population. It is
characterized by recurring seizures, which are spontaneous abnormal discharge of
electrical impulses of the brain.

Spinal bifida and spinal cord injury:- damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis
and loss of sensation in the affected areas of the body. The spinal blfida is a birth
defect of the backbone (spinal column). The cause is unknown but it usually
occurs in the first twenty-six
days of pregnancy.

II. Musculoskeletal system: - it includes the muscles and their supporting

framework and the skeleton.

1. Progressive muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy);

2. Inflammation of the joints (arthritis), or
3. Loss of various parts of the body (amputation)

The list of the impairment and associated with musculoskeletal malformation are
the following:

A. Muscular dystrophy:- is an inherited condition accruing mainly in males, in

which the muscles weaken and deteriorate. The weakness usually appears around
3 to 4 years of age and worsens progressively. By age 11 most victims can to
longer walk. Death usually comes between the ages of 25 and 35 from respiratory
failure or cardiac arrest.
B. Arthritis:-is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include swollen and stiff
joints, fever, and pain in the joints during acute periods. Prolonged inflammation
can lead joint deformities that can eventually affect mobility.
C. Amputation:- a small number of children have missing limbs because of
congenital abnormalities or injury or disease (malignant bone tumors in the
limbs). These children can use customized prosthetic devices (artificial hands,
arms, or legs) to replace limp functions and increase independence in daily
activities.

Other muscle-skeletal disorders are:-

D. Marfan syndrome is a genetic disorder in which the muscles are poorly

developed and the spine is curved. Individuals with marfan syndrome may have
either long, thin limbs, prominent shoulder blades, spinal curvature, flat feet, or
long fingers &thumbs. The heart and blood vessels are usually affected. The
greatest danger is
damage to aorta, which can lead to heart failure. Individuals with marfan
syndrome need to avoid heavy exercise and lifting heavy objects.
E. Achondroplasis:- is a genetic disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 births. Children
with this disorder usually develop a normal torso but have a straight upper back
and a curved lower back (sway back).

These children are at risk of sudden death during sleep from compression of the
spinal cord interfering with their breathing. The disability may be lessened
through the use of the back braces or by surgery.
Polio:- is viral disease that invade the brain and cause severe paralysis of the total
body system. In its mild form results in partial paralysis. Post polio muscles that
were previously damaged weaken, and in some persons, other muscles that were
not previously affected weaken as well.

Club foot:- is a major orthopedic problem affecting about 9,000 infants each year.
This term is used to describe various ankle or foot deformities, i.e

. Twisting inward (equino varus), the most severe form

. Sharply angled at the heel (calcanel vaigus), most common
. The front part of the foot turned inward.

These conditions can be treated with physical therapy, and a cast on the foot can
solve the problem in most instances. In more severe cases, surgery is necessary.
With early treatment, most children can wear regular shoes and take part in all
school activities.

Cleft lip and cleft palate:- are openings in the lip or roof of the mouth,
respectively, that fail to close before birth, the cause is unknown. Most cleft
problems can be repaired through surgery.

Health Impairments

What are the common health problems of students?

Any disease that interferes with learning can make students eligible for special
services.
These disease caused problems are as follow.

1. Heart disease:- this is common among young people. It is caused by improper

circulation of blood by the heart some of the disorders are congenital )present at
birth);others are the product of inflammatory heart disease. Some students have
heart value disorders; others have disorders of the blood vessels. This time heart
implantation helps children to get cured.
2. Cystic fibrosis:- is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and pancreas. It
leads to recurrent respiratory and digestive problems including abnormal amounts
of thick mucus, sweet and saliva. The disease is so progressive and few who have
it survive beyond age 20. Children with such disease often spend significant
timeout of school.
3. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS):- is a very severe disease
caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmitted
primarily through exchange of bodily fluids in transfusions or unprotected sex,
and by contaminated needles in addictive drug use.
4. Hemophilia:- is a hereditary disease in which the blood clots very slowly or not
all. The disorder is transmitted by sex-linked recessive gene and nearly always
occurs in males.
5. Asthma: is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by repealed eplosde of
breathing difficulties especially while exhaling.
6. Diabetes: Developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate
secretion or use of insulin
7. Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders or diseases caused by infections,
poisoning, burns, accidents or other diseases
8. Sickle-cell anemia Hereditary and chronic blood disease (occurring primarily in
African Americans) characterized by red blood cells that are distorted and that do
not circulate properly
9. Leukemia: Disease characterized by excessive production of white blood Cells
10. Lead poisoning Disorder caused by ingesting lead-based paint chips or other
substances containing lead
11. Rheumatic fever Disease characterized by painful swelling and inflammation
of the joints that can spread to the heart and central nervous system.

12. Tuberculosis Infectious disease that commonly affects the lungs and may
affect other tissues of the body.

13. Cancer Abnormal growth of cells that can affect any organ system

Activities

Inclusive life for persons with mobility difficulties and health impairments
1. How can schools create inclusive education for students with physical
disabilities?
Discuss
2. How persons with physical disabilities should employed and live independent
life?
3. How can persons with physical disabilities lead independent life in the
community?
4. What kind of technology they require for mobility and daily life activities?

9. Vulnerability

Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so

being vulnerable is part of being human. In principle, everyone is vulnerable to
some adverse event or circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than
others. For instance, people with
disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They
are also often more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience. Based
on the existing literature,
vulnerability can be generally defined as a complex phenomenon that refers to the
following dimensions:

vulnerability could be defined in the following dimensions

1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards,
housing problems (e.g. too damp, too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transportation, schools,
libraries or medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family
members, friends, neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical help as well as
emotional support) like highly gifted individuals;
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, confronted with
disgraceful behavior because of belonging to a particular social or ethnic group;
5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical
health or disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence.

Causes of Vulnerability
Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger,
poor health, low levels of education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous
location, and lack of access to resources and services, including knowledge and
technological means, disintegration of
social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes includes; lack of access to
information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political
power and representation (political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993). When people are
socially disadvantaged or lack
political voice, their vulnerability is exacerbated further. The economic
vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements, including its
importance in the overall national economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings,
aid and investments, international prices of
commodities and inputs, and production and consumption patterns.
Environmental vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake, flood,
hurricane, drought, storms (Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation,
and the other threats to biodiversity.

Characteristics of Vulnerable People

The following are thought to be characteristics of vulnerable people (with

examples of groups of potentially vulnerable people):

1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with

disabilities)
2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless)
3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)
4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and
potentials

People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by commitments) are
still vulnerable people, which includes the following extracted from various
researches.

A. Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in
rural areas are vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women
are oppressed by the culture and do not get access to education and employment
(Comfort et al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. (2002; Thomalla et al.
(2006;
Laukkonen et al. (2009; Rubin, 2010; GNCSODR, 2013; GP DRR, 2013).
B. Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for
development
(Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Thomalla et al., 2006; Laukkonen et al.,
2009
Dinh et al., 2012; Rubin, 2010; GP DRR, 2013; GNCSODR, 2013; Dinh et al.
(2012).
Children are vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse This include
illegally working children, children who are pregnant or become mothers,
children born out of marriage, children from a single-parent, delinquent children,
homeless children, HIV-infected children, uneducated children, institutionalized
children, married children,mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans,
sexually exploited children, street children, war-affected children…etc.
C. Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority
background.Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority), religious
minority. These people are political and socially discriminated (Comfort et al.,
1999; Cardona, 2003; Brooks,
2003; National Research Council, 2006; Cutter et al., 2010; ).
D. Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to
poverty. This may be resulted in, poor households and large households,
inequality, absences of access to health services, important resources for life, lack
of access to education, information, financial and natural resources and lack of
social networks (Morrow,
1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Brooks, 2003; Dwyer et al., 2004; Vincent, 2004;
Leichenko et al., 2004; National ResearchCouncil, 2006; Naudé et al., 2007;
Kahn
and Salman, 2012; MacDonald, 2013).
E. Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kind of
risks. This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and
social problems (Comfort et al., 1999; McEntire et al., 2002; Naudé et al., 2007;
Cutter et
al., 2010; Dinh et al., 2012; . Balica et al., 2012; GNCSODR, 2013).

F. Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils
(Comfort et
al., 1999; Morrow, 1999; McEntire et al. 2002; Cardona (2003; Vincent, 2004;
Naudé
et al., 2007; Dinh et al., 2012; Adikari et al., 2013; GNCSODR,2013).
G. Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack
quality educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of
developments
(Cardona, 2003; Adger et al., 2004; Leichenko et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007;
Kahn
and Salman, 2012; Adikari et al., 2013).
H. Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS
are much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health (Vincent,
2004;
Adger et al., 2004; Naudé et al., 2007).
I. Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for socio-
emotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support they may feel
isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and given instruction in
separate
settings and due to myths and expectations of themselves and the public
(Shechtman
& Silektor, 2012, p. 63; Schuler, 2000).
Activity

1. Persons with disabilities are highly excluded in Ethiopia from education,

economic, psychological and political development?
2. The Natural rights of persons with disabilities are violated. Can you give some
explanation on these points?
3. How can we make inclusion a reality for persons with disabilities in Ethiopia?
4. What can you do as an individual in your respective profusion?

Chapter Summary

Persons with disabilities, health impairments and vulnerable people are people
who should be productive and able to live independent life. Their impairment is
not something that has disabled them; rather, the social system is the major
disabling factor. Disabilities do not only
affect an impaired persons; it affect the whole nation, when this people are
neglected from education and employment and when they are not actively
participate in the social, political and economic activities. These situations make
them to lead dependent lives which in turn
affect the life of the nation. Hence, inclusiveness is an outlet for creating a society
of productivity who leads independent life.
Chapter 2: Concept of Inclusion

Chapter Overview

This chapter tries to introduce students with the concept inclusion. The specific
contents addressed in the chapter Include: definition of inclusion, concept of
inclusion, inclusion shift from special education and integrated education,
rationale for inclusion, factors that
influenced development of inclusion, benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘
parents and society, inclusive school and classroom environment, strategies to
implement inclusion in
teaching and learning processes and barriers to inclusion.

Learning Objectives

After the students have studied this chapter, they will be able to:

. Define inclusion,
. Discuss the concept of inclusion in education,
. Identify reason regarding shift from special education and integrated education
inclusion,
. Differentiate the major rationales for inclusion,
. List factors that influenced development of inclusion,
. Identify benefits of inclusion to students, teachers‘ parents and society,
. Name major characteristics of inclusive school and inclusive classroom
environments,
. Point out strategies to implement inclusion in teaching and learning processes
. Differentiate the major barriers to inclusion.

2.1. Definition of Inclusion

Brainstorming Questions

. What comes to your mind when you hear about the word inclusion?
. Do you know to whom inclusion is required? Why?
. Who do you think benefit from inclusion?
. Why inclusion has got the world wide attention?
. Where do you think inclusion originated from?
. How do you think inclusion can be implemented?
. What are the barriers to inclusion?

Inclusion in education/service refers to .an ongoing process aimed at offering

quality education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different
needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and
communities and eliminating all
forms of discrimination. (UNESCO, 2008, P.3, as cited in EADSNE, 2010, p.11).
Inclusive
services at any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and
meeting the diverse needs of people.

Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of

needs
of all persons through increasing participation in learning, employment, services,
cultures
and communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts. It involves
changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a
common vision which covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility
of the social system to educate all
children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services. Besides, inclusion
is defined as having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek
to make a reality of the universal right to quality, relevant and appropriate
education and services. It acknowledges
that learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, and includes learning
in the home, the community, and in formal, informal and non-formal situations. It
seeks to enable communities, systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to
combat discrimination,celebrate diversity, promote participation and overcome
barriers to learning and participation for all people. It is part of a wider strategy
promoting inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world where there is
peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social
justice, and where the basic needs and rights of all are met.
This definition has the following components:

1) Concepts about learners

. Education is a fundamental human right for all people

. Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life
. All children have a right to education within their own community
. Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning
. All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all
children.

2) Concepts about the education system and schools

. It is broader than formal schooling

. it is flexible, responsive educational systems
. It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments
. It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools
. It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners.

3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination

. It promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social

sectors
. It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem
. It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference.

4) Concepts about processes to promote inclusion

. It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary

pressures
. It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all
stakeholders
. It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry
and other related activities

5) Concepts about resources

. Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing

resources
. It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized
groups, etc) as key resources
. It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local
levels for the needs of different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille,
assistive devices.
McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive
practices.
A According to them inclusion includes the following components:

. Students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood schools

. Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom
. Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the class
and the school community.
. Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability within
the context of the general education classroom.
. All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs
. No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability.
. All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents)
promote cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements
. There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all students
and programs
. Employed according to their capacities without discriminations
2. On the other hand, they argue that inclusion does not mean:

. Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without

careful planning and adequate support.
. Reducing services or funding for special education services.
. Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few
designated classrooms.
. Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting the
curriculum for students with disabilities.
. Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically within
the general education school or classroom.
. Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower
instruction or a less challenging curriculum.
. Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general
education classroom.
. Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without
careful planning and well-defined responsibilities.

2. Principles of Inclusion

The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and
live together wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they
may have.
Inclusive education extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and
includes consideration of other sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such
as gender, poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic isolation. The complex
inter-relationships that exist
among these factors and their interactions with disability must also be a focus of
attention.

Besides, inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique
characteristics, interests, abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that
all persons have equal access education, employment and services. Inclusion
implies transition from separate, segregated learning and working environments
for persons with disabilities to community based systems. Moreover, effective
transitions from segregated services to inclusive system requires careful planning
and structural changes to ensure that persons with disabilities are provided with
appropriate accommodation and supports that ensure an inclusive learning and

working environment.
Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has provided four major inclusion
principles that support inclusive practice. These include:

1. Inclusion is a process. It has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better

ways of responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference
and learning how to learn from difference. Differences come to be seen more
positively as a stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that
hinders the development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting,
collating and evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in order to
plan for improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of
various kinds to stimulate creativity and problem - solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons.
A=Presence‘ is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and
punctually they attend;
B =participation‘ relates to the quality of their experiences and must incorporate
the views of learners/and or workers and
C=achievement‘ is about the outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just
test and exam results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of
marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral
responsibility to ensure that those =at risk‘ are carefully monitored, and that steps
are taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement.

2. Rationale for Inclusion

Reflection activities:

Dear students, why do you think inclusion in education is implemented in many

countries of the world? Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales.
 The major ones include:
educational, social, legal, economic and inclusive society building foundations

Rationales for Inclusion and Their Respective Descriptions

A Educational Foundations

. Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive

settings.
. A more efficient use of education resources.
. Decreases dropouts and repetitions
. Teachers competency( knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction
B Social Foundation

. Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.

. All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and
prepare them for life in the wider community.
. Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect
and understanding.

C Legal Foundations

. All individuals have the right to learn and live together.

. Human being shouldn‘t be devalued or discriminated against by being
excluded or sent away because of their disability.
. There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education

D Economic Foundation

. Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
. Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools
across the country.
. Children with disabilities go to local schools
. Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
. Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure
. Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities

E Foundations for Building Inclusive Society

. Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity

. Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
. Promotion of sustainable development

2.3. Factors that Influenced Development of Inclusion

Brainstorming questions:

Dear student:

1. As stated earlier, inclusive education has got priority as the main education
policy in many countries of the world. Why do you think it has got the world’s
attention?

2. Is it possible to solve different crises that the world is acing these days by
implementing inclusion philosophy? If your answer is “Yes,” how it is possible?
If your answer is “No,”
why it is not possible?

3. What do you think are the drivers of inclusion to be materialized in reality?

Inclusiveness originated from three major ideas.

These include: inclusive education is a basic human right; quality education
results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability differences, and
there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and
without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Therefore, separate provisions for
such students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world‘s
attention because it is supposed to solve the world‘s major problems occurring in
social, economic, religious, educational and other areas of the world. For instance,
it is supposed to : counteract-social,
political, economical and educational challenges that happen due to globalization
impact;
enhance psychosocial, academic and other benefits to students with and without
special needs education; help all citizens exercise educational and human rights;
enhance quality education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion; create
sustainable environmental development that is suitable for all human beings;
create democratic and productive society that promote sustainable development;
build an attitude of respecting and valuing of differences in human beings; and
ultimately build an inclusive society.

Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major

drivers include:

1. Communities: pre-colonial and indigenous approaches to education and

community-based programs movement that favor inclusion of their community
members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders –
representatives of groups of learners often excluded and marginalized from
education (e.g. disabled activists; parents advocating for their children; child
rights advocates; and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic
groups).
3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and
South, the issues of quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and
contribute to the understanding and practice of inclusive education as being the
responsibility of education systems and schools.
4. Special educational needs movement: the =new thinking‘ of the special needs
education movement – as demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement – has been a
positive influence on inclusive education, enabling schools and systems to really
respond to a wide range of diversity.
5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the
development of inclusive education policy and practice. Major donors have
formed a partnership – the Fast Track Initiative – to speed progress towards the
EFA goals. E.g. UNESCO, etc.
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of
civil society initiatives, such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring
policy and practice together and involve all stakeholders based on different
situations
7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in
education.
The current world situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS,
political instability, trends in resource distribution, diversity of population, and
social inclusion. This necessitates implementation of inclusion to solve the
problems. On the other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons
learned from failure and success in mainstream, special and inclusive education.
Moreover, practical
demonstrations of successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts
are a strong influence on its development

Benefits of Inclusion

It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and

students by
ensuring that children with disabilities attend school with their peers and
providing them with adequate support to succeed both academically and socially.

1. Benefits for Students with Special Needs Education

In inclusive settings people will develop:

. Appropriate models of behavior. They can observe and imitate socially

acceptable behaviors of the students without special needs
. Improved friendships with the social environment
. Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks
. Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
. Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals
. Greater access to general curriculum
. Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning
. improved academic achievement which leads to quality education services
. Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with SEN will
continue to participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives
(increased inclusion in future environments that contribute building of inclusive
society).
. Improved school staff collaboration to meet these students‘ needs and ability
differences
. Increased parental participation to meet these students‘ needs and ability
differences
. Enhanced families integration into the community

2. Benefits for persons without Special Needs Education

Students without special educational needs (SEN) will:

. Have a variety of opportunities for interacting with their age peers who
experience SEN in inclusive school settings.
. serve as peer tutors during instructional activities
. Play the role of a special =buddy‘ during lunch, in the bus or playground.
. Gain knowledge of a good deal about tolerance, individual difference, and
human exceptionality.
. Learn that students with SEN have many positive characteristics and abilities.
. Have chance to learn about many of the human service profession such as
special education, speech therapy, physical therapy, recreation therapy, and
vocational rehabilitation. For some, exposure to these areas may lead to career
choices.
. Have increased appreciation, acceptance and respect of individual differences
among human beings that leads to increased understanding and acceptance of
diversity
. Get greater opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others
. Have increased academic outcomes
. have opportunity to learn to communicate, and deal effectively with a wide
range of individuals; this prepares them to fully participate in society when they
are adults that make them build an inclusive society

3. Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family

Brainstorming Questions

5. Dear student, do you think inclusive education is important for teachers of

inclusive education and parents? If yes, give examples? If no, why not?

Inclusive education has benefit to teachers.

The benefit includes: developing their knowledge and skills that meet diverse
students‘ needs and ability differences to enhancing
their skills to work with their stakeholders; and gaining satisfaction in their
profession and other aspects.

Similarly, parents/family benefit from inclusive education. For example, parents

benefit from implementation of inclusive education in developing their positive
attitude towards their children‘s education, positive feeling toward their
participation, and appreciation to
differences among humankinds and so on. For detailed information, see the table
below.
when they participate in inclusive education of their children

Table 2.3. Benefits of inclusion for Teachers and Parents/Family

Benefits for Teachers Benefits for Parents/Family

They:
 They have more opportunities to learn  Learn more about how their children
new ways to teach different kinds of are being educated in schools with their
students. peers in an inclusive environment
 They gain new knowledge, such as the  Become personally involved and feel a
different ways children learn and can be greater sense of accomplishment in
taught. helping their children to learn.
 They develop more positive attitudes  Feel valued and consider themselves as
and approaches towards different people equal partners in providing quality
with diverse needs. learning opportunities for children.
 They have greater opportunities to  Learn how to deal better with their
explore new ideas by communicating more children at home by using techniques that
often with others from within and outside the teachers use in school.
their school, such as in school clusters or  Find out ways to interact with others in
teacher networks, or with parents and the community, as well as to understand
community members. and help solve each other‘s problems.
 They can encourage their students to be  Know that their children—and ALL
more interested, more creative and more children—are receiving a quality
attentive education.
 They can experience greater job
satisfaction and a higher sense of
accomplishment when ALL children are
succeeding in school to the best of their
abilities.
 They get opportunities to exchange
information about instructional activities
and teaching

strategies, thus expanding the skills of  Experience positive attitude about

both general and special educators themselves and their children by seeing
 They benefit from develop their children accepted by others,
Developing teamwork and collaborative successful in the inclusive setting, and
problem-solving skills to creatively belonging to the community where they
address challenges regarding student live
learning
 Develop positive attitude that help
them promoting the recognition and
appreciation that all students have
strengths and are contributing members
of the school community as well as the
society
Reflection

6. Dear student, can you briefly discuss how the teachers benefit from inclusion?

2.5. Benefits for Society

Inclusion goes beyond education and should involve consideration of

employment, recreation, health and living conditions. It should therefore involve
transformations across all government and other agencies at all levels of society.

When students with special needs and without special needs are educated through
quality inclusive education, it not only benefits students, teachers and parents it
also benefits the society. Some of the major benefits may include:

Introduction of students with disabilities and vulnerabilities into mainstream

schools bring in the students into local communities and neighborhoods and helps
break down barriers and
prejudice that prevail in the society towards persons with disability.

Communities become more accepting of difference, and everyone benefits from a

friendlier, open environment that values and appreciates differences in human
beings.

Meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of

communities own cost effective non-segregated schooling system that services
both students with and without special needs education.

Ultimate Goal of Inclusion

Brainstorming questions

1. Dear student, what do you think about the ultimate goal regarding the
implementation of quality inclusive education?
The goal of inclusive education is to create schools where everyone belongs. By
creating inclusive schools, we ensure that there‘s a welcoming place in the
community for everyone after their school year‘s end. Students educated together
have a greater understanding of
difference and diversity. Students educated together have fewer fears about
difference and disability. An inclusive school culture creates better long-term
outcomes for all students.
Typical students who are educated alongside peers with developmental
disabilities understand more about the ways that they‘re all alike. These are the
students who will be our children‘s peer group and friends. These students hold
the promise of creating inclusive communities in the future for all our children.
These students will be the teachers, principals,
doctors, lawyers, and parents who build communities where everyone belongs.

Inclusive society is a necessary precondition for inclusive growth is a society

which does not exclude or discriminate against its citizens on the basis of
disability, caste, race, gender, family or community, a society which =levels the
playing field for investment‘ and leaves no
one behind. Thus, Inclusive growth which is equitable that offers equality of
opportunity to all as well as protection in market and employment transitions
results from inclusive society.

Reflection

. Dear student, can you explain the benefits of inclusive education or students,
teachers, parents and society at large?
. What kink o society can be created when inclusive education is properly
implemented?

5. Features of Inclusive Environment

Brain storming questions:

Dear learners, what does inclusive environment mean?

Do you think it is possible to create an inclusive environment?

What could be the major components of inclusive environment in terms of

inclusive education?

An inclusive environment is one in which members feel respected by and

connected to one another. An inclusive environment is an environment that
welcomes all people, regardless of their disability and other vulnerabilities. It
recognizes and uses their skills and
strengthens their abilities. An inclusive service environment is respectful,
supportive, and equalizing. An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes
individuals with disabilities
and vulnerabilities at all levels — from first time participants to board members.

It has the following major characteristics:

. it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities

. it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all
people with special needs
. provides accommodations willingly and proactively
Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their contributions as
individuals.

2.6. Inclusive Environments

An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals‘ needs and not

vice versa –
that individuals are adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that
individual differences among individuals are a source of richness and diversity,
and not a problem, and that various needs and the individual pace of learning and
development can be met
successfully with a wide range of flexible approaches. Besides, the environment
should involve continuous process of changes directed towards strengthening and
encouraging different ways of participation of all members of the community.
An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and
practice which meet pupils‘ diversities, towards identifying and removing
obstacles in learning and
participating, towards developing a suitable provisions and supporting
individuals.

Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:

. It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness and

quality provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs and
diversities
. It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and ensuring
quality provisions for all through appropriate accommodations, organizational
arrangements, resource use and partnerships with their community.
. It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is
also deeply committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be
productive.
. It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.
. It promoting pro-social activities
. It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people
. It involves mobilizing resources within the community
. It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their
learning and working environment.
. It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local
schools, work place, disability services providers and relevant support agencies
within the wider community.
. It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the
classroom responsive to the diversity of individuals‘ academic, social and
personal learning needs.

Barriers to Inclusion

. Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in
their legislation and policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-
practice gap
in inclusion are diverse. The major barriers include:
. Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community
and policy makers negative attitude towards students with disability and
vulnerabilities.
Inclusion cannot flourish in a society that has prejudice and negative attitude
towards persons with disability.
. Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and
society at large
. Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion
practice with policies
. Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as
collaboration for inclusion
. Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion
. Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education
. Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider
students with dives needs and ability differences.
. Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion
. Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments
. Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students‘ diverse
needs
. Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce
completion, individualism and individuals‘ excellence rather than teaching
through cooperation, collaboration and group excellence.
. Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries.
Reflection questions

Think of Ethiopian socio-cultural, economic and political conditions and reflect

on the following issues.

Do you think the country’s socio-cultural, economic and political conditions

suitable to implement inclusive education? What should be done to make
conditions suitable to implement inclusion?

Due think the schools you leant in relation respecting student’s rights to learn,
addressing the students. diverse needs and ability differences and promoting
quality education for all students. Point out the strengths and weakness based on
the inclusive education concepts and practices.

Chapter summary

Inclusion is defined from the concept of education process of education that is

aimed at meeting students‘ diverse needs in regular classrooms. It focuses not
only students with special educational needs but also students without special
needs. It is based on the concept 0f respecting diversity and the different needs
and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and
communities and eliminating all forms of discrimination in educational, social,
economic and other aspects o f life.
The concept of inclusive education originated from three major ideas. These
include:
1.inclusive education is a basic human right;
2.quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and
ability differences, and
3. there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with and
without disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Its philosophy centers on enabling communities, systems and structures in all
cultures and contexts to fight discrimination, celebrate diversity,
promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation for all
people (persons with and without special educational needs). It is part of a wider
strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world
where there is peace, tolerance, and
sustainable use of resources, social justice, and where the basic needs and rights
of all persons are met.

Inclusion concept evolved from special and integrated education based on the
notion that both special needs and integrated/mainstreaming education do not
address unique needs, characteristics of students with in regular schools
classrooms.

The concept of inclusion has a number of rationales: educational, social,

economic, legal and foundations or inclusive society. Specifically, it has also
benefits to students with and without special educational needs, parents, teachers
and society at large. Inclusion is implemented as on its ultimate goal which is
aimed building an inclusive society.

The concept of inclusion development is influenced by different factors:

communities, activists and advocates, the quality education and school
improvement movement, special educational needs movement, involvement of
international agencies, involvement of NGOs movements, networks and
campaigns, and other factors such as current world situation and
demand or quality education.
Inclusive education implementation needs adjusting schools and classrooms
environments to address unique needs of students with diverse needs and ability
differences. These environments should be adjusted address factors that address
the students‘ rights, respecting and valuing differences, foster team work, and
improve academic achievement, promote
healthy psychosocial development.

Implementation inclusion in education aces number of barriers. The barriers are

related with lack of teachers knowledge and skills, their negative attitude; rigid
curriculum and teaching
and learning methods; lack of active participation of relevant stakeholders; lack of
resources and facilities; globalization and free market economic policy; and lack
of considering local indigenous values, ideologies and culture and other related
factors.

Chapter 3: Identification and Differentiated services

Chapter Overview

The onset of disability is accompanied by a complex series of shocks to the

individual and to everyone around him. The impact of disability and vulnerability
take many form. The immediate effects are often physical pain, limitation of
mobility, disorientation, confusion, uncertainty and a disruption of roles and
patterns of social interaction. Peoples with
disabilities and vulnerabilities have survival (physiological), safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization (fulfillment) needs like persons without disabilities.

This chapter begins with the overview of the impacts of disability on daily life of
peoples with disabilities and vulnerabilities and their needs for inclusive service
provisions. It describes diverse needs of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities followed by
differentiated intervention and rehabilitation approaches. The chapter further
discusses
inclusiveness from different perspectives such as; health services provision,
accessibility of technologies, employment and economic independence, disability
and rural life and access to
education for peoples with disabilities and vulnerabilities in brief.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

. Discuss the impact of disability and vulnerability on daily life of persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities.
. Depict needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities
. describe the effects of environment on the life of persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities.
. Describe intervention and rehabilitation approaches for disabilities and
vulnerabilities.
. depict barriers for inclusive services provisions in different sectors
. describe the role technologies in the life of persons with disabilities
. relate the concept of inclusiveness to their specific profession
. Evaluate inclusiveness of services provision in their specific fields of studies

Impact of Disability and Vulnerability on daily life

Brainstorming Question

Dear students,

. Can you list the impacts of disability on daily life of peoples with disabilities?
. Do you think that individuals with the same disabilities have the same needs? If
your answer is Yes, how?/No, why?

Factors related to the person

People respond to disabilities in different ways. Some react negatively and thus
their quality of life is negatively affected. Others choose to focus on their abilities
as opposed to their disabilities and continue to live a productive life. There are
several factors that affect the
impact a disability has on an individual.
The following factors are often considered the most
significant factors in determining a disability's impact on an individual.

1. The Nature of the Disability: Disability can be acquired (a result of an accident,

or acquired disease) or congenital (present at birth). If the disability is acquired, it
is
more likely to cause a negative reaction than a congenital disability. Congenital
disabilities are disabilities that have always been present, thus requiring less of an
adjustment than an acquired disability.
2. The Individual’s Personality - the individual personality can be typically
positive or
negative, dependent or independent, goal-oriented or laissez-faire. Someone with
a positive
outlook is more likely to embrace a disability then someone with a negative
outlook.
Someone who is independent will continue to be independent and someone who
is goal-
oriented will continue to set and pursue goals.
3. The Meaning of the Disability to the Individual - Does the individual define
himself/herself by his/her looks or physical characteristics? If so, he/she is more
likely to feel
defined by his/her disability and thus it will have a negative impact.
4. The Individual’s Current Life Circumstances - The individual‘s independence
or
dependence on others (parents). The economic status of the individual or the
individual's
caregivers, the individual's education level. If the individual is happy with their
current life
circumstance, they are more likely to embrace their disability, whereas if they are
not happy
with their circumstances, they often blame their disability.
5. The Individual's Support System - The individual‘s support from family, a
significant
other, friends, or social groups. If so, he/she will have an easier time coping with
a disability
and thus will not be affected negatively by their disability.

Common effects of a disability may include but not limited to health conditions of
the
person; mental health issues including anxiety and depression; loss of freedom
and
independence; frustration and anger at having to rely on other people; practical
problems
including transport, choice of activities, accessing buildings; unemployment;
problems with
learning and academic study; loss of self-esteem and confidence, especially in
social
situations. But all these negative effects are due to restricted environments, not
due to
impairments.

The disability experience resulting from the interaction of health conditions,

personal
factors, and environmental factors varies greatly. Persons with disabilities are
diverse and
heterogeneous, while stereotypical views of disability emphasize wheelchair users
and a few
other .classic. groups such as blind people and deaf people. Disability
encompasses the child
born with a congenital condition such as cerebral palsy or the young soldier who
loses his leg
to a land-mine, or the middle-aged woman with severe arthritis, or the older
person with
dementia, among many others. Health conditions can be visible or invisible;
temporary or
long term; static, episodic, or degenerating; painful or inconsequential. Note that
many
people with disabilities do not consider themselves to be unhealthy.
Generalizations about
.disability. or .people with disabilities. can mislead. Persons with disabilities have
diverse
personal factors with differences in gender, age, language, socioeconomic status,
sexuality,
ethnicity, or cultural heritage. Each has his or her personal preferences and
responses to
disability. Also while disability correlates with disadvantage, not all people with
disabilities
are equally disadvantaged. Women with disabilities experience the combined
disadvantages
associated with gender as well as disability, and may be less likely to marry than
non-
disabled women. People who experience mental health conditions or intellectual
impairments
appear to be more disadvantaged in many settings than those who experience
physical or
sensory impairments. People with more severe impairments often experience
greater
disadvantage. Conversely, wealth and status can help overcome activity
limitations and
participation restrictions.

Reflection

Dear students, in what ways do you think that disability restricts daily lives of
persons with
disabilities?

What are the disabling factors? Impairment or environment?

People with disabilities and vulnerabilities live with challenges that impact their
abilities to conduct Activities of Daily Living (ADL). Disability and
vulnerabilities can limit
or restrict one or more ADLs, including moving from one place to another (e.g.,
navigation,
locomotion, transfer), maintaining a position (e.g., standing, sitting, sleeping),
interacting
with the environment (e.g., controlling systems, gripping objects), communicating
(e.g.,
speaking, writing, hand gestures), feeding (chewing, swallowing, etc.), and
perceiving the
external world (by movement of the eyes, the head, etc.), due to inaccessible
environment.
Many older persons face one or more impairments. Their situation is often similar
to that of
people with disabilities. Their needs are similar to those people with multiple
disabilities with
a decrease in the muscular, vision, hearing and cognitive capacities.

Economic Factors and Disability

There is clear evidence that people with few economic assets are more likely to
acquire
pathologies that may be disabling. This is true even in advanced economies and in
economies
with greater levels of income equality. The impact of absolute or relative
economic
deprivation on the onset of pathology crosscuts conditions with radically different
etiologies,
encompassing infectious diseases and most common chronic conditions.
Similarly, economic
status affects whether pathology will proceed to impairment. Examples include
such
phenomena as a complete lack of access to or a delay in presentation for medical
care for
treatable conditions (e.g., untreated breast cancer is more likely to require radical
mastectomy) or inadequate access to state-of-the-art care (e.g., persons with
rheumatoid
arthritis may experience a worsened range of motion and joint function because
disease-
modifying drugs are not used by most primary care physicians). In turn, a lack of
resources
can adversely affect the ability of an individual to function with a disabling
condition. For
example, someone with an amputated leg who has little money or poor health
insurance may
not be able to obtain a proper prosthesis, in which case the absence of the limb
may then
force the individual to withdraw from jobs that require these capacities.

Similarly, economic resources can limit the options and abilities of someone who
requires
personal assistance services or certain physical accommodations. The individual
also may not
be able to access the appropriate rehabilitation services to reduce the degree of
potential
disability either because they cannot afford the services themselves or cannot
afford the cost
of specialized transportation services.

The economic status of the community may have a more profound impact than
the
status of the individual on the probability that disability will result from
impairment or other
disabling conditions. Research on employment among persons with disabilities
indicates, for
example, that such persons in communities undergoing rapid economic expansion
will be
much more likely to secure jobs than those in communities with depressed or
contracting
labor markets. Similarly, wealthy communities are more able to provide
environmental
supports such as accessible public transportation and public buildings or support
payments
for personal assistance benefits.

Community can be defined in terms of the microsystem (the local area of the
person
with the disabling conditions), the mesosystem (the area beyond the immediate
neighborhood, perhaps encompassing the town), and the macrosystem (a region
or nation).
Clearly, the economic status of the region or nation as a whole may play a more
important
role than the immediate microenvironment for certain kinds of disabling
conditions. For
example, access to employment among people with disabling conditions is
determined by a
combination of the national and regional labor markets, but the impact of
differences across
small neighborhoods is unlikely to be very great. In contrast, the economic status
of a
neighborhood will play a larger role in determining whether there are physical
accommodations in the built environment that would facilitate mobility for people
with
impairments or functional limitations, or both.

Finally, economic factors also can affect disability by creating incentives to

define
oneself as disabled. For example, disability compensation programs often pay
nearly as much
as many of the jobs available to people with disabling conditions, especially given
that such
programs also provide health insurance and many lower-paying jobs do not.
Moreover,
disability compensation programs often make an attempt to return to work risky,
since health
insurance is withdrawn soon after earnings begin and procuring a job with good
health
insurance benefits is often difficult in the presence of disabling conditions. Thus,
disability
compensation programs are said to significantly reduce the number of people with
impairments who work by creating incentives to leave the labor force and also
creating
disincentives to return to work.

Political Factors and Disability

The political system, through its role in designing public policy, can and does
have a
profound impact on the extent to which impairments and other potentially
disabling
conditions will result in disability. If the political system is well enforced it will
profoundly
improve the prospects of people with disabling conditions for achieving a much
fuller
participation in society, in effect reducing the font of disability in work and every
other
domain of human activity. The extent to which the built environment impedes
people with
disabling conditions is a function of public funds spent to make buildings and
transportation
systems accessible and public laws requiring the private sector to make these
accommodations in nonpublic buildings. The extent to which people with
impairments and
functional limitations will participate in the labor force is a function of the funds
spent in
training programs, in the way that health care is financed, and in the ways that job
accommodations are mandated and paid for. Similarly, for those with severe
disabling
conditions, access to personal assistance services may be required for
participation in almost
all activities, and such access is dependent on the availability of funding for such
services
through either direct payment or tax credits. Thus, the potential mechanisms of
public policy
are diverse, ranging from the direct effects of funds from the public purse, to
creating tax
incentives so that private parties may finance efforts themselves, to the passage of
civil rights
legislation and providing adequate enforcement. The sum of the mechanisms used
can and
does have a profound impact on the functioning of people with disabling
conditions.

Factors Psychological of Disability

This section focuses on the impact of psychological factors on how disability and
disabling
conditions are perceived and experienced. The argument in support of the
influence of the
psychological environment is congruent with the key assumption in this chapter
that the
physical and social environments are fundamentally important to the expression
of disability.
Several constructs can be used to describe one's psychological environment,
including
personal resources, personality traits, and cognition. These constructs affect both
the
expression of disability and an individual's ability to adapt to and react to it. An
exhaustive
review of the literature on the impact of psychological factors on disability is
beyond the
scope of this chapter. However, for illustrative purposes four psychological
constructs will be
briefly discussed: three cognitive processes (self-efficacy beliefs, psychological
control, and
coping patterns) and one personality disposition (optimism). Each section
provides examples
illustrating the influence of these constructs on the experience of disability.

a) Social Cognitive Processes

Cognition consists of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and ways of viewing the world,
others, and
ourselves. Three interrelated cognitive processes have been selected to illustrate
the direct
and interactive effects of cognition on disability. These are self-efficacy beliefs,
psychological control, and coping patterns which all these are socially
constructed.

b) Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with whether or not a person believes that he
or she can
accomplish a desired outcome (Bandura, 1977, 1986). Beliefs about one's abilities
affect
what a person chooses to do, how much effort is put into a task, and how long an
individual
will endure when there are difficulties. Self-efficacy beliefs also affect the
person's affective
and emotional responses. Under conditions of high self-efficacy, a person's
outlook and
mental health status will remain positive even under stressful and aversive
situations. Under
conditions of low self-efficacy, mental health may suffer even when
environmental
conditions are favorable. The findings from several studies provide evidence of
improved
behavioral and functional outcomes under efficacious conditions for individuals
with and
without disabling conditions (Maddux, 1996). How do self-efficacy beliefs affect
disability?
Following a stroke, for example, an individual with high self-efficacy beliefs will
be more
likely to feel and subsequently exert effort toward reducing the disability that
could
accompany any stroke-related impairment or functional limitation. The highly
self-
efficacious individual would work harder at tasks (i.e., in physical or speech
therapy), be less
likely to give up when there is a relapse (i.e., continue therapy sessions even when
there is no
immediate improvement), and in general, feel more confident and optimistic
about recovery
and rehabilitation. These self-efficacy beliefs will thus mediate the relationship
between
impairment and disability such that the individual would experience better
functional
outcomes and less disability. The development of self-efficacy of the individual is
much
affected by the environmental factors.

c) Psychological Control

Psychological control, or control beliefs, is akin to self-efficacy beliefs in that

they are
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs regarding one's ability to exert control or change a
situation.
Self-generated feelings of control improve outcomes for diverse groups of
individuals with
physical disabilities and chronic illnesses. The onset of a disabling condition is
often
followed by a loss or a potential loss of control. What is most critical for adaptive
functioning is how a person responds to this and what efforts the person puts forth
to regain
control. Perceptions of control will influence whether disabling environmental
conditions are
seen as stressful and consequently whether it becomes disabling. The individuals
control over
themselves depends on the provision of the environments: accessibility or
inaccessibility.

d) Coping Patterns

Coping patterns refer to behavioral and cognitive efforts to manage specific

internal or
external demands that tax or exceed a person's resources to adjust. Generally,
coping has
been studied within the context of stress. Having a disabling condition may create
stress and
demand additional efforts because of interpersonal or environmental conditions
that are not
supportive. Several coping strategies may be used when a person confronts a
stressful
situation. These strategies may include the following: seeking information,
cognitive
restructuring, emotional expression, catastrophizing, wish-fulfilling fantasizing,
threat
minimization, relaxation, distraction, and self-blame. The effects of certain coping
efforts on
adaptive and functional outcomes benefits individuals with disabling conditions.
In general,
among people with disabling conditions, there is evidence that passive, avoidant,
emotion-
focused cognitive strategies (e.g., catastrophizing and wishful thinking) are
associated with
poorer outcomes, whereas active, problem-focused attempts to redefine thoughts
to become
more positive are associated with favorable outcomes. An adaptive coping pattern
would
involve the use of primary and secondary control strategies. What seems useful is
the
flexibility to change strategies and to have several strategies available.

Active coping is a significant predictor of mental health and employment-related

outcomes. Under conditions in which individuals with disabling conditions use
active and
problem-solving coping strategies to manage their life circumstances, there will
be better
functional outcomes across several dimensions (e.g., activities of daily living, and
employment) than when passive coping strategies are used. An important
component in the
coping process is appraisal. Appraisals involve beliefs about one's ability to deal
with a
situation. Take, for example, two people with identical levels of impairment. The
appraisal
that the impairment is disabling will result in more disability than the appraisal
that the
impairment is not disabling, regardless of the objective type and level of
impairment.
Appraisal is related to self-efficacy in the sense that one's thoughts and cognition
control how one reacts to a potentially negative situation. When a person feels
that he or she
can execute a desired outcome (e.g., learn how to use crutches for mobility), the
person is
more likely to do just that. Similarly, under conditions in which an individual
appraises his or
her disabling conditions and other life circumstances as manageable, the person
will use
coping strategies that will lead to a manageable life (i.e., better functional
outcomes).

e) Personality Disposition

Optimism is a personality disposition that is included in this chapter as an

example of a
personality disposition or trait that can mediate how disabling conditions are
experienced.
Several other interrelated personality factors could be discussed (e.g., self-esteem,
hostility,
and Type A personality). Optimism (in contrast to pessimism) is used for
illustrative
purposes because it relates to many other personality traits. Optimism is the
general tendency
to view the world, others, and oneself favorably. People with an optimistic
orientation rather
than a pessimistic orientation are far better across several dimensions. Optimists
tend to have
better self-esteem and less hostility toward others and tend to use more adaptive
coping
strategies than pessimists.
Optimism is a significant predictor of coping efforts and of recovery from
surgery.
Individuals with optimistic orientations have a faster rate of recovery during
hospitalization
and a faster rate of return to normal life activities after discharge. There was also a
strong
relationship between optimism and postsurgical quality of life, with optimists
doing better
than pessimists. Optimism may reduce symptoms and improve adjustment to
illness, because
it is associated with the use of effective coping strategies. This same analogy can
be extended
to impairment. Optimistic individuals are more likely to cope with impairment by
using the
active adaptive coping strategies discussed earlier. These in turn will lead to
reduced
disability.

The four constructs of the psychological environment (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs,

psychological control, coping patterns, and optimism) were highlighted to
illustrate the
influence of these factors on disability and the enabling-disabling process. These
psychological constructs are interrelated and are influenced to a large extent by
the external
social and physical environments. The reason for the inclusion of the
psychological
environment in this topic is to assert that just as the physical and social
environments can be
changed to support people with disabling conditions, so can the psychological
environment.
Psychological interventions directed at altering cognition lead to improved
outcomes (i.e.,
achievement, interpersonal relationships, work productivity, and health) across
diverse
populations and dimensions.

The Family and Disability

The family can be either an enabling or a disabling factor for a person with a
disabling
condition. Although most people have a wide network of friends, the networks of
people with
disabilities are more likely to be dominated by family members. Even among
people with
disabilities who maintain a large network of friends, family relationships often are
most
central and families often provide the main sources of support. This support may
be
instrumental (errand-running), informational (providing advice or referrals), or
emotional
(giving love and support).

Families can be enabling to people with functional limitations by providing such

tangible services as housekeeping and transportation and by providing personal
assistance in
activities of daily living. Families can also provide economic support to help with
the
purchase of assistive technologies and to pay for personal assistance. Perhaps
most
importantly, they can provide emotional support. Emotional support is positively
related to
well-being across a number of conditions. In all of these areas, friends and
neighbors can
supplement the support provided by the family.

It is important to note, however, that families may also be disabling. Some

families
promote dependency. Others fatalistically accept functional limitations and
conditions that
are amenable to change with a supportive environment. In both of these
situations, the person
with the potentially disabling condition is not allowed to develop to his or her
fullest
potential. Families may also not provide needed environmental services and
resources. For
example, families of deaf children frequently do not learn to sign, in the process
impeding
their children's ability to communicate as effectively as possible. Similarly, some
well-
meaning families prematurely take over the household chores of people with
angina, thereby
limiting the opportunity for healthy exercise that can lead to recovery.
Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities.

Needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities depends on different factors.

Dear students,

. What needs do you think persons with disabilities may have?

People with disabilities do not all share a single experience, even of the same
impairment;
likewise, professionals in the same discipline (sector)do not follow a single
approach or hold
the same values. Exciting new directions will arise from individual professionals
(sectors)
working with persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities on particular briefs.
This will
produce different responses each time, complementary and even contradictory
directions, but
this richness is needed.

Analyzing the human beings, Maslow has identified five categories of needs, with
different priority levels (Fig. 3.1), in the following order: survival (physiological),
safety,
social needs, esteem, and self-actualization (fulfillment). Maslow‘s model is also
valid for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, whose needs are similar to those of
ordinary
persons. Nevertheless, many of these needs are not fulfilled, so disabilities and
vulnerabilities
seek to fulfill these needs and reach a state of wellbeing. Initially, disabilities and
vulnerabilities attempt to fulfill the first level of needs (survival). The survival
needs are
formed by the physiological needs and include the biological requirements for
feeding,
performing hygiene, sleeping, ADL, and so on. When disabilities and
vulnerabilities fulfill
their survival needs, they will look for situations that keep them safe, before
moving up the
chain and fulfill their needs to be part of society and to achieve. As an example of
needs in
terms of safety, consider a person with visual impairment who wishes to cross the
street
safely. In contrast, for the elderly, at risk and street children safety might
represent the ability
to obtain emergency help after falling and not being able to stand again. Social
need is a key
element that disabilities and vulnerabilities would like to develop continuously.
For example,
a person with a hearing impairment suffers from a diminution of social contact,
while
someone with a motor disability feels excluded from social activities.

The third level of the pyramid relates to esteem, both self-esteem and being
favorably
recognized by others. Esteem is often related to the capability of achieving things,
contributing to a work activity and being autonomous. In particular, disabilities
and
vulnerabilities in a dependent situation feel the need for increased autonomy, as
well as the
opportunity to prove their worth to themselves and others through work or other
activities.

C:\Users\User\Desktop\maslow-5.jpg

Fig.3.1 Abraham‘s Maslow Hierarchy

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities have socio-emotional, psychological,

physical and social environmental and economic needs in general. The following
list but not
last are basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure
equality for all
within our society.

Dear student,

List the needs of a person with disability living in your neighbor as much as you
can.

a) Full access to the Environment (towns, countryside & buildings)

b) An accessible Transport system
c) Technical aids and equipment
d) Accessible/adapted housing
e) Personal Assistance and support
f) Inclusive Education and Training
g) An adequate Income
h) Equal opportunities for Employment
i) Appropriate and accessible Information
j) Advocacy (towards self-advocacy)
k) Counseling
l) Appropriate and Accessible Health Care

Social Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with
disabilities and
vulnerabilities of all ages: providing them with an adequate standard of living, a
basic level
of income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and vulnerability. Moreover,
mainstream
and/or specific social protection schemes concerning persons with disabilities can
have a
major role in promoting their independence and inclusion by meeting their
specific needs and
supporting their social participation in a non-discriminatory manner. These social
protection
measures may include poverty reduction schemes; cash transfer programs, social
and health
insurance, public work programs, housing programs, disability pensions and
mobility grants.

Social protection from a rights-based approach must accommodate the needs of

persons with
disabilities and vulnerabilities. Traditional disability-related social welfare
schemes have
mainly focused on poverty rather than taking into account specific challenges
faced by
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities; particularly active participation in
education,
access to health and employment. Previous methods of addressing benefits for
persons with
disabilities have shown limited progress in overcoming the deeply-rooted social
structures
and practices that hinder opportunities for persons with disabilities. Consequently,
social
protection needs to move beyond traditional welfare approaches to intervention
systems that
promote active citizenship, social inclusion and community participation while
avoiding
paternalism and dependence.

The right of persons with disabilities to social protection is recognized by the

1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the 1966 International
Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and, more specifically, the 2006
UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). Article 28 of the
CRPD in
particular recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard
of living
and to social protection, ensuring the enjoyment of both rights without
discrimination on the
basis of ability. Therefore, States parties should take appropriate measures to
ensure that they
receive equal access to mainstream social protection programs and services —
including basic
services, social security systems, poverty reduction programs and housing
programs— but
also specific programs and services for disability-related needs and expenses.

Furthermore, the Social Protection Floors Recommendation (No. 202) recognizes

the
importance of national social protection floors to provide basic social security
guarantees to
all persons, including persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities, across the life
cycle (with
priority given to poverty, vulnerability, and social exclusion).

Gender and disability

Dear students, what impact does rural living have on women with disabilities?

The importance of work and the daily activities required of living in the country
are
paramount in considering gender. For the male and female with disabilities and
vulnerable
groups, work is universally seen as important, whether paid work or voluntary.
When the
work interests of men with disabilities are similar to those of others around them,
their
identity as a =man‘ becomes more valuable to the community. However, there are
issues
around how masculinity in rural areas is constituted. Finding ways to express this
through
involvement in common activities can be difficult. Many of male and females
with
disabilities have creativity and skill in finding ways to do things and consequently
being able
to build friendships with other men in their communities.

Work, particularly paid work, is also important for many of the female
contributors.
Sustaining this in the face of community views about disability is at times
difficult,
particularly when it is balanced with expectations of traditional women‘s roles of
home
making and childcare. Being excluded from these latter tasks because of others‘
protective or
controlling views is particularly difficult for some women in asserting their
identities as
women and exploring these types of gendered practices.

Identity and disability

The relational nature of identity seems to be of central importance to people with

disabilities
and a rural environment in some instances provides a different way for people to
be
perceived by others and by themselves. People with disabilities are not primarily
clients or
service users but rather are known members of their communities with a shared
and, at times,
intergenerational history. The formality of the service system is counterpointed by
the
relationships people formed with those who share a rural life.

Identity marked by disability is complex and multilayered; relationships, outside

of paid,
formalized service settings. Services are facilitators of a rural life, rather than the
focus of
rural life itself. New technologies, determination and interests shape differing
identities for
people who are active agents in their own lives.

This is not to argue that rural living is an idyll for people with disabilities. For
some,
their interests and aspirations are elsewhere and they may be constrained by the
necessity of
living rurally either because of the needed support from families or a personal
need for the
refuge of rural living in times of difficulty. Such difficulties are often generated
by broader
structural relations of being socially identified as =disabled‘, such as with the
onset of new
austerity measures.

Disability as part of an individual‘s identity is seen by some as a struggle. This is

often twofold: internally to individuals and their sense of self and, too often, in
the way they
are perceived and constructed by those around them. An acquired disability is
experienced as
challenging the nature of one‘s internal pre-established identity and as a struggle
to change
the perceptions and attitudes of others and the physical environment in which a
person lives.
Relations with family, friends and communities often provided a contradictory
landscape,
where a person has to negotiate his or her new disabled identity yet, at the same
time, is able
to draw upon previous shared experiences to become re-embedded in friendships
and
communities. Finding ways to gain =value‘ in the local community with a
disability is an
ongoing and, too often, difficult journey. It is these very journeys that create one‘s
identity
and the relational nature of this identity to the rural landscape.

Belongingness and disability

Belonging is a complex concept involving an attachment to place, relationships

with others, a
sense of safety, common values and a shared and/or developing history.
Belonging is also an
internal sense of being at home in one‘s own body and mind. Persons with
disabilities and
vulnerable groups have struggled to come to terms with a body and mind which
seem
unfamiliar to them, in which they have to make adjustments or accommodations
both for
themselves and in terms of their relationships with others. This internal
negotiation and
navigation shape their engagement with their social worlds, particularly in rural
communities.
Persons with disabilities in rural areas should have a strong attachment to place,
somewhere familiar and known where they can feel safe, find their ways alone,
exercise
autonomy and express their embodied selves. The possibility of making change
happen in an
environment, where one‘s voice is heard, is also seen as a part of belonging in a
community.
While this is sometimes a struggle, there is a sense that people can use their
personal contacts
and friends to get change to happen when it is needed.

Family relationships as a means of connecting to community and being known by

others, and knowing others outside the family are important. Different kinds of
relationship
contributed to this sense of belonging, ranging from the more superficial nodding
acquaintances to specific informal support from known others, to the intimacy of
close
friends and kin.

Historically for people with disabilities, rurality was once the site of exclusion,
rather
than belonging, where identity and gender were disregarded in favor of ensuring
protection
of people with disabilities and of the society in which they lived. The idea of
belonging in a
rural landscape was promoted by people with a vested interest in segregation.

People with disabilities and marginalized groups feel isolated. Some persons with
disabilities
have actively sought to migrate to urban environments, to escape from the
confines and
constraints of small rural environments and to build broader social networks away
from the
farm.

3.2.1.4 Intersectionality
Social structures and norms surrounding age are particularly significant, shaping
the kind of
lives people have and their experience of gender and identity. They have
particular
implications for people‘s attachment to place and their aspirations and desires for
the future.
Age matters, too, in terms of the support that family and services can offer in a
rural
environment and the types of =age-appropriate‘ opportunities that can be
facilitated in the
person‘s home, family and community. Being a particular =age‘ in a rural
landscape has
implications for the types of social relationship that are openly facilitated and
enabled.

The wider contextual values and economic and social changes have also impact
on
the life of persons with disabilities. Religious values that shape the way disability
is
constituted in some countries are a powerful influence on the way people with
disabilities are
able to live their lives. These values intersect with societal expectations of gender
roles.
Many peoples with disabilities are subjected to being viewed as objects of pity
and prevailing
myths about their capacities, socially and individually. These social myths are key
sites of
struggle and, as suggested earlier, are deeply intertwined with a person‘s own
subjective
understandings of gendered identities and sense of belonging as a person with a
disability.

Economic changes which have led to mass migration from the rural to the urban
and
increased the emphasis on citizens‘ economic contribution to society have also
had an impact
on rural living for some people. Further, structural changes, such as austerity and
welfare
retraction, in some countries have created unique pressures on some people with
disabilities
living in rural areas. These places may provide a space to =hide‘, a place where
one is known
and familiar, and where one is sheltered from the negative attitudes that
accompany
government cutbacks. Such prevailing economic constraints also lead to new
forms of
isolation. The constant pressure to =present‘ in an acceptable way to the people
one knows
and, at the same time, to continue to qualify for the benefits one needs has added
a new form
of stress to rural living not previously experienced by many people with
disabilities. The
experience of having a disability and not being on welfare is significantly
different to that of
people with disabilities whose economic security depends on what has become
highly
stigmatized support. The management of the self and of rural social relationships
intersects
deeply with these broader structural changes, and navigating such structural
continuities and
disruptions is a critical influence on the lives of people with disabilities.
Poverty has impact on living a decent life with a disability in a rural landscape, a
life
that they have defined and desired. In a number of cases this is centered on the
need for paid
work and the difficulties in finding it where employment is often scarce or highly
exclusionary due to farming practices. Some contributors emphasize the
importance of
familial social networks and the additional support these provide, alongside
belonging to a
community where one is known, in enabling people with disabilities to counter
the negative
aspects of poverty. Given the changing welfare environment, including the
growing
insecurity of disability support landscapes, many of the contributors express fears
of the
future. Particular concerns are the very real possibility of a time when services or
family
support may not be available, alongside the impact of diminished access to social
security
with the onset of austerity.

The Health Care Needs of Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

People with disabilities report seeking more health care than people without
disabilities and
have greater unmet needs. For example, a recent survey of people with serious
mental
disorders, showed that between 35% and 50% of people in developed countries,
and between
76% and 85% in developing countries, received no treatment in the year prior to
the study.

Health promotion and prevention activities seldom target people with disabilities.
For
example women with disabilities receive less screening for breast and cervical
cancer than
women without disabilities. People with intellectual impairments and diabetes are
less likely
to have their weight checked. Adolescents and adults with disabilities are more
likely to be
excluded from sex education programs.

Dear students, how are the lives of people with disabilities affected by lack of
health
care service?

People with disabilities are particularly vulnerable to deficiencies in health care

services.
Depending on the group and setting, persons with disabilities may experience
greater
vulnerability to secondary conditions, co-morbid conditions, age-related
conditions, engaging
in health risk behaviors and higher rates of premature death.

A) Secondary conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are related to) a

primary
health condition, and are both predictable and therefore preventable. Examples
include pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, osteoporosis and pain.
B) Co-morbid conditions: conditions occur in addition to (and are unrelated to) a
primary health condition associated with disability. For example the prevalence of
diabetes in people with schizophrenia is around 15% compared to a rate of 2-3%
for
the general population.
C) Age-related conditions: The ageing process for some groups of people with
disabilities begins earlier than usual. For example some people with
developmental
disabilities show signs of premature ageing in their 40s and 50s.
D) Engaging in health risk behaviors: Some studies have indicated that people
with
disabilities have higher rates of risky behaviors such as smoking, poor diet and
physical inactivity.

Barriers to Health Care for Persons with Disabilities and Vulnerable Groups

People with disabilities encounter a range of barriers when they attempt to access
health care
including the following.
a) Prohibitive costs: Affordability of health services and transportation are two
main
reasons why people with disabilities do not receive needed health care in low-
income
countries - 32-33% of non-disabled people are unable to afford health care
compared
to 51-53% of people with disabilities.
b) Limited availability of services: The lack of appropriate services for people
with
disabilities is a significant barrier to health care. For example, studies indicate that
the
lack of services especially in the rural area is the second most significant barrier
to
using health facilities.
c) Physical barriers: Uneven access to buildings (hospitals, health centers),
inaccessible medical equipment, poor signage, narrow doorways, internal steps,
inadequate bathroom facilities, and inaccessible parking areas create barriers to
health
care facilities. For example, women with mobility difficulties are often unable to
access breast and cervical cancer screening because examination tables are not
height-adjustable and mammography equipment only accommodates women who
are
able to stand.
d) Inadequate skills and knowledge of health workers: People with disabilities
were
more than twice as likely to report finding health care provider skills inadequate
to
meet their needs, four times more likely to report being treated badly and nearly
three
times more likely to report being denied care.

Addressing for Inclusive Barriers to Health Care

Governments and professionals can improve health outcomes for people with
disabilities by
improving access to quality, affordable health care services, which make the best
use of
available resources. As several factors interact to inhibit access to health care,
reforms in all
the interacting components of the health care system are required.

a) Policy and legislation: Assess existing policies and services, identify priorities
to
reduce health inequalities and plan improvements for access and inclusion. Make
changes to comply with the CRPD. Establish health care standards related to care
of
persons with disabilities with enforcement mechanisms.
b) Financing: Where private health insurance dominates health care financing,
ensure
that people with disabilities are covered and consider measures to make the
premiums
affordable. Ensure that people with disabilities benefit equally from public health
care
programs. Use financial incentives to encourage health-care providers to make
services accessible and provide comprehensive assessments, treatment, and
follow-
ups. Consider options for reducing or removing out-of-pocket payments for
people
with disabilities who do not have other means of financing health care services.
c) Service delivery: Provide a broad range of modifications and adjustments
(reasonable accommodation) to facilitate access to health care services. For
example
changing the physical layout of clinics to provide access for people with mobility
difficulties or communicating health information in accessible formats such as
Braille. Empower people with disabilities to maximize their health by providing
information, training, and peer support. Promote community-based rehabilitation
(CBR) to facilitate access for disabled people to existing services. Identify groups
that
require alternative service delivery models, for example, targeted services or care
coordination to improve access to health care.
d) Human resources: Integrate disability inclusion education into undergraduate
and
continuing education for all health-care professionals. Train community workers
so
that they can play a role in preventive health care services. Provide evidence-
based
guidelines for assessment and treatment.

Disability, vulnerability and the Environment

Dear students,

. How specific nature of environment increases or decreases the degree of

disability?
. How society‘s attitudes affect the services provision for persons with
disabilities?
. How can you decrease the impact of disability in your specific profession to
make
the life of persons with disabilities simple?

The prevailing understanding about the cause of disability has undergone

profound change
worldwide. Previous models of absolute determinism that viewed pathology and
disability
interchangeably and that excluded consideration of the environment have been
replaced by
models in which disability is seen to result from the interaction between the
characteristics of
individuals with disabilities and the characteristics of their environment. Cultural
norms
affect the way that the physical and social environments of the individual are
constituted and
then focus on a few—but not all—of the elements of the environment to provide
examples of
how the environment affects the degree of disability. The amount of disability is
not
determined by levels of pathologies, impairments, or functional limitations, but
instead is a
function of the kind of services provided to people with disabling conditions and
the extent to
which the physical, built environment is accommodating or not accommodating to
the
particular disabling condition. Because societies differ in their willingness to
provide the
available technology and, indeed, their willingness to provide the resources to
improve that
technology, disability ultimately must been seen as a function of society, not of a
physical or
medical process.

Disability is not inherent in an individual but is, rather, a relational concept—a

function of the interaction of the person with the social and physical
environments. The
amount of disability that a person experiences, depends on both the existence of a
potentially
disabling condition (or limitation) and the environment in which the person lives.
For any
given limitation (i.e., potential disability), the amount of actual disability
experienced by a
person will depend on the nature of the environment, that is, whether the
environment is
positive and enabling (and serves to compensate for the condition, ameliorate the
limitation,
or facilitate one's functional activities) or negative and disabling (and serves to
worsen the
condition, enhance the limitation, or restrict one's functional activities). Human
competencies
interact with the environment in a dynamic reciprocal relationship that shapes
performance.
When functional limitations exist, social participation is possible only when
environmental
support is present. If there is no environmental support, the distance between what
the people
can do and what the environment affords creates a barrier that limits social
participation.

The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the individual,
including family, institutions, community, geography, and the political climate.
Added to this
conceptualization of environment is one's intrapersonal or psychological
environment, which
includes internal states, beliefs, cognition, expectancies and other mental states.
Thus,
environmental factors must be seen to include the natural environment, the human
made
environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and
psychological factors.

Dear students, list some of disabling and enabling environment as much as you
can?

Some Enabling and Disabling Factors in the Physical Environment

Type of
Factor

Type of Environment

Natural Environment

Built Environment

Enabling

Dry climate

Ramps

Flat terrain

Adequate lighting

Clear paths

Braille signage

Disabling

Snow

Steps
Rocky terrain

Low-wattage lighting

High humidity

Absence of flashing light alerting systems

Reflection

Dear students, What do you understand when we say physical, social and
psychological
environment? And how it affects life of persons with disabilities?

The environmental mat may be conceived of as having two major parts: the
physical
environment and the social and psychological environments. The physical
environment may
be further subdivided conceptually into the natural environment and the built
environment.
Both affect the extent to which a disabling condition will be experienced by the
person as a
disability.

Three types of attributes of the physical environment need to be in place to

support
human performance. The first attribute is object availability. Objects must be in a
location
that is useful, at a level where they can be retrieved, and must be organized to
support the
performance of the activity. Neither a sink that is too high for a wheelchair user
nor a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) that is kept at a hotel reception
desk is
available. The second attribute is accessibility. Accessibility is related to the
ability of
people to get to a place or to use a device. Accessibility permits a wheelchair user
to ride a
bus or a Braille user to read a document. The third attribute is the availability of
sensory
stimulation regarding the environment. Sensory stimulation, which can include
visual,
tactile, or auditory cues, serves as a signal to promote responses. Examples of
such cues
could include beeping microwaves, which elicit responses from people without
hearing
impairments, or bumpy surfaces on subway platforms, which tell users with visual
impairments to change their location.
A) The Natural Environment

The natural environment may have a major impact on whether a limitation is

disabling. For
example, a person who has severe allergies to ragweed or mold, which can trigger
disabling
asthma, can be free of that condition in climates where those substances do not
grow. The
physical conditions still exist, but in one environment they may become disabling
and in
another environment they might not. Another example might be that a person who
has
limited walking ability will be less disabled in a flat geographical location than he
disabled in
both places during the winter than during the summer. Thus, the natural
environment,
including topography and climate, affect whether or to what degree a functional
limitation
will be disabling.

B) The human made Environment

The physical environment is a complex interaction of built-in objects. Built

objects are
created and constructed by humans and vary widely in terms of their complexity,
size, and
purpose. Built objects are created for utilitarian reasons and also for an outlet for
creativity.
For instance, built objects such as dishwashers and computers have the potential
to enhance
human performance or to create barriers.

Rural environment, Disability and Vulnerability

Dear students;

What does rural living mean for people with disabilities?

How far does living rurally facilitate or create barriers to people with disabilities
belonging in
their community?

Dear students, this topic focus on rural environment and life of persons with
disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups, how rural landscapes, infrastructure and
communities shaped social understandings of disability, and how these
understandings might
uniquely shape opportunities a better life of this group of people. People with
disabilities,
vulnerabilities and marginalized groups have no voices about their lives and what
rural living
means to them. Physical landscapes are infused with social meaning and that the
feelings we
have for particular places are built up through an accumulation of experiences that
invoke
strong emotional responses. Rurality must be considered as more than an issue of
context or
setting. Instead, rurality professionals in rural should prioritize the voices and
experiences of
those who live rurally, and that the specific characteristics or aspects of the
particular rural
communities to which they belong.

Since larger population of Ethiopia (more than 85%) are agricultural community,
life
and aspirations of disabilities and vulnerable groups highlight both the pull and
the push of
rural living without appropriate services and supports.

Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural areas
have
double disadvantaged due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and
unfavorable physical
and social environment. Professional who are working in rural areas should work
in
collaboration accordingly. More specifically, these group of people have been
excluded from
agricultural works (productivity) due its nature high demand to labour and lack of
technologies and well organized support from professional.

Creating Welcoming (Inclusive) Environment

External environmental modifications can take many forms. These can include
assistive
devices, alterations of a physical structure, object modification, and task
modification. The
role of environmental modification as a prevention strategy has not been
systematically
evaluated, and its role in preventing secondary conditions and disability that
accompany a
poor fit between human abilities and the environment should be studied.
Environmental
strategies may ease the burden of care experienced by a family member who has
the
responsibility of providing the day-to-day support for an individual who does not
have the
capacity for social participation and independent living in the community. These
environmental modifications may well be an effort at primary prevention because
the
equipment may provide a safety net and prevent disabling conditions that can
occur through
lifting and transfer of individuals who may not be able to do it by themselves.

Rehabilitation must place emphasis on addressing the environmental needs of

people
with disabling conditions. Environmental strategies can be effective in helping
people
function independently and not be limited in their social participation, in work,
leisure or
social interactions as a spouse, parent, friend, or coworker.

Examples of Environmental Modification

1. Mobility aids
. Hand Orthosis
. Mouth stick
. Prosthetic limb
. Wheelchair (manual and/or motorized)
. Canes
. Crutches
. Braces
2. Communication aids

. Telephone amplifier or TDD

. Voice-activated computer
. Closed or real-time captioning
. Computer-assisted note taker
. Print enlarger
. Reading machines
. Books on tape
. Sign language or oral interpreters
. Braille writer
. Cochlear implant
. Communication boards FM, audio-induction loop, or infrared systems
3. Accessible structural elements

. Ramps Elevators
. Wide doors
. Safety bars
. Nonskid floors
. Sound-reflective building materials
. Enhanced lighting
. Electrical sockets that meet appropriate reach ranges
. Hardwired flashing alerting systems Increased textural contrast
4. Accessible features
. Built up handles
. Voice-activated computer
. Automobile hand controls
5. Job accommodations
. Simplification of task
. Flexible work hours
. Rest breaks
. Splitting job into parts
. Relegate nonessential functions to others
6. Differential use of personnel

. Personal care assistants

. Note takers
. Secretaries Editors
. Sign language interpreters

3.3.1.1.1Impact of the Social and Psychological Environments on the Enabling-

Disabling
Process

The social environment is conceptualized to include cultural, political, and

economic factors.
The psychological environment is the intrapersonal environment. This section
examines how
both affect the disabling process.

Culture and the Disabling Process

Culture affects the enabling-disabling process at each stage; it also affects the
transition from
one stage to another. This section defines culture and then considers the ways in
which it
affects each stage of the process.

Definition of Culture
Definition of culture includes both material culture (things and the rules for
producing them)
and nonmaterial culture (norms or rules, values, symbols, language, ideational
systems such
as science or religion, and arts such as dance, crafts, and humor). Nonmaterial
culture is so
comprehensive that it includes everything from conceptions of how many days a
week has or
how one should react to pain to when one should seek medical care or whether a
hermaphroditic person is an abomination, a saint, or a mistake. Cultures also
specify
punishments for rule-breaking, exceptions to rules, and occasions when
exceptions are
permitted. The role of nonmaterial culture for humans has been compared to the
role of
instincts for animals or to the role of a road map for a traveler. It provides the
knowledge that
permits people to be able to function in both old and new situations.

Both the material and nonmaterial aspects of cultures and subcultures are relevant
to the
enabling-disabling process. However, for our purpose we will focus primarily on
the role of
nonmaterial culture in that process. Cultures have an impact on the types of
pathologies that
will occur as well as on their recognition as pathologies.

Dear students Discuss the relationship between culture, social structure, and the
types of
disabilities that arise from the types of pathologies in your community and howit
affects
persons with disabilities in their daily life.

However, if a pathology is not recognized by the culture (in medical terms,

diagnosed), the
person does not begin to progress toward disability (or cure).

Enabling and Disabling Factors

Type of
Factor

Element of Social and Psychological Environment

Culture

Psychological

Political

Economic

Enabling

Expecting people
with disabling
conditions to be
productive

Having an active
coping strategy

Mandating relay
systems in all states

Tax credits to hire people with

disabling conditions

Expecting everyone
to know sign
language

Cognitive
restructuring

Banning discrimination
against people who can
perform the essential
functions of the job

Targeted earned income tax

credits

Disabling

Stigmatizing people
with disabling
conditions

Catastrophizing

Segregating children
with mobility
impairments in schools

Economic disincentives to get

off Social Security Disability
Income benefits

Valuing physical
beauty

Denial

Voting against
paratransit system

No subsidies or tax credits for

purchasing assistive technology

Pathway from Pathology to Impairment to Functional Limitation

Culture can affect the likelihood of the transition from pathology to impairment.
A
subculture, such as that of well-educated society, in which health advice is valued,
in which
breast cancer screening timetables are followed, and in which early detection is
likely, is one
in which breast tumors are less likely to move from pathology to impairments. In
a
subculture in which this is not true, one would likely see more impairments
arising from the
pathologies.

Cultures can also speed up or slow down the movement from pathology to
impairment, either for the whole culture or for subgroups for whom the pathway
is more or
less likely to be used. For example, some religions, women are less likely to seek
health care
because it means a man must be available to escort them in public, which is
unlikely if the
males are breadwinners and must give up income to escort them, and women are
also less
likely to seek health care if the provider is male. Thus, their culture lessens the
likelihood that
their pathology will be cured and therefore increases the likelihood that the
pathology will
become impairment.

Culture clearly has an impact on whether a particular impairment will become a

functional limitation. Impairments do not become limiting automatically. Rather,
cultures
affect the perception that the impairment is in fact the cause of the limitation, and
they affect
the perception that the impairment is in fact limiting.

If a society believes that witchcraft is the reason that a woman cannot have
children,
medical facts about her body become irrelevant. She may in fact have fibroids,
but if that
culture sees limitation as coming from the actions of a person, there is no
recognition of a
linkage between the impairment and the functional limitation. Rather, any
enabling-disabling
process must go through culturally prescribed processes relating to witches;
medically or
technologically based enabling-disabling processes will not be acceptable.

If the culture does not recognize that impairment is limiting, then it is not. For
example, hearing losses were not equivalent to functional limitations in Martha's
Vineyard,
because "everyone there knew sign language". Or, if everyone has a backache, it
is not
defined by the culture as limiting. There are many cross-cultural examples. In a
culture in
which nose piercing is considered necessary for beauty, possible breathing
problems
resulting from that pathology and impairment would be unlikely to be recognized
as being
limiting. Or, in a perhaps more extreme case, female circumcision is an
impairment that
could lead to functional limitation (inability to experience orgasm), but if the
whole point is
to prevent female sexual arousal and orgasm, then the functional limitation will
not be
recognized within that culture but will only be recognized by those who come
from other
cultures. In all these examples, if the culture does not recognize the impairment,
the
rehabilitation process is irrelevant—there is no need to rehabilitate a physical
impairment if
there is no recognized functional limitation associated with it.

Pathway from Functional Limitation to Disability

Here, the most important consideration is the ways in which the transition from
functional
limitation to disability is affected by culture. A condition that is limiting must be
defined as
problematic—by the person and by the culture—for it to become a disability.
Whether a
functional limitation is seen as being disabling will depend on the culture. The
culture
defines the roles to be played and the actions and capacities necessary to satisfy
that role. If
certain actions are not necessary for a role, then the person who is limited in
ability to
perform those actions does not have a disability. For example, a professor who
has arthritis in
her hands but who primarily lectures in the classroom, dictates material for a
secretary to
type, and manages research assistants may not be disabled in her work role by the
arthritis. In
this case, the functional limitation would not become a disability. For a secretary
who would
be unable to type, on the other hand, the functional limitation would become a
disability in
the work sphere.

A disability can exist without functional limitation, as in the case of a person with
a
facial disfigurement living in cultures such as that in the United States, whose
standards of
beauty cannot encompass such physical anomalies. Culture is thus relevant to the
existence
of disabilities: it defines what is considered disabling. Additionally, culture
determines in
which roles a person might be disabled by a particular functional limitation. For
example, a
farmer in a small village may have no disability in work roles caused by a hearing
loss;
however, that person may experience disabilities in family or other personal
relationships. On
the other hand, a profoundly deaf, signing person married to another profoundly
deaf, signing
person may have no disability in family-related areas, although there may be a
disability in
work-related areas. Thus, culture affects not just whether there is a disability
caused by the
functional limitation but also where in the person's life the disability will occur.
Culture is
therefore part of the mat; as such, it can protect a person from the disabling
process and can
slow it down or speed it up. Culture, however, has a second function in the
disabling process.
Although there is a direct path from culture to disability, there is an also indirect
path.
The indirect function acts by influencing other aspects of personal and social
organization in
a society. That is, the culture of a society or a subculture influences the types of
personality
or intrapsychic processes that are acceptable and influences the institutions that
make up the
social organization of a society. These institutions include the economic system,
the family
system, the educational system, the health care system, and the political system.
In all these
areas, culture sets the boundaries for what is debatable or negotiable and what is
not. Each of
these societal institutions also affects the degree to which functional limitations
will be
experienced by individuals as disabling.

All of the ways in which intrapsychic processes or societal institutions affect the
enabling-disabling process cannot be considered here. However, the remainder of
this section
presents some examples of how the enabling-disabling process can be affected by
three
factors: economic, political, and psychological.

Disability Inclusive Intervention and Rehabilitation Services

A „One-size-fits-all. approach to provide services for persons with disabilities and

vulnerability groups is no longer enough.

Dear students,

. What do we mean intervention and rehabilitation?

. How one can make services inclusive in your sector?
Including people with disabilities in everyday activities and encouraging them to
have roles
similar to peoples who do not have a disability is disability inclusion. This
involves more
than simply encouraging people; it requires making sure that adequate policies
and practices
are in effect in a community or organization. Inclusion should lead to increased
participation
in socially expected life roles and activities—such as being a student, worker,
friend,
community member, patient, spouse, partner, or parent. Disability inclusion
means provision
of differentiated services for persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
Differentiated
service means a multiple service delivery model that can satisfy the most needs of
persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Socially expected activities may also include
engaging in
social activities, using public resources such as transportation and libraries,
moving about
within communities, receiving adequate health care, having relationships, and
enjoying other
day-to-day activities. To reach ambitious targets for the general population, as
well as
targeted care for persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups, we need
differentiated
service delivery.

Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities are often excluded (either directly or
indirectly) from development processes and humanitarian action because of
physical,
attitudinal and institutional barriers. The effects of this exclusion are increased
inequality,
discrimination and marginalization. To change this, a disability inclusion
approach must be
implemented. The twin-track approach involves: (1) ensuring all mainstream
programs and
services are inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities, while at the same
time (2)
providing targeted disability-specific support to persons with disabilities.

The two tracks reinforce each other. When mainstream programs and services,
such as health
and education services, are disability-inclusive and aware, this can help facilitate
both
prevention of impairments, as well as early identification of children and persons
with
disabilities who can then be referred to disability-specific services. And the
provision of
disability-specific supports, such as assistive devices, can help facilitate more
effective
inclusion of persons with disabilities in mainstream services.

Strategies to Disability inclusive intervention and rehabilitation

Prevention
Prevention of conditions associated with disability and vulnerability is a
development issue.
Attention to environmental factors – including nutrition, preventable diseases,
safe water and
sanitation, safety on roads and in workplaces – can greatly reduce the incidence of
health
conditions leading to disability. A public health approach distinguishes:

i) Primary prevention – actions to avoid or remove the cause of a health problem

in an
individual or a population before it arises. It includes health promotion and
specific
protection (for example, HIV education).
ii) Secondary prevention (early intervention) – actions to detect a health and
disabling
conditions at an early stage in an individual or a population, facilitating cure, or
reducing or preventing spread, or reducing or preventing its long-term effects (for
example, supporting women with intellectual disability to access breast cancer
screening).
iii) Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation) – actions to reduce the impact of an
already
established disease by restoring function and reducing diseaserelated
complications
(for example, rehabilitation for children with musculoskeletal impairment).

Primary prevention issues are consider as crucial to improved overall health of

countries‘
populations. Viewing disability as a human rights issue is not incompatible with
prevention
of health conditions as long as prevention respects the rights and dignity of people
with
disabilities, for example, in the use of language and imagery. Preventing disability
and
vulnerability should be regarded as a multidimensional strategy that includes
prevention of
disabling barriers as well as prevention and treatment of underlying health
conditions.

Implementing the Twin-track Approach

Implementing the twin-track approach involves: Track 1: Mainstreaming

disability as a
cross-cutting issue within all key programs and services (education, health, relief
and social
services, microfinance, infrastructure and camp improvement, protection, and
emergency
response) to ensure these programs and services are inclusive, equitable, non-
discriminatory,
and do not create or reinforce barriers.

This is done by: gathering information on the diverse needs of persons with
disabilities during the assessment stage; considering disability inclusion during
the planning
stage; making adaptations in the implementation stage; and gathering the
perspectives of
persons with disabilities in the reporting and evaluation stage.

Track 2: Supporting the specific needs of vulnerable groups with disabilities to

ensure
they have equal opportunities to participate in society. This is done by
strengthening referral
to both internal and external pathways and ensuring that sector programs to
provide
rehabilitation, assistive devices and other disability-specific services are
accessible to persons
with disabilities and vulnerable groups and adhere to protection standards and
inclusion
principles. A Sector‘s organizational structures and human resources on disability
inclusion
should aim to reflect this twin-track approach. In particular, each sector should
have
disability program officers in all fields working to implement disability-specific
support
activities.

Implement Disability Inclusive Project/ Program

As a direct service provider, consultant and materials and equipment producers

concerned
with realizing equity, quality services and protecting human rights, all sectorial
strategies,
program, projects and services must be disability-inclusive. The sectors
operations should be
largely framed within broad programs, making it very important to ensure that
disability
inclusion is reflected in program strategies and design documents. This in turn
will help to
subsequently ensure disability is also incorporated into the projects that are
designed to
contribute to the overall program objectives. However, persons with disabilities
are often not
considered in crucial stages of most sectorial and developmental program and
projects
because of lack of awareness about the characteristics of people with disabilities,
vulnerability groups and disability inclusion in practice.

The following tips will help to overcome the challenges as a key considerations
for including
persons with disabilities in all program and project cycle management stages of
Assessment,
Planning, Implementation and Monitoring, and Reporting/Evaluation.

A) Education and vocational training –Inclusive Educationrealize the universal

right to
education for all, meaning all mainstream education services need to be
supporting
children and persons with disabilities.
B) Health – vulnerable groups and persons with disabilities have the same health-
care
needs as all other peoples and health sector services can also play an important
prevention and early identification role to ensure children and persons with
impairments
have timely access to health services and referral rehabilitation support.
C) Relief and social services – the two-way link between poverty and disability
means that
vulnerable group and peoples with disabilities and their families need to be able to
access relief support.
D) Infrastructure and camp improvement, shelter, water and sanitation and
environmental health – universal design concepts must be considered in all
infrastructure and construction programs and projects.
E) Livelihoods, employment and microfinance – vulnerable groups and people
with
disabilities face numerous barriers to achieving an independent livelihood, it is
crucial
that specific sectors responsible for livelihood programs and projects to make
accessible
to all vulnerable and people with disabilities.
F) Protection – marginalized groups and people with disabilities may face risks
and
vulnerabilities to experiencing violence, exploitation, abuse, neglect and violation
of
rights and therefore need to be specifically considered and included in protection
programs and projects.
G) Humanitarian and emergency response – the disproportionate effect of
emergency
and humanitarian situations on vulnerable groups and people with disabilities
should be
reflected in the design and implementation of the humanitarian projects.
Implement effective Intervention and Rehabilitation

Dear students,

What do you understand about the terms intervention and rehabilitation?

Rehabilitation interventions promote a comprehensive process to facilitate

attainment
of the optimal physical, psychological, cognitive, behavioral, social, vocational,
avocational,
and educational status within the capacity allowed by the anatomic or physiologic
impairment, personal desires and life plans, and environmental (dis)advantages
for a person
with a disability.

Consumers/patients, families, and professionals work together as a team to

identify
realistic goals and develop strategies to achieve the highest possible functional
outcome, in
some cases in the face of a permanent disability, impairment, or pathologic
process.
Although rehabilitation interventions are developed within medical and health
care models,
treatments are not typically curative. Professionals have the knowledge and
background to
anticipate outcomes from the interventions, with a certain degree of both
optimism and
cynicism, drawn from past experiences.

Rehabilitation requires goal-based activities and, more recently, measurement of

outcomes. The professionals, usually with the patient/ consumer and/or family,
develop goals
of the interventions to help mark progress or identify the need to reassess the
treatment plan.
Broad goals and anticipated outcomes should include increased independence,
prevention of
further functional losses or additional medical conditions when possible,
improved quality of
life, and effective and efficient use of health care systems. Consideration of
accessibility of
environments and social participation can, and increasingly should, be included
within the
scope of outcomes and goals for independence. A broad range of measurement
tools have
been developed for use within rehabilitation, and these standardized tools, along
with
objective measures of performance (e.g., distance walked, ability to perform a
task
independently), are typically documented throughout the course of the
intervention. There
are general underlying concepts and theories of rehabilitation interventions.
Examples of
these theories and concepts include movement and motor control, human
occupation models,
education and learning, health promotion and prevention of additional and
secondary health
conditions, neural control and central nervous system plasticity, pain modulation,
development and maturation, coping and adjustment, biomechanics, linguistics
and
pragmatics, resiliency and self-reliance, auditory processing, and behavior
modification.
These concepts, alone or in combination, form the basis for interventions and
treatment
plans.

Advances in medical research now support or explain some of the theories or

concepts. It has been demonstrated, for example, that retraining reorganizes
neural networks
and circuits, that skill retraining must be task specific and maintaining a skill is
use-
dependent, that central nervous system cells and chemical messengers may be
replaced, that
neural circuits and connections can be regrown, and that all muscles can be
strengthened.

Medical rehabilitation is often considered separately, and is focused on

recognition,
diagnosis, and treatment of health conditions (e.g., medication for treatment of
fatigue in
multiple sclerosis, botulinum injections for spasticity management in brain
injury); on
reducing further impairment (e.g., treatment of ongoing shoulder adhesive
capsulitis in
stroke, management of osteoarthritis of the remaining knee in above-knee
amputation); and
on preventing or treating associated, secondary, or complicating conditions (e.g.,
neurogenic
bladder management with intermittent catheterization in spinal cord injury,
diagnosis of
cervical spinal stenosis in an adult with cerebral palsy). Although medical
rehabilitation does
use rehabilitation interventions and espouses the principles of rehabilitation,
medical aspects
are additive to rehabilitation interventions and principles, with common goals of
improved
function and outcomes.
There is convincing evidence that the rehabilitation process and interventions
improve the functional outcomes of people with a variety of injuries, medical
conditions, and
disabilities. Assistive technology is often used in conjunction with rehabilitation
interventions; this topic is covered in the Assistive Technology and Science
volume in this
series. Rehabilitation interventions are associated with social participation (e.g.,
access to
education using rehabilitation interventions) and career planning and employment
(e.g., long-
term goal of rehabilitation interventions). These topics are covered in the
Education and
Employment and Work volumes. There are additional efforts not covered in this
volume that
may also be a part of rehabilitation interventions and processes, which include the
discrete
areas of mental health and addiction rehabilitation. These are important areas that
have
crossover with rehabilitation interventions, have defined sets of standards and
regulation, and
have robust histories of development.

Rehabilitation was conceived within the more traditional model of medical care,
but it
is increasingly obvious that disability issues are more than medically driven. The
social
justice and civil rights model of disability is important to understand, and
elements must be
incorporated into rehabilitation interventions, especially as they relate to
accessibility of
environments and services. Of all the medical specialties and programs,
rehabilitation is the
one most based on quality of life and functioning within the community.
Inequalities and
differences must be addressed within the structures of funding and spheres of
influence.
Increasingly, insurance plans determine the availability of rehabilitation services,
equipment
and assistive devices, and community-based resources; government funding is
more limited
for education, especially for those with special needs; and businesses and
workers‘
compensation programs are more restrictive with flexibility and coverage
policies.

Components of Rehabilitation Interventions

Rehabilitation is a process designed to optimize function and improve the quality

of life of
those with disabilities. Consequently, it is not a simple process. It involves
multiple
participants, and it can take on many forms. The following is a description of the
individual
components that, when combined, comprise the process and activity of
rehabilitation.

Multiple Disciplines

Rehabilitation interventions usually involve multiple disciplines. Although some

focused
interventions may be identified by a single service—such as cognitive retraining
by a
psychologist or speech pathologist, and audiologic rehabilitation through hearing-
aid
evaluation and dispensing—sole service does not engender the rehabilitation
concept of a
team approach, and it is often differentiated as therapy or medical service rather
than
rehabilitation. There are a variety of professionals who participate in and
contribute to the
rehabilitation process within a team approach. The list is long, and it includes
(although is
not limited to) such professionals as the following:

Physicians

The physician‘s role is to manage the medical and health conditions of the
patient/consumer
within the rehabilitation process, providing diagnosis, treatment, or management
of
disability-specific issues. Often, the physician leads the rehabilitation team,
although other
team members can assume the leadership role depending on the targeted goal or
predominant
intervention. Because of the depth and breadth of their knowledge and training,
certified
rehabilitation physicians or physiatrists usually are the best qualified to anticipate
outcomes
from rehabilitation interventions and the process of rehabilitation. They also can
provide the
diagnosis and treatment of additional medical conditions related to the specific
disability or
underlying pathology, which will have an influence on performance and outcome.
Occupational Therapists

Occupational therapists (OTs) typically work with patients/consumers through

functional
activities in order to increase their ability to participate in activities of daily living
(ADLs)
and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), in school and work
environments, using a
variety of techniques. Typical techniques include functional training, exercise,
splinting,
cognitive strategies, vision activities, computer programs and activities,
recommendation of
specially designed or commercially available adaptive equipment, and
home/education/work
site assessments and recommendations.

Physical Therapists

Physical therapists (PTs) assess movement dysfunction and use treatment

interventions such
as exercise, functional training, manual therapy techniques, gait and balance
training,
assistive and adaptive devices and equipment, and physical agents, including
electrotherapy,
massage, and manual traction. The outcome focus of interventions is improved
mobility,
decreased pain, and reduced physical disability.

Speech and Language Therapist

Speech and language therapist assess, treat, and help to prevent disorders related
to speech,
language, cognition, voice, communication, swallowing, and fluency.
Rehabilitation
interventions involve more than the spoken word, including the cognitive aspects
of
communication and oral-motor function with swallowing. Assistive technology
using
augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) devices (e.g., BIGmack
switch-activation
devices, DynaVox dynamic display and digitized voice devices) is another focus
area of
speech pathologists.

Audiologists

Audiologists identify, assess, manage, and interpret test results related to

disorders of
hearing, balance, and other systems related to hearing. Hearing screens and more
technologically advanced testing systems fall under the areas of practice.
Audiologic
rehabilitation interventions include developing auditory and central processing
skills,
evaluating and fitting for a variety of hearing aids and supports, training for use of
hearing
prosthetics, including cochlear implants, and counseling for adjustment to hearing
loss or
newly acquired hearing.

Although sign language is a technique used to assist with communication for

those with
hearing impairments, competency is not required foraudiologists.
Rehabilitation Nurses

The rehabilitation nurse usually takes the role of educator and taskmaster
throughout
rehabilitation, but these professionals have most prominence within inpatient
rehabilitation
programs. They are expert at bladder management, bowel management, and skin
care, and
they provide education to patients and families about these important areas and
also
medications to be used at home after discharge. Activities developed within the
active
therapeutic rehabilitation programs are routinely used and practiced, such as
dressing,
bathing, feeding, toileting, transfers to and from wheelchairs, and mobility.

Social Workers

Social workers in health settings may provide case management or coordination

for persons
with complex medical conditions and needs; help patients navigate the paths
between
different levels of care; refer patients to legal, financial, housing, or employment
services;
assist patients with access to entitlement benefits, transportation assistance, or
community-
based services; identify, assess, refer, or offer treatment for such problems as
depression,
anxiety, or substance abuse; or provide education or support programming for
health or
related social problems. Social workers work not only with the individual
receiving
rehabilitation services, but with family members, to assist both the individual and
family in
reaching decisions and making emotional or other adjustments.
Case Managers

Case management is a relatively new concept that has come about with the
survival of
patients/consumers with complex medical problems and disabilities, and with the
development of a more complex health care system. Case managers possess skills
and
credentials within other health professions, such as nursing, counseling, or
therapies,
although they usually have a nursing background. These professionals collaborate
with all
service providers and link the needs and values of the patient/consumer with
appropriate
services and providers within the continuum of health care. This process requires
communication with the patient/consumer and his or her family, the service
providers, and
the insurance companies.

Within the rehabilitation environment, case managers ensure that ongoing care is
at
an optimal level and covered by insurance or other payer programs, during and
following
inpatient rehabilitation or throughout an outpatient rehabilitation process.
Coordination of
services following the inpatient admission can be the most difficult task. A
hospital,
rehabilitation program, or insurance company may employ case managers.
Rehabilitation Psychologists

Rehabilitation psychology is a specialized area of psychology that assists the

individual (and
family) with any injury, illness, or disability that may be chronic, traumatic,
and/or
congenital in achieving optimal physical, psychological, and interpersonal
functioning
(Scherer et al.,2004). This profession is an integral part of rehabilitation, and it
involves
assessment and intervention that is tailored to the person‘s level of impairment
and is set
within an interdisciplinary framework.

Neuropsychologists

Neuropsychology is another specialized area within psychology, and it is of

particular
importance in the care of individuals who have sustained brain injuries. These
professionals
possess specialized skills in testing procedures and methods that assess various
aspects of
cognition (e.g., memory, attention, language), emotions, behaviors, personality,
effort,
motivation, and symptom validity. With this testing, the neuropsychologist can
determine
whether the level and pattern of performance is consistent with the clinical
history,
behavioral observations, and known or suspected neuropathology, and the degree
to which
the test performance deviates from expected norms. Additional contexts
encountered in brain
injury survivors can complicate the clinical presentation and impact
neuropsychological test
performance. The neuropsychologist can identify emotional states arising from
changing life
circumstances (e.g., depression, anxiety), medical co-morbidities (e.g., substance
abuse, heart
disease), and social-contextual factors (e.g., litigation, financial distress), and can
then
explain their potential influence to the injured person, family members, and other
health care
providers.

Therapeutic Recreation Specialists

Recreational therapists, also referred to as therapeutic recreation specialists,

provide
treatment services and recreation activities for individuals with disabilities or
illnesses. They
use a variety of techniques to improve and maintain the physical, mental, and
emotional well-
being of their clients, with the typical broad goals of greater independence and
integration
into the community. Therapists promote community-based leisure activities as a
complement
to other therapeutic interventions, and as a means to practice those clinic- or
hospital-based
activities within a real-world context.

Rehabilitation Counselors

Rehabilitation counselors (previously known as vocational counselors) assist

persons with
both physical and mental disabilities, and cover the vocational, psychological,
social, and
medical aspects of disability, through a partnership with the individuals served.
Rehabilitation counselors can evaluate and coordinate the services needed,
provide
counseling to assist people in coping with limitations caused by the disability,
assist with
exploration of future life activities and return-to-work plans, and provide
advocacy for needs.

Orthotists and Prosthetists

These professionals practice within a unique area of rehabilitation, combining

technical and
some clinical skills. The orthotist fabricates and designs custom braces or
orthotics to
improve the function of those with neuromuscular or musculoskeletal
impairments, or to
stabilize an injury or impairment through the healing process. The prosthetist
works with
individuals with partial or total limb absence or amputation to enhance their
function by use
of a prosthesis (i.e., artificial limb, prosthetic device). The orthotist/prosthetist
usually works
with a physician, therapist, or other member of the rehabilitation team to ensure
an effective
design to meet the needs of the individual, especially regarding the ability to
maneuver
within the built environment and be socially active.

Additional Rehabilitation Professionals

Other rehabilitation professionals who might be considered members of the team

include
nutritionist, spiritual care, rehabilitation engineer, music therapist, dance therapist,
child-life
specialist, hospital-based school teacher, massage therapist, kinesiologist, and
trainer, among
others.

Person with the Disability and His or Her Family

The person with the disability and his or her family members are partners in this
team
process. In fact, they are key members of the team. Personal and family/support
system
goals, family/friend support, and community resources are driving forces
regarding goals and
discharge planning within the rehabilitation process. The process involves the best
strategies
of interventions based on standards of care, the evidence base regarding outcomes
related to
interventions, the experience of the practitioners, and the personal and family
needs and
contexts of the person with the disability. Professionals should be skillful in their
communication to consumers about anticipated outcomes and effectiveness of
interventions.

Community-Based Rehabilitation

CBR was originally designed for developing countries where disability estimates
were very
high and the countries were under severe economic constraints. It promotes
collaboration
among community leaders, peoples with disabilities and their families and other
concerned
citizens to provide equal opportunities for all peoples with disabilities in the
community and
to strengthen the role of their organization.

According to the view of World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations
Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), CBR is a strategy
that can
address the need of peoples with disabilities within their community which can be
implemented through the combined efforts of peoples with disabilities
themselves, their
families, organizations and communities, governmental and non-governmental
organizations,
health, education, vocational, social and other services. Community based
rehabilitation is a
combination of two important words; community and rehabilitation. Thus in order
to get
clear concept about the definition of CBR, let us first define the two terms
separately.

Community-consists of people living together in some form of social organization

sharing
political, economic, social and cultural characteristics in varying degrees.

Rehabilitation-includes all measures aimed at reducing the impact of disability for

an
individual enabling him or her to achieve independence, social integration, a
better quality of
life and self actualization or refers to measures which aim to enable persons with
disabilities
to attain and maintain maximum independence, full physical, mental, social and
vocational
ability, and full inclusion and participation in all aspects of life.

If you give a person a fish,

He/she will eat for a day;

If you teach him/her to fish,

He/she eat for a lifetime..

Based on the above definition of key words, CBR is therefore, a systematized

approach
within general community development whereby Persons with Disabilities are
enabled to live
a fulfilling life within their own community, making maximum use of local
resources and
helping the community become aware of its responsibility in ensuring the
inclusion and equal
participation of .Persons with Disabilities. (PWDs). In the process, PWDs are also
made
aware of their own role and responsibility, as they are part of the community.

The idea of CBR is that people with disabilities should have the right to a good
life.
The help they need should be available to them, at a low cost. It should be offered
to them
and their family in a way that suits their usual way of living, whether in a village,
a town or a
city. They should have education like everybody else. They should be able to take
up jobs
and earn their living. They should be able to take a full part in all the activities of
their
village, or town or city.

The idea of CBR is that, even if people learn very slowly, or has problems seeing
or
hearing, or finds it hard to move about, they should still be respected for being
men and
women, girls and boys. Nobody should be looked down on or treated badly just
because they
have a disability. Houses, shops and schools should be built in such a way that
everyone can
easily go in and out and make use of them. Information should be given to people
in a way
they understand, not only in writing, which is hard for people who cannot read or
see it.
Information should be given in spoken forms as well, so that everyone has a fair
chance to
use it. To do all this would mean a lot of changes. But they would be good
changes, because
everyone could live a better life, helping each other and respecting one another. In
addition,
for the purpose of our discussion two important definitions will be given:

1. Community based rehabilitation is a strategy that can address the needs of

peoples with
disabilities with in their communities (WHO, UNESCO, 2004).

2.Community based rehabilitation is a common sense strategy for enhancing the

quality of
life of peoples with disabilities by improving services delivery in order to reach
all in need
by providing more equitable opportunities and by promoting and protecting their
rights .
3. The joint position paper by WHO, ILO, UNICEF and UNESCO of the 2004
define CBR
in a rather flexible and broad manner in the following way: Community based
rehabilitation
is a strategy within general community development for rehabilitation,
equalization of
opportunities and social inclusion of all children and adults with disabilities. It is
implemented through the combined efforts of people with disabilities themselves,
their
families and communities, and the appropriate health, education, vocational and
social
services.

This definition particularly advocates a broad approach for developing programs

that
involves the following elements:

A. The participation of people with disabilities and their representatives at all

stages of the
development of the program

B. The formulation and implementation of national policies to support the equal

participation
of people with disabilities
C. The establishment of a system for program management

D. The multi-sectoral collaboration of governmental and nongovernmental sectors

to support
communities as they assume responsibility for the inclusion of their members who
experience disabilities.

E. CBR focuses on strengthening the capacity of peoples with disabilities, and

their families.

F. CBR focuses on challenging negative views and barriers in society to enable

equal rights
and opportunities.

Currently, three main meanings are attached to the notion of CBR: People taking
care of
themselves, a concept and an ideology and community based rehabilitation wich
will be
described below.

1. People Taking Care of Themselves

Services for people with disabilities in most regions in developing countries are
still limited
to what people can do for themselves. This is the "real" CBR: all the activities that
people
with disability, their family members and other community members do in their
own
community for persons with disability, such as general care, accommodating each
other's
needs {i.e.. family members adapting themselves to the situation of the individual
with
disability, and vice-versa), education and health, using whatever they know,
whatever they
have, in whatever daily circumstances they exist.
2. A Concept and an Ideology. As a concept and an ideology, it promotes a
decentralized approach to rehabilitation service-delivery, whereby, it is assumed
that
community members are willing and able to mobilize local resources and to
provide
appropriate services to people with disabilities. This concept has been 'fled out in
many
CBR programs in the developing world, by the use of government staff and
facilities,
but has in most cases proved to be unrealistic.

3. Community Based Rehabilitation: is mostly in a form of Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs). Recognizing the human and material limitations of people
with
disabilities, their family members and other community members, CBR program
tries
to promote and facilitate community based rehabilitation. Unfortunately, such
CBR
programs often consider 'local culture' as an obstacle, rather than as a condition
towards progress.
Major Objectives of Community Based Rehabilitation

The major objective of community based rehabilitation is to ensure that people

with
disabilities are empowered to maximize their physical and mental abilities, have
access
to regular services and opportunities and become active, contributing members of
their
communities and then societies. Thus, community based rehabilitation promotes
the
human rights of people with disabilities through attitude changes within the
community.
Community based rehabilitation aims to include people who have disabilities
from all
types of impairments, including difficulty hearing, speaking, moving, learning or
behaving. Community based rehabilitation also includes all age groups: children,
youth,
adults and older people.

Implement Technologies for Disability Inclusion

Inclusiveness and Information Technology (ICT)

Inclusiveness and Information Technology examines the extent to which

regulatory
frameworks for information and communication technologies (ICTs) safeguard
the rights of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities as citizenship rights. Effective access
to
information is crucial in facilitating the participation of citizens in civil society.
Accessibility
concerns in the information and communications technologies (ICTs) sector have
become
particularly important, given the increased role played by ICTs in everyday life.
For persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities, technological developments such as the
proliferation of
the Internet and the provision of services for accessing digital television such as
audio
description (video description), closed signing, and the availability of subtitles
(captions) in
live broadcasts enabled by speech-to text technologies can make an important
contribution to
facilitating independent living. Unfortunately, persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
still face significant barriers in accessing ICTs. These barriers include, inter alia,
poorly
designed Web sites (e.g., with graphics not readable by computerized screen
readers, with
information that can be accessed only by the use of the mouse rather than the
keyboard),
limited availability of subtitles on webcasts, the use of multiple remote controls
for digital
television, and difficult to navigate on-screen displays.

These access barriers have the potential to affect persons with disabilities,
including
persons with sensory disabilities (visual and/ or hearing), mobility disabilities, or
cognitive
disabilities. The objective to ensure equal access to information should play a
central role in
any regulatory framework for the ICT sector. Nevertheless, despite the potential
of
technology to empower the public as citizens, the regulatory framework for the
ICT sector
has been criticized for its overall perception of the public as economic actors and
for the
insufficient level of protection conferred to citizenship values such as equality and
dignity.

Inclusiveness and Assistive Technology

Dear students, explain how assistive technologies enhance inclusiveness.

Worldwide the number of persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and

marginalized groups
is increasing alarmingly because of population aging, accident, global warming
and climate
change, medical advancement, humanitarian crises, natural disaster, conflict and
increases in
chronic health conditions, among other causes. Over a billion people, about 15%
of the
world's population, have some form of disability. Between 110 million and 190
million
adults have significant difficulties in functioning. Technologies promote
independence for
people with disabilities and vulnerability. The use of devices, computers, robots,
and other
established assistive technology (AT) can potentially increase the autonomy of
people with
disabilities and vulnerability, by compensating for physical limitations and
circumventing
difficulties with normal activities of daily living (ADL).

Vulnerability and disability have adverse impact on quality life of these groups.
Vulnerable people and those living with disabilities are losing their independence
and overall
wellbeing. The growing number of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities is
too large to
be cared for through traditional government programs. The cost associated with
such
programs and the lack of a skilled caregiver workforce makes it very difficult to
meet the
needs of this segment of the population. It is therefore inevitable that we resort to
technology
in our search for solutions to the costly and challenging problems facing persons
with
disabilities and vulnerabilities.

Wellbeing or quality of life is an important concern for persons with disabilities,

vulnerabilities and marginalized groups, who, like every person, is seeking to be
well, happy,
healthy, and prosperous. Persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities and
marginalized groups
have several important components of wellbeing. A key activity is independent
living with
convenient access to goods and services, as well as being socially active and
enjoying self-
esteem and dignity. In modern societies, persons with disabilities, vulnerabilities
and
marginalized groups can attain some components of wellbeing such as access to
services
using assistive technology (AT). Other components, such as freedom of
navigation and
travel, are much more difficult because of environmental obstacles encountered
by the
disabled.
Assistive Technologies (AT)

Dear students, describe the role of AT in daily life of persons with disabilities?

Surgery, generic therapy, rehabilitation, human assistance, and the use of assistive
technology (AT) help disabled people cope with their disabilities. Surgery
(medical
intervention) helps decrease deficiency and, in some cases, restores capability.
Genetic
therapy attempts to remediate genes responsible for a given disease or disorder.
Although
promising in concept, genetic therapy is in its infancy and, as yet, has no broad
application.
Rehabilitation develops and adapts residual capabilities, while human assistance
aids
Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities in their daily living activities.
Unfortunately,
such assistance is not always available and not necessarily cost-effective. AT can
increase the
autonomy, independence, and quality of life for Persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
and can also enable the integration of social, professional, and environmental
aspects of life
for Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities populations.

AT and Daily Living of Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Assistive technology affords Persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities greater

equality of
opportunity, by enhancing and expanding their communication, learning,
participation, and
achievement with higher levels of independence, wellbeing, and quality of life.
Such
assistive technologies are essential for helping Persons with disabilities and
vulnerabilities
with severe physical, sensorial, or mental limitations to become more
independent, and to
improve their quality of life. Typically, AT works by compensating for absent or
nonfunctional skills, by maintaining or enhancing existing abilities. Persons with
disabilities
and vulnerabilities utilize AT to enhance the performance of their daily living
tasks,
including communication, vision, hearing, recreation, movement, seating and
mobility,
reading, learning, writing, and studying, as well as controlling and accessing their
environment.

Assistive Technology varies from low-tech devices such as a cane or adapted

loop, to
high-tech systems such as assistive robotics or smart spaces. Currently, most
popular
technologies for Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities are simple; or
examples of
mobility-enhancing equipment include wheelchairs, communication via mobile
telephones
and computers, and voice-activated smart devices to enhance environmental
control.
Advances in communication and information technologies further support the
development of new, more complex technologies such as utilization of smart
wheelchairs,
assistive robots, and smart spaces.

AT Definitions

Assistive technology encompasses all systems that are designed for Persons with
disabilities
and Vulnerabilities, and that attempt to compensate the handicapped. This
includes robotic
tele manipulators, wheelchairs, or navigation systems for the blind. AT also
includes systems
that restore personal functionality, such as external prostheses and ortheses. There
are various
organizational definitions for assistive technology: The international standard ISO
9999
defines AT (refering to AT as .technical aid.) as .any product, instrument,
equipment or
technical system used by a disabled person, especially produced or generally
available,
preventing, compensating, monitoring, relieving or neutralizing the impairment,
disability or
handicap. . In the United States, the Technology Act and Assistive Technology
Act define an
AT device as .any item, piece of equipment or product system, whether acquired
commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or
improve
functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.. These Acts also define an
assistive
technology service as .any service that directly assists an individual with a
disability in the
selection, acquisition, or use, of an assistive technology device..

The Older Americans Act defines AT as .technology, engineering methodologies,

or
scientific principles appropriate to meet the needs of, and address the barriers
confronted by,
older individuals with functional limitations..

In Europe, the European Commission (EC) defines AT as .products, devices or

equipment that is used to maintain, increase or improve the functional capabilities
of people
with disabilities.. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an Assistive
Device as
.Equipment that enables an individual who requires assistance to perform the
daily activities
essential to maintain health and autonomy and to live as full a life as possible.
Such
equipment may include, for example, motorized scooters, walkers, walking sticks,
grab rails
and tilt-and-lift chairs. WHO also defines assistive technology as .An umbrella
term for any
device or system that allows individuals to perform tasks they would otherwise be
unable to
do or increases the ease and safety with which tasks can be performed..

AT and User Needs: A Classification Scheme

Examples of AT user needs and classification

A. People with Communication Disabilities refers to be multiple difficulties
including: Speech
mechanism problem, Language processing, Hearing, Vision, Motor skills

Needs & Barriers: Safety Technologies, Self-care and medication management,

social needs
socialization, access to information technology, communication and interaction
with environment,
access to public administration and facilities (authorities, banks, public services),
shopping recreation
and leisure problems with speech, writing, esteem independence and employment.

Assistive technologies: Mobile systems [phones, wearable electronics, computers,

augmentative and
alliterative communication (including I/O interfaces) (adaptable/configurable
interfaces, tactile
interfaces), vibrotactile displays reading screen, speech technologies,
augmentative–alliterative
communication. Socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual
companion‘s
videoconferences). Medication organizers (medication reminder/management).
Speech technology
(audio technology for I/O interfaces and control, writing translators, text–speech
translators,
transportation (public transportation facilities, smart environments home control,
pervasive
computing, context awareness, middleware) Shopping tools (Internet access) and
education tools
B. People with Cognitive Disabilities: The impairments may include: Cognition,
memory loss and
forgetfulness

Needs & Barriers are survival, hygiene (toileting, bathing, laundry); feeding (food
preparation,

eating, drinking), remembering, housekeeping—home cleaning, safety, safety

technologies,
safety of environment, self-care and medication management, social needs,
socialization,
navigation, access to information technology, education, communication and
interaction with
environment, shopping, esteem, independence, employment, recreation and
leisure

Assistive technologies may include Mobile systems (phones, wearable

electronics, and
computers), socialization and entertainment tools (special games, virtual
companions,
videoconferences), augmentative and alliterative communication (including I/O
interfaces),
adaptable/configurable interfaces, organizer and reminder assistants for
timekeeping),
medications, (appointments, hygiene, etc., electronic organizers, medication
reminder/management, procedure assistants, transportation public transportation
facilities)

Communication aids (communicators, multimedia procedure, assistants, large-

screen
programmable phones, electronic information organizers, electronic mail)
C. People with Motor Disabilities impairment include Upper-limbs difficulties/
dexterity, lower-
limb deficiencies

Needs & Barriers are the need for mobility, working in the inaccessible
environment

Assistive technologies may include orthotics (cognitive orthotics), smart

environments, home
control, shopping tools (internet access) and education tools
AT and the Marketplace

Markets for assistive technologies follow the general marketing rule that products
introduced
into a market influence the demand and growth of markets for such products. In
practice, AT
products can either represent a barrier to demand or become an engine of demand.
This
relationship between Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities and AT in the
marketplace
follows one of two strategies: (1) trivialization or (2) specialization, which are
discussed as
follows:

Specialization is based on the development of products or services that are

adapted
for Persons with disabilities. In practice, the AT industry considers Persons with
disability
populations as solvent autonomous markets. Developed products are adapted for
Persons
with disabilities needs, so the satisfaction of each target population or
subpopulation is good,
thereby supporting further product development or adaptation. Nonetheless, the
market for
such AT is not growing quickly, owing to (1) development costs, (2) high price of
the final
product, and (3) generally low income of people with disabilities. The exceptionto
this rule is
products for elderly retired people, which have significantly higher incomes and a
much
larger market.

Trivialization considers Persons with disabilities as an augmentation of the

market
for devices used by people without disabilities. In this strategy, industry does not
target
Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities populations directly. Instead, the
products for
Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities are of standardized type, that is,
generic with
multipurpose capabilities. Given requirements for safety and comfort, these
products and
services are designed to be modified or adapted to meet Persons with disabilities
and
Vulnerabilities needs. This strategy targets a much larger market but does not
consider user
satisfaction among Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities.

AT and Design Methods

Given the requirements of functionality, safety, and comfort, the design of AT for
Persons
with disabilities and Vulnerabilities requires both excellent engineering capacities
and
relevant knowledge about Persons with disabilities and Vulnerabilities
characteristics.
Product developers must be fully aware of needs, wants, and capabilities of
Persons with
disabilities and Vulnerabilities populations, as well as limitations associated with
each
handicap. Numerous design methods have been suggested to assist in the process
of AT
development. Most widely known are user centered design and universal design,
which are
discussed as follows:
User-centered design is a set of techniques and processes that enable developers
to
focus on users, within the design process. In practice, users are involved in the
development
process, depending on their skills and experience, and their interaction is
facilitated by a
domain expert. The intensity of this involvement varies with the stage of research
and
product development. Often, the developed AT meets persons with disabilities
satisfaction.
However, this design method is expensive in terms of resources and time
expended by
engineers and domain experts. It is also difficult to recruit potential end users and
to interact
with them, especially when these end users are older people, or people with
disabilities (see
also Chapter 34).

Universal design (also called design for all) is the design of products and
environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without
the need for
adaptation or specialized design. Here, the design process is guided and
constrained by a
number of objectives: accessibility, adaptability, transgenerational applicability,
and/or
universal applicability or appeal. Universal design does not emphasize differences
among
persons with disabilities, or between persons with disabilities and the general
population.

Instead, the ideas of adapting products, services, or the environment are extended
to users at
large. In practice, products are developed to meet the needs of average users. If a
user is
different, significantly, from the average population, (e.g., a person with a
significant
handicap), then, the product will provide poor user satisfaction.
Universal Design

It is frequently the case that the built environment can be modified permanently
so that
functional limitations become less disabling and personal or temporary assistive
technologies
are not needed. For example, the presence of ramps increases the ability of
wheelchair users
to get around and thus decreases the degree to which the condition that led to their
use of a
wheelchair is disabling. The presence of ramps will increase frequency of trips
out of the
house and into the community for wheelchair users when ramps are installed in
their houses.
Wider doors, lower bathroom sinks, and grab bars are other examples of
modifications to
build environments that decrease the degree to which a building itself may be
disabling.
Lighting patterns and the materials used for walls and ceilings affect the visual
ability of all
people, even though the largest impact may be on improving the ability of the
person who is
hard of hearing to hear in a particular room or the ability of a person who is deaf
to see an
interpreter or other signers.
Universal design is based on the principle that the built environments and
instruments
used for everyday living can be ergonomically designed so that everyone can use
them.
Traditionally, architecture and everyday products have been designed for market
appeal, with
a greater focus on fashion rather than function. However, as the population of
older adults
and people with disabling conditions increases, there has been a greater trend
toward
universal design.

Today, with the influence of consumer demand and through thoughtful disability
policy, greater emphasis is placed on the development of built materials that are
ergonomically friendly to users, regardless of their abilities. Universal design is
an enabling
factor in the environment that allows the user with a functional limitation to
become more
independent, yet without an additional cost or stigma attached to the particular
product. For
example, people who were deaf previously had to purchase an expensive closed-
captioning
unit to attach to their television sets to view closed-captioned programs. Today, as
a result of
new federal legislation, all new television sets are manufactured with a closed-
captioning
microchip that allows any user access to broadcast closed captioning. Thus, it is
useful not
only for deaf users but also for other vulnerable groups, such as older individuals
who are
starting to lose their audio acuity, or a person watching a late-night talk show in
the bedroom
who does not want to wake his or her partner.

In all of these ways, the environment affects the degree to which a functional
limitation is disabling for a person. However, decisions about the use of
technology or built
environments are social decisions. The next major section considers the effects of
the social
and psychological environments on the extent to which a particular functional
limitation will
be disabling or not.

Implement Inclusive Job Opportunities and Employment

The right to work is fundamental to being a full and equal member of society, and
it applies
to all persons, regardless of whether or not they have a disability. A decent job in
the open
labor market is a key bulwark against poverty. It also enables people to build self-
esteem,
form social relationships, and to gain skills and knowledge. Moreover, a
productive
workforce is essential for overall economic growth. Barriers to employment thus
not only
affect individuals‘ lives, but the entire economy. Despite the fact that the majority
of jobs can
be performed by individuals with disabilities, the pathways to their employment
are often
strewn with barriers. An OECD study of its members showed that persons without
disabilities were nearly three times more likely than persons with disabilities to
participate in
the labor market.2 Evidence suggests the same is true for countries in the Asia
and Pacific
region, although data to illustrate the full extent of this trend is scarce. The
employment gaps
suggested above are likely to understate the divergent work experiences of
persons with and
without disabilities, since they do not factor in differences in type of employment.
Persons
with disabilities and vulnerabilities are more likely to be own-account workers
and occupy
jobs in the informal sector, often without the security offered by work contracts,
salaries,
pension schemes, health insurance and other benefits. Even when persons with
disabilities
are formally employed, they are more likely to be in low-paid, low-level positions
with poor
prospects for career development. Simple comparisons of the employment rates
for persons
with and without disabilities can therefore be misleading.

The recently adopted 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development calls on

governments around the world to promote full employment and decent work for
all,
including persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities. Besides directly targeting
employment, the 2030 Agenda and the accompanying SDGs also emphasize the
need to
guarantee the rights of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to equal and
accessible
education; social, economic and political inclusion, and access to cities, transport
systems
and public space.

Barriers of employment
Dear students, what are barriers for employment and job opportunities for persons
with disabilities and vulnerable groups?

Barriers to the employment of persons with disabilities take many forms and
operate
at many levels, both within and beyond the workplace itself. Persons with
disabilities may be
prevented from working due to inaccessible transportation services; the lack of
accessible
information and communications services; the preference of employers for
candidates
without disabilities; legal stipulations that prevent individuals with particular
impairments
from working in certain fields; or the discouragement of family and community
members.
Whilst these obstacles are often interconnected, and act collectively to limit
employment
opportunities for persons with disabilities, it is essential to distinguish between
different
barriers in order to develop effective policy responses. The major types of barriers
are
described below.
A) Attitudes and Discrimination

Employers may be reluctant to hire persons with disabilities based on the

perception that they
are less productive or less capable of carrying out their jobs than others.
Colleagues of
persons with disabilities may also hold prejudicial attitudes. At a wider level,
social attitudes
that cast persons with disabilities as objects of pity and need perpetuate the
assumption that
they should not work. In some cultures, people view disabilities as being
indicative of
wrongdoing in a past life, or are simply uncomfortable around people who seem
different.
Persons with disabilities may also be discouraged from working by their families,
often out
of a sense of shame or a well-intentioned but stifling desire not to impose
additional burden
on their family members.

Though there are laws and regulations in some sectors, majority of social and
economic sectors in Ethiopian do not yet have anti-discrimination legislation that
specifically
targets the employment of persons with disabilities. Discrimination is a major
barrier faced
by persons with disabilities in their efforts to find employment in the labour
market. Clearly,
there needs to be greater awareness about the need to break down barriers faced
by persons
with disabilities — be it lack of accessibility features in public services or of laws
that protect
persons with disabilities from discrimination by employers.

B) Accessibility
The accessibility of the following areas are crucial to the employment of persons
with
disabilities: the physical environment; transportation; information and
communications; and
other facilities open to the public. In the workplace itself, a lack of physical
features such as
ramps and elevators can prevent persons with mobility disabilities from being
able to work.
Similarly, the lack of accessible information and communication infrastructure in
workplaces
such as clear signage, computers equipped with software such as screen-readers,
and devices
such as Braille displays can prevent persons with print and intellectual disabilities
from being
able to gain employment. Lack of access to sign language interpretation or
captioning
services can inhibit the employment of deaf people. In addition to the
informational and
physical design of the workplace itself, the broader inaccessibility of public
environments
and crucially, transport, can prevent persons with disabilities from being able to
travel to
work, receive information about job opportunities, and communicate with
employers.

C) Education and Training

Persons with disabilities have disproportionately restricted access to education

and training.
This severely limits their job opportunities due to a lack of skills and knowledge
that are
relevant to find or retain a job. Children with disabilities are less likely to attend
school, and
when they do they are less likely to stay in school.18 In Indonesia, children with
disabilities
are one third less likely to complete their primary education as those without a
disability. In
India in 2007, close to 40 per cent of children with disabilities were not enrolled
in school,
compared to only between 8 and 10 per cent of children in scheduled tribes or
castes —
groups that also face high levels of discrimination and poorer socio-economic
outcomes.
Notwithstanding the numerous other barriers they face, persons with disabilities
are thus
often prevented from being able to acquire the human capital necessary to
effectively
compete for jobs. In addition, young persons with disabilities who have attended
school may
not get the support they need when transitioning from school to work.

D) Social Networks

Another barrier to employment for persons with disabilities can be their more
limited social
networks. Social networks greatly aid the process of searching for work, the lack
of which is
likely to limit options for persons with disabilities. As part of their broader
exclusion from
many important social activities, persons with disabilities often therefore lack the
opportunity
to build social relationships with those who may be in a position to offer
suggestions for
potential work opportunities. These limited networks are part of the broader
cultural and
attitudinal barriers that inhibit participation in social, leisure, civic, and religious
activities. A
key benefit brought by employment itself is the building of social relationships
with
colleagues, clients and business partners. As a result of the barriers they face in
entering and
retaining work, many persons with disabilities are also denied the possibility of
expanding
their networks at the workplace itself.

E) Women Disabilities

In many developing countries including Ethiopia, as a result of continued

prejudices both
towards women and surrounding disability, women with disabilities are doubly
discriminated
against in the labor market. Study found that in many developing countries,
women with
disabilities are only half as likely as men with disabilities to have a job.
Moreover, when they
are employed, women with disabilities encounter worse working conditions and
lower pay as
compared with other women, as well as men with disabilities. Women with
disabilities are
also less likely to receive education and vocational training, and those women
who do access
education and attain a degree of financial stability are more likely to have done so
before
acquiring their disability. However, it remains difficult to quantify these trends as
a result of
the limited availability of reliable data that is disaggregated by both sex and
disability. Not
only the particular difficulties faced by women with disabilities as they search for
work, but
also the significance of social networks in sharing potential employment
opportunities. The
governments and NGOs must ultimately step up to improve the precarious
economic
situation many women with disabilities find themselves in.

F) Legal Barriers

As a result of discriminatory attitudes about the perceived capabilities of persons

with
disabilities, some countries impose legal restrictions on their participation in
certain types of
employment or processes. In some countries, people must be considered
=physically and
mentally healthy‘ or =sound‘ to represent oneself in a court of law, to occupy
official
positions, or to use certain public services.25 Such laws effectively rule out large
numbers of
persons with disabilities from accessing employment, based on the blanket
assumption that
they are incapable of doing particular jobs effectively. Japan is one country that
previously
had such laws, but has taken action to rectify them.

G) Inflexible Work Arrangements

Another common obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities is the

inflexibility
of work arrangements. In some cases, persons with disabilities might prove to be
competent
and productive employees, but are nonetheless unable to perform certain tasks.
The same is
true for scheduling the work day. Persons with disabilities may have particular
transportation
issues or other needs that require a slightly different work day. An employer‘s
willingness to
rearrange the responsibilities and schedules associated with a particular job can
mean the
difference between employment and unemployment for many persons with
disabilities.
Indeed, a greater degree of flexibility of working arrangements can boost the
morale and
productivity of any employee, regardless of whether or not they have a disability.

H) Dismissal on the Basis of Disability

Workers who are injured and acquire a disability on the job may face
unaccommodating
policies and a lack of rehabilitative services, which limit their ability to return to
work. The
absence of anti-discrimination legislation in the majority of countries in the region
thus
allows employers to dismiss staff on the basis of disability with impunity. Several
countries,
such as Iran, offer rehabilitation programs and services to help dismissed workers
to find new
employment. Ultimately though, legislation which protects the rights of workers
from
dismissal on the basis of disability is also needed to more comprehensively tackle
the
problem

I) The Benefit Trap

Another obstacle to the employment of persons with disabilities can ironically be
imposed by
social protection schemes ultimately designed to support them. These schemes
can encourage
individuals to stay out of the labor force if they are structured in such a way as to
make the
receipt of benefits contingent on the inability to work. Therefore, even if persons
with
disabilities believe that they can work, they may choose not to in order to
continue receiving
disability benefits. Even if working could offer them a higher level of income,
persons with
disabilities may still choose to receive benefits because of the risk of attempting
to hold
down a job that does not provide adequate support, or is not flexible towards their
needs. It is
important to stress that this =benefit trap‘ is mainly relevant to more developed
countries with
more generous benefit schemes. The situation in most of the region‘s middle-to-
low income
countries is entirely different. However, it is vital for governments to avoid
creating strong
work disincentives.

Strategies to Improve Employment for Persons with Disabilities and

Vulnerabilities

Dear students, describe strategies to improve employment and job opportunities

for
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities.
There a number of strategies that is available to governments in respective sector
as they
work to improve the employment prospects of persons with disabilities,
vulnerable and
marginalized groups. In addition, private sector initiatives that have been
demonstrated to
improve the employment experiences of persons with in these groups are also
discussed
below.

A) Anti-Discrimination Legislation

These laws make it illegal to discriminate against an individual on the basis of

disability in a
range of areas including: employment; education; access to public buildings; the
provision of
goods and services, and political processes. With regard to employment, anti-
discrimination
laws protect persons with disabilities from discriminatory actions in hiring and
termination of
contracts and affirm the right of persons with disabilities to access employment
on an equal
basis with others. Anti-discrimination laws challenge collectively held
discriminatory
attitudes against persons with disabilities by influencing =the nexus between law,
norms and
social mores‘.26 Anti-discrimination laws can be made stronger when they
include mandates
for reasonable accommodations that remove additional barriers to employment for
persons
with disabilities. Crucially, however, these laws must outline clear enforcement
mechanisms.
When penalties are neither stipulated nor enforced, employers are left free to
discriminate
with impunity.

B) Vocational Education And Training

Technical vocational education and training (TVET) programs can help to ensure
that the
workforce has the skills and knowledge necessary to obtain and retain a job, while
also
driving productivity and economic growth.27 As discussed in Chapter 2, persons
with
disabilities often have limited opportunities to build skills and knowledge that are
relevant to
the labor market. A vital first step in improving access to employment for persons
with
disabilities is therefore to ensure that employment support and vocational
programs are as
inclusive as possible. Such programs should also be held in accessible locations,
and
reasonable accommodations should be made to improve the access of persons
with
disabilities. Some persons with disabilities may not be able to attend mainstream
training
programs. In such situations, to allow them to participate, programs targeted at
persons with
disabilities may be required. It is crucial; however, that the content of such
training programs
is geared to labor market demands, and not determined by prior beliefs about
what persons
with disabilities should do or are capable of doing.

C) Wage Subsidies
Wage subsidies cover a portion of employees‘ wages, usually for a limited period
of time, as
a way to lessen the risk perceived by employers of hiring persons with
disabilities. Since
wage subsidies directly target the recruitment process of private firms, they
enable employers
to overcome their reservations about hiring employees with disabilities. It is vital
that care is
taken in determining the eligibility, amount and duration of subsidies, to avoid the
subsidies
exceeding the actual gap in productivity between persons with and without
disabilities.
Studies on the impact of subsides show mixed results on employment rates. Most
studies
suggest, however, that both workers and employers are satisfied with wage
subsidy schemes.

D) Supported Employment

These programs integrate persons with disabilities into the open labor market by
providing
direct, on-the-job support to employees with disabilities. Supports are usually
offered for a
limited period of time. One common type of support is a job coach. Job coaches
provide on-
site, individually tailored assistance to help persons with disabilities perform their
jobs.
Coaches also help persons with disabilities adjust to their working environment,
and assist in
determining which accessibility accommodations are necessary. Supported
employment has
been shown to be particularly cost-effective for people with intellectual and
psychosocial
disabilities, in terms of productivity and health related costs. Supported
employment requires
employers to be open to having such services on site, and to be willing to work
cooperatively
with job coaches and other service providers. Employment support services and
job coaches
require special training.

E) Workplace Accommodation Schemes

These schemes reduce the costs to employers of making workplaces more

accessible to
persons with disabilities. In so doing, workplace accommodation schemes seek to
minimize
employer reluctance to hire persons with disabilities. There are two ways
Government
programs can decrease or even eliminate those costs. The first is by offering tax
breaks or
tax credits for expenditures undertaken to make such adjustments. This strategy
may,
however, be less effective for small businesses with cash flow issues or limited
tax liability.

Another strategy is to provide full or partial funds for reasonable accommodations

for
employees with disabilities. Such funding can be provided in various ways, either
through
employment agencies, using fines from quota systems, or by offering grants to
employers
from separate Government agencies. Investment in assistive equipment for
employees
returned costs by about eight times through increased productivity and reduced
absenteeism.

F) Workers’ Compensation
These programs are designed to address the issue of occupational injuries and
illnesses. They
provide cash and medical benefits to employees whose disability is acquired in
the
workplace. Generally, workers‘ compensation operates through insurance
programs - either
through public insurance programs, or private or even self-insurance at large
firms. Because
employer premiums are experience rated, they are higher for firms with more
accidents.
Thus, the approach incentivizes workplace safety and encourages employers to
support
employees who acquire disabilities at work to be able to return to their jobs. In
many
countries, employers are legally mandated to establish workers‘ compensation
programs.

G) Quota Systems

Quota systems mandate that firms hire at minimum a certain percentage of

persons with
disabilities. Typically, quotas apply only to large employers. Empirical data
points to only
small net employment gains of persons with disabilities. In addition, quotas can
prove
difficult to both monitor and enforce. Moreover, by obliging employers to hire a
specific
number of persons with disabilities, quota systems perpetuate the prejudice that
persons with
disabilities are not really equivalent to others in their capacity to be productive.

H) Sheltered Workshops
These programs only hire persons with disabilities, and structure jobs around the
perceived
abilities of each employee. Sometimes the stated goal of sheltered workshops is to
serve as a
training ground for the eventual transition of employees to the open labor market.
In reality,
however, employees with disabilities are rarely supported to make this transition.
Employees
are generally paid poorly, and the workshops in which they work are seen as
charitable
enterprises and are funded as such, with revenues being a function not of sales but
of the
number of employees. Rather than promoting sheltered workshops, governments
can serve
their citizens with disabilities better by removing barriers towards their
employment in the
open labor market. Persons with severe disabilities may find it difficult to enter
the open
labor market, even if other barriers to their employment are removed. In certain
cases
therefore, programs that create non-competitive job opportunities may be
necessary.
Government and public agencies should be mandated by law to preferentially
procure certain
products from such workshops in order to guarantee a stable income for their
employees with
severe disabilities.

I) Private Sector Initiatives

In addition to government-driven strategies, a number of private-sector initiatives

also serve
to illustrate the need for action to be taken not only by governments, but by
employers
themselves.
J) Employer Networks

A number of networks of private companies around the world have initiated their
own
programs to promote the employment of persons with disabilities. Sometimes
these
organizations are established in response to the creation of a quota policy,
sometimes out of a
sense of corporate social responsibility, and sometimes because of a compelling
business
case for being more inclusive.

The main activities of employer organizations include:

. Raising awareness and building capacity on disability inclusion;

. Providing information and tools on disability and employment;
. Influencing policy on the employment and training of persons with disabilities;
. Providing career development opportunities and organizing vocational
training;
. Linking jobseekers with disabilities and employers;
K) Support Disability-Inclusive Business
Private employers can play an important role in developing policies and programs
to boost
employment for persons with disabilities, as well as their own bottom line. It is
recommended that governments:

a) Introduce programs to raise awareness among private employers of the

business
case for hiring persons with disabilities.
b) Support employers‘ organizations and networks to share inclusion practices
and
build their capacities to harness the potential of employees with disabilities.

Disability-Inclusive Business—a number of large employers should be proactive

in
promoting disability inclusion within their businesses. Many of these businesses
draw on
their positive experiences of hiring persons with disabilities to demonstrate the
business case
for inclusive employment, citing that persons with disabilities:

. Have higher retention and lower accident rates than employees without
disabilities, and comparable productivity;
. Represent an untapped source of skills and talent and transferable problem-
solving skills developed in daily life;
. Often have valuable skills and experiences learned on the job prior to having a
disability;
. Can provide unique insights to help firms to develop their products or services
to customers and clients with disabilities;
. Can improve the company‘s image, increasing morale, creating links to the
community, and appealing to potential customers who have a disability or
whose family members have a disability.
L) Social Enterprises
Social enterprises are businesses that seek to advance a social cause whilst being
financially
self-sustainable. Rather than being driven solely by the desire to make profits,
these
businesses also aim to maximize social impact. Social enterprises that consciously
seek to
hire persons with disabilities, or address issues and barriers affecting the lives of
persons
with disabilities can therefore help to boost the employment of persons with
disabilities, and
also influence wider social change. Box 10 shows an example of a disability-
inclusive social
enterprise.

M) Support Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace

Governments can enhance the working experiences of persons with disabilities

firstly by
leading by example in terms of public sector employment practices, and secondly
by
establishing programs and services that support persons with disabilities to do
their jobs
effectively. It is therefore recommended that governments:

a) Promote flexible working arrangements to ensure that qualified, productive

individuals are
not unnecessarily prevented from doing certain jobs.

b) Provide funding support and tax incentives to start ups and social enterprise
initiatives that aim to hire persons with disabilities or address specific needs of
persons with disabilities.

c) Provide subsidies or tax incentives that support the inclusion of persons with
disabilities in the workplace.

d) Develop job coach accreditation and training standards and provide job
coaching
services to enable persons with disabilities to do their jobs effectively and
productively.

N) Building a More Inclusive Society

By creating more accessible physical environments, public transport and

knowledge,
information and communication services, governments can facilitate opportunities
for
persons with disabilities to work, as well as society at large. It is recommended
that
governments:

a) Develop and implement accessibility standards for the physical environment in

line with
universal design, including public buildings and transport services, to ensure that
individuals
with mobility disabilities are not denied employment opportunities.

b) Promote and provide knowledge, information and communication services in

accessible
formats, in line with universal design, to meet the needs of persons with sensory,
intellectual
and psychosocial disabilities to apply for and retain a job.

c) Foster greater social inclusion by establishing links with disabled persons‘

organizations,
including groups of women with disabilities, and working to promote
employment
opportunities.

O) Boost Education and Training Opportunities

Education and training is vital for all individuals to develop their human capital,
and to
acquire skills and knowledge relevant to the labor market. Governments must
therefore
ensure that persons with disabilities are able to access education and training on
an equal
basis with others. It is recommended that governments:

a) Make education systems more inclusive, both to make schools more accessible
to children
with disabilities, and to modify instruction to meet the needs of all children.
b) Mainstream disability inclusion into technical vocational education and
training (TVET)
programs, to support persons with disabilities to acquire knowledge and skills
necessary to
find and retain decent work.

P) Break Down Attitudinal Barriers and Challenge Discrimination

Dear students, what are the attitudinal barriers and how can we overcome the
challenges?

Discriminatory attitudes towards persons with disabilities inform and produce

other barriers
to the full and equal participation of persons with disabilities in society, including
in
employment. For governments to better understand and challenge attitudinal
barriers, it is
essential to:

a) Undertake research to examine the causes and manifestations of discriminatory

attitudes towards persons with disabilities across society.
b) Launch public awareness campaigns and programs to promote the rights of
persons
with disabilities and to challenge discriminatory attitudes surrounding disability.
c) Conduct disability awareness training such as Disability Equality Training for
public
employees at the national and local levels.
Q) Improve Data Collection on Disability and Employment

Designing, monitoring and evaluating policies to promote decent work for

persons with
disabilities requires timely and high quality information. It is recommended that
governments:
a) Include the six core Washington Group questions on disability in labor force
surveys so that reliable, internationally comparable indicators on employment and
disability can be generated on a regular basis.
b) Conduct disability-dedicated surveys to improve the quality of data and
understanding on barriers to employment and in turn develop more responsive
policies.
c) Take a consistent approach to disability identification so that multiple data
sources
can be used in conjunction to get a more complete picture of the experiences of
persons with disabilities.

Chapter Summary

. Persons with disabilities and vulnerable groups have diverse needs such as;
social-
emotional, psychological, physical and economic.
. Factors affecting the needs of persons with disabilities vary depending on the
nature
of disability, personality trait of the person, the meaning the that person gives for
the
disability, the individual‘s current life condition, type of support provided, the
family,
community and society, political and economic system of the country at large.
. The basic needs of persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities to ensure equality
for
all within our society are: full access to the environment (towns, countryside &
buildings). an accessible transport system, technical aids and equipment,
accessible/adapted housing, personal assistance and support, inclusive education
and
training, an adequate income, equal opportunities for employment, appropriate
and
accessible information, advocacy (towards self-advocacy), counselling,,
appropriate
and accessible health care
. Social protection plays a key role in realizing the rights of persons with
disabilities
and vulnerabilities of all ages: providing them with an adequate standard of
living, a
basic level of income security; thus reducing levels of poverty and vulnerability
. Health outcomes for people with disabilities should be access to quality,
affordable
health care services, which make the best use of available resources.
. As several factors interact to inhibit access to health care, reforms in all the
interacting components of the health care system such as policy and legislations,
financing, services delivery and human resources training in line with
inclusiveness
perspectives.
. Disability is the result of the interaction between the characteristics of
individuals
with disabilities and the characteristics of their environment.
. The amount of disability is not determined by levels of pathologies,
impairments, or
functional limitations, but instead is a function of the kind of services provided to
people with disabling conditions and the extent to which the physical, built
environment is accommodating or not accommodating to the particular disabling
condition.
. Human competencies interact with the environment in a dynamic reciprocal
relationship that shapes performance.
. The physical and social environments comprise factors external to the
individual,
including family, institutions, community, geography, and the political climate
. Environmental factors must be seen to include the natural environment, the
human
made environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and
psychological factors.
. Persons with disabilities, vulnerable and marginalized groups living in rural
areas
have double disadvantaged due to their impairments and vulnerabilities and
unfavorable physical and social environment.
. Environmental strategies can be effective in helping people function
independently
and not be limited in their social participation, in work, leisure or social
interactions
as a spouse, parent, friend, or coworker.
. The culture of a society or a subculture influences the types of personality or
intrapsychic processes that are acceptable and influences the institutions that
make up
the social organization of a society.
. Multi-sectorial and multi-disciplinary approach to prevention, intervention and
rehabilitation strategies are effective in building process of disability inclusive
society.
. Inclusiveness promote equity, respect, peace, democracy, and inclusive
development.

Reference books

Bodil Ravneberg and Sylvia Söderström (2017) Disability , Society and Assistive
Technology.

Bryant-jefferies, R. (2018) Counselling for Progressive Disability Person-Centred

Dialogues

Edward Steinfeld and G. Scott Danford (1999) El1abling Environments:

Mesuring the Impact of Environment
on Disability and Rehabilitation.
Flynn, E. (2011) From rhetoric to Action: implementing the Un convention on the
rights of Persons with
Disabilities.

GRECH, S. (2015) Disability and Poverty in the Global South:Renegotiating

Development in Guatemala.

Gulland, J. (2019) Gender , Work and Social Control A Century of Disability

Benefits.

Halder, S. and Assaf, L. C. (2017) Inclusion , Disability and Culture:An

Ethnographic Perspective Traversing
Abilities and Challenges.

Iva Strnadová and Therese M. Cumming (2016) LIFESPAN TRANSITIONS

AND DISABILITY: A holistic
perspective.

Jeremy Knox, Y. W. and M. G. (2019) Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming

Education Artificial
Intelligence and Inclusive Education.
Karen Soldatic and Kelley Johnson (2017) Disability and Rurality: Identity,
Gender and Belonging.

Lindsay, C. et al. (2015) New Perspectives on Health, Disability, Welfare and the
Labour Market.

Lockwood, B. B. (2017) Disability, Human Rights, and Information Technology.

Mitra, S. (2018) DISABILITY , HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

Pullen, H. K. (2014) Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education

Hallahan Kauffman Pullen
Twelfth Edition.

Reuben Escorpizo, So¨ren Brage, D. H. and G. S. (2015) Handbook of Vocational

Rehabilitation and Disability
Evaluation.

Robert J. Gatchel, I. Z. S. and C. T. R. (2018) Handbook of Rehabilitation in

Older Adults.

Tim Corcoran, J. W. and B. W. (2015) Disability Studies: Educaion for Inclusion.

VARNEY, E. and School (2013) Disability and Information Technology A

Comparative Study in Media
Regulation.

Zidjaly, N. Al (2015) Disability, Discourse and Technology.

Chapter 4: Promoting Inclusive Culture

Time allotted: 5 hours

Chapter Overview

An inclusive culture starts from the premise that everyone in the school, industry,
community
and society should feel that they belong, realize their potential, and contribute to
the life of
people with disability and vulnerabilities. An inclusive culture involves the full
and
successful integration of diverse people into a workplace or industry. While an
inclusive
culture certainly encompasses a commitment to workplace diversity, it is not
limited simply
to basic representation; it indicates a climate in which respect, equity, and positive
recognition of differences are all cultivated, and the social and institutional
response to
disability poses no barrier to a positive employment experience. In this chapter,
we will learn
how we can promote inclusive culture. The specific contents addressed in the
chapter are
definition of inclusive culture , dimensions of inclusive culture, policy related to
inclusive
culture , building inclusive community , means of establish inclusive culture ,
inclusive
values and indigenous inclusive values and practices.

Chapter Objectives:

Dear learners, after the successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

. Define Inclusive Culture

. Discus the dimensions of Inclusive culture
. Evaluate policy related to Inclusive Culture
. Explain the process of building community for inclusive culture
. Discus approaches of establishing inclusive culture
. Discuss inclusive values
. Explore and discuss indigenous inclusive values
. Evaluate existing inclusive practices

Definition of Inclusive Culture

Activity

Dear student, do you have a prior awareness of inclusive culture? If so, how do
you
understand inclusive culture?
Inclusion is a sense of belonging, connection and community at work. And
inclusive
organizations help people feel welcomed, known, valued and encouraged to bring
their
whole, unique selves to work.

Culture is .the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or

society.. An
organization‘s culture is the culmination of the priorities, values and behaviors,
which
support their employees in how they work singularly, in teams and with clients.
Culture plays
a huge role in shifting the diversity needle and forming truly inclusive
environments. Hence,

An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse people
into a
workplace or industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or
token
presence of workers who have disabilities. They encompass both formal and
informal
policies and practices, and involve several core values:

- Representation: The presence of people with disabilities across a range of

employee
roles and leadership positions
- Receptivity: Respect for differences in working styles and flexibility in tailoring
positions to the strengths and abilities of employees and
- Fairness: Equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and decision
making
processes.

Reflection
. Dear student, how did you compare the meaning of inclusive culture above with
your
previous conception?

Dimensions of Inclusive culture

Activity

Dear student, can you briefly discuss the possible dimensions of inclusive culture
please?

There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture:

1. Universal Design
2. Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
1. Universal Design

One of the most heralded concepts in disability advocacy and cultures in the last
decade is
the concept of “universal design”.

Universal design refers to the construction of structures, spaces, services,

communications
and resources that are organically accessible to a range of people with and without
disabilities, without further need for modification or accommodation.

While accommodations procedures remain a needed function of most

contemporary
institutions and industries, forward-thinking approaches to disability inclusion
will frequently
involve developing sites and resources that require no accommodation to be fully
usable and
receptive to people with disabilities.

A few examples of ways universal design practices may apply in the workplace
include:

- Routinely providing manuals, materials and forms to all employees in a variety

of digital
formats that are as readily accessible to people who use adaptive computer
technologies
as to other employees.
- Building workspaces accessible to people who use wheelchairs or other assistive
devices, as well as to all other employees.
- Providing employees with a variety of flexible schedule and work options. This
allows
employees who have energy or functionality limitations to organize their time and
strengths, and all employees are better able to manage time and life/work balance.

2. Recruitment, Training, & Advancement Opportunities

A. Recruitment:

Effective recruitment of people with disabilities involves two components:

1. Accessible outreach and hiring practices and

2. Targeted recruitment of workers with disabilities.

Accessible outreach and hiring practices essentially entail making sure that
outreach
materials, networking and recruitment sites, communications, and application
processes all
include a range of accessible options, or are free of barriers that might inhibit
people with
disabilities from participating. Wherever possible, outreach and hiring resources
generally
should be equally accessible to workers with and without disabilities.

For example, making recruitment literature and job applications readily available
in digital
and large-print formats, or holding outreach events in spaces without stairs or
other barriers
and with accessible communications technology, helps to ensure that people with
disabilities
will be included in recruitment practices.
Targeted recruitment involves specific outreach to people with disabilities.
Although
making general recruitment practices more accessible goes a long way towards
building an
inclusive hiring structure, individual employers are not always able to overcome
existing
barriers for instance, when recruiting via externally sponsored job fairs that are
not
accessible. Therefore, targeted recruitment enables employers to reach and
interview
qualified people with disabilities.

In turn, having accessible recruitment practices relative to hiring, materials and

communications helps to ensure that targeted recruitment will be successful not
just in
identifying qualified candidates, but by making sure there are no barriers to
effective
outreach and eventual employment.

B. Training: Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive workplace

culture. The
first consideration involves the degree to which people with disabilities have
equitable access
to training sites, events, and materials.

The second concern relates to the training of managers, particularly middle

management, and
human resources staff, to work effectively with all people, including those with
disabilities.

The consequences of inadequate training are substantial, in reducing job

satisfaction, with
corresponding negative consequences for productivity and retention. In turn,
companies
favored by employees with disabilities make a concerted effort to create equitable
and
accessible training resources.

C. Advancement: Research demonstrates that in order to have equitable

opportunities for
promotion and professional development, like most employees, workers with
disabilities
typically require access to mentoring.

As with recruitment, mentoring and coaching involves a dual dynamic in which:

- Existing mentoring programs are advertised, implemented and maintained with

attention
to inclusion of workers with disabilities, and
- Targeted mentoring and coaching programs specifically assist employees with
disabilities. These may include the creation of explicit disability affirmative
action
policies related to promotion, targeted professional networking opportunities, and
the
establishment of disability affinity networks and related supports to encourage
full
integration into the workplace culture.
3. Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
Policy plays a critical role in generating meaningful inclusion of people with
disabilities. In
addition to recruitment, training and advancement, workplace policies need to
carefully plan
for the provision of reasonable accommodations.

When assessing the effectiveness of existing accommodations policies, employee

experiences can be described based on two measures of equity.

The first indicator of an inclusive workplace culture involves the perception of

.procedural
justice., meaning that employees with disabilities perceive the accommodations
policy as
fair, accessible and functional.

The practice of negotiating and providing accommodations constitutes an

additional
opportunity for generating an experience of .interactional justice.. Interactional
justice
refers to the experience of feeling that the managers or colleagues with whom one
is
interacting are behaving fairly, reasonably and respectfully.

Experiential and Bottom Line Outcomes: The Benefits of Inclusive cultures are
specifically
beneficial for employees with disabilities, but also have positive results for all
employees, as
they include a number of elements of a healthy work environment.

Specific positive outcomes include:

- Reduced expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over

- Increased worker commitment to and identification with organizational success
- Improved employee health and well-being
- Improved productivity
- Increased employee investment in work performance
- Reduced perception of discrimination and inequity
- Improved cooperation and collaboration between co-workers, and between
employees
and management.

Creating an inclusive organizational culture is challenging but extremely

advantageous.
Here's why and how, however, the business benefits and the outcomes of an
inclusive
organization fairness and respect, value and belonging, safe and open, and
empowerment and
growth should be compelling enough to push forward.

These are some of the benefits of an Inclusive organization that needs to be

considered:

- Higher Job Satisfaction

- Lower Turnover.
- Higher Productivity
- Higher Employee Morale
- Improved Creativity and Innovation
- Improved Problem-Solving
- Increased Organizational Flexibility.

Inclusive education, when practiced well, is very important because all children
are able to
be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better
prepared
for life in the community as children and adults. It provides all children with
opportunities
to develop friendships with one another.

Reflection

. Dear student can explain the three major dimensions of an inclusive culture,
please?

4.3 Building inclusive community

Activity

. Dear student, what an inclusive community is? And why is building an inclusive
community important?
What is an inclusive community?

An inclusive community:

- Does everything that it can to respect all its citizens, gives them full access to
resources,
and promotes equal treatment and opportunity.
- Works to eliminate all forms of discrimination.
- Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect their lives.
- Values diversity and
- Responds quickly to racist and other discriminating incidents.

An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic,

and political
inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion,
economic,
or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind. We work to ensure that
societies are
open and inclusive to all.

Here are things an organization can do to create a more inclusive workplace and,
therefore, a
more appealing place to work:

- Appropriately Connect with Employees

- Interact with Different People
- Create Employee Resource Groups
- Place Importance on Inclusion
- Hold Better Meetings
- Invest in Diversity Training
- People have opportunities to experience a variety of social roles that include
friendships,
contributing to the community and gaining new skills. Some of the benefits of
inclusion
to the person are: Improved feelings of well-being and self-esteem.

Why is building an inclusive community important?

- Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity and other factors should
not be
allowed to occur and/or continue.
- All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect their lives and the
groups they
belong to and
- Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worth our while to value our community's
diversity.

An inclusive community can be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive
community,
however, is most obvious when there has been a decision or an incident that
caused harm to a
particular group of people.

It is important to consider the motivation behind an individual, a group, or a

community's
desire to build an inclusive community because the motivation affects the
following:

Types and sequence of strategies selected: if there were a crisis, you might have
to start with
a strategy that transforms the conflict. If there were no crisis, but rather the vision
of a
community leader that sparked the effort, you might consider starting with a
public education
campaign.

Resources available: more resources could be mobilized if the motivation came

from a large
institution or a local foundation.

Amount of support and obstruction: if the dominant group in the community is

just as
motivated as any other group, there is likely to be more support. If, however, the
dominant
group has no interest in changing the status quo, there are likely to be more
barriers.

Rate of progress: if the major leaders and groups support the effort, progress is
likely to be
faster.

Expected outcomes: if the goal is to raise awareness, everyone involved is likely

to be
satisfied if they learned new things about other groups. If the goal is to promote
fair
treatment of every group, everyone involved is more likely to be satisfied by
policy change.

. Characteristics of an Inclusive Community

Inclusive communities do have the following set of characteristics:

 Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities bring people together and are
places
where people and organizations work together.

Interactive: inclusive communities have accessible community spaces and open

public
places as well as groups and organizations that support social interaction and
community
activity, including celebrating community life.

Invested: inclusive communities are places where both the public and private
sectors
commit resources for the social and economic health and well-being of the whole
community.

Diverse: inclusive communities welcome and incorporate diverse people and

cultures into
the structures, processes and functions of daily community life.

Equitable: inclusive communities make sure that everyone has the means to live
in decent
conditions (i.e. income supports, employment, good housing) and the opportunity
to develop
one‘s capacities and to participate actively in community life.

Accessible and Sensitive: inclusive communities have an array of readily

available and
accessible supports and services for the social, health, and developmental needs of
their
populations and provide such supports in culturally sensitive and appropriate
ways /essential
services identified include good schools, recreation, childcare, libraries, public
transit,
affordable housing and supportive housing, home care, crisis and emergency
supports, well
coordinated and comprehensive settlement supports/.
 Participatory: inclusive communities encourage and support the involvement of
all their
members in the planning and decision-making that affects community conditions
and
development, including having an effective voice with senior levels of
government and

Safe: inclusive communities ensure both individual and broad community safety
and
security so that no one feels at risk in their homes or moving around the
neighborhood and
city.

Reflection

. Dear student, can you explain the process of building community for inclusive
culture?
Means of establish inclusive culture

Activity

. Dear student, what benefits of establishing inclusive culture in an organization

do you
thinks of?

An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels

respected, valued
and seen for who they are as individuals; and feels a level of supportive energy
and
commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so that all people, individually
and
collectively can do their best work.

To create an inclusive culture in which everyone feels they belong and is

comfortable
expressing their uniqueness,

There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors:

Empowerment: Enable team members to grow and excel by encouraging them to

solve
problems, come up with new ideas and develop new skills.

Accountability: Show confidence in team members by holding them responsible

for aspects
of their performance that are within their control.

Courage: Stand up for what you believe is right, even when it means taking a risk.
Humility: Admit mistakes, learn from criticism and different points of view, and
overcome
your limitations by seeking contributions from team members.

How inclusive culture establish?

There are five stages in establishing inclusive culture:

1. Consider what you want to achieve and what the benefits will be.

This first stage of the process involves looking at your organization: its size, the
type of work
it does, where it is located, who it employs, who uses its services, and what its
goals are; and
thinking about how it could become more inclusive.

2. Undertake an inclusion review of your workplace

When reviewing inclusion and equality in your organization, you should consider
the
following areas:

- The demographics of your organization and customer base.

All organizations are different, so the first thing you will need to do is examine
what the
demographic make-up of your workplace is. Compiling and analyzing data on
your staff by
age, gender, ethnic group, religion or belief, sexual orientation and disability, and
noting
where in the organization‘s structure employees belonging to different groups
work, will help
you to identify any under- represented groups and areas of occupational
segregation. You
should check employees‘ salaries according to membership of different groups,
and check
rates of progression within and through the grades. It is also useful to look at
retention and
exit rates by these groups.

If possible, you should also collect information on the make-up of your

customers. Finding
out who uses your services and what their needs are is important if you are to
ensure you
have the right people, skills and approaches to meet these needs.

- Your formal policies and procedures.

The formal policies and practices of your organization can tell you a lot about
how much you
have previously thought about inclusion, human rights and equality. When
reviewing these
policies, you will find it helpful to look at:

- Policies to deal with discrimination, bullying and harassment

- Procedures to deal with tensions and difference between groups
- Informal or unwritten working practices and
- Arrangements for staff consultation and participation
3. Decide where work is needed and create an action plan.

Having reviewed your workplace in terms of equality and inclusion, the next
stage is to
decide upon the action you will take. Set out the key changes you would like to
make as a
result of your review. Prioritize these changes to help you decide where to start.
Some
measures you may wish to consider as part of your action plan are:
Actively involve all employees

- Consultation and participation

- Encourage employees to take part in monitoring, and promote the reasons for
doing so.
- Extra measures and adjustments

Build a culture of inclusion and respect

- Ensure the organization‘s core values include a commitment to equality, human

rights
and inclusive working.
- Create, extend or improve policies on equality and human rights and make sure
other
policies are equality proofed.
- Take immediate action to address and tackle discrimination, harassment and
bullying.
- Ensure the organization‘s core values include a commitment to equality, human
rights
and inclusive working.
- Create, extend or improve policies on equality and human rights and make sure
other
policies are equality proofed.
- Take immediate action to address and tackle discrimination, harassment and
bullying.
- Training for all staff on inclusive working, human rights and equality.
- Make inclusion a key management approach.
- Encourage and appoint equality and human rights champions.
- Encourage employee networks and forums.
- Promote culture-changing initiatives.

Take an inclusive approach to recruitment, promotion and development

- Make equality, diversity, human rights and inclusive working part of job
descriptions.
- Monitor applicants and staff at different levels within the organization.
- Equality and human rights training for all staff involved in recruitment and a fair
and
transparent selection process.
- Attract candidates from the widest pool available.
- Reward talent and achievement rather than stereotypical indicators of success.
- Value skills achieved outside the workplace.
- Encourage and enable development for all.
- Offer mentoring opportunities to junior and new staff.
- Offer work placements
- Conduct exit interviews

Encourage engagement with the local community

- Employer assisted volunteering.4.

4. Communicate the plan with staff and put the plan into action.
- Actively involve all groups of employees

In order to create a working culture of inclusion, respect and opportunity for all, it
is essential
that everyone in the organization, from senior management to the most junior
staff, is
engaged with and involved in the process of creating this culture, and feels that
their opinions
and experiences are valued. Measures to promote inclusive working need to be
thought of
positively among employees, not as something that is =done‘ to them. There are
several
things to think about in this respect.

Participation and consultation

Before drawing up a plan of action it is essential to involve and consult

employees to find out
about their experiences, what they feel are the key issues affecting them and what
action they
would like to see taken to address these issues. Staff and any unions or other
employee
representatives should also be consulted at different stages in the plan‘s
implementation, in
order to get their feedback on the progress being made. The action plan should be
a living
document, capable of being adapted and developed over time.

There are many different ways that you can consult and involve employees and
their
representatives. Some examples are:

Staff surveys can be used to gather information on a range of subjects, including

the make-up
of the workforce, responses and attitudes towards equality and human rights
issues, and
levels of job satisfaction among employees. Surveys can be designed so that
responses can be
analyzed according to membership of equality group or other relevant factors.
Confidential
surveys will attract a higher response rate.

Focus groups provide more opportunity for in-depth consultation and debate with
a smaller
number of employees. They could be a useful forum in which to collect feedback
on draft
policies and action plans, and can be an indicator of wider staff attitudes.

Engagement with employee networks and forums can utilize an important

representative
voice of staff from minority groups and can provide useful input into policies and
action
plans.

5. Review, monitor and evaluate the plan’s impact and use what you find to plan
future
action

Ten Characteristics of an Inclusive Organization

1. It accepts diversity and inclusion as a way of life.

In an inclusive organization, one sees diversity at every level within the

institution. Many
cultures, traditions, beliefs, languages, and lifestyles are prevalent in both the
workforce as
well as the customer populations, and are respected without judgment. People are
viewed as
individuals who have come together to coordinate action towards the achievement
of
common goals.

2. It evaluates individual and group performance on the basis of observable and

measurable behaviors and competencies.

Employees have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities. They are
evaluated
based upon their actions, not the opinions of others. Goals and expectations are
achievable.

3. It operates under transparent policies and procedures.

There are no hidden rules of behavior that may be apparent to some groups and
unknown to
others.

4. It is consistent in its interactions with everyone.

There is no double standard. Rules are applied appropriately and regularly
throughout the
institution. No one group is favored over another.

5. It creates and maintains a learning culture.

Career development is encouraged and supported for all employees by

management.
Mentoring programs are robust, and include both formal and informal systems
that meet the
individual learning needs of all employees. Mistakes are recognized, and their
consequences
addressed, but they are viewed as learning opportunities rather than character
flaws.

6. It has a comprehensive and easily accessible system of conflict resolution at all

levels.

It recognizes that conflict is inevitable in a complex multicultural organization,

and it has
systems in place to address conflict in a non-confrontational manner that respects
the dignity
and confidentiality of all parties.

7. It recognizes that it is part of the community that it serves.

Employees, managers, and customers all come from the community. An inclusive
organization is an active participant in community activities, and plays a vital role
in
addressing its needs.

8. It lives its mission and core values.

People work for an organization because they believe in its purpose and goals.
 An organization that promises one thing and delivers other risks losing the trust
and
confidence of its workforce as well as its customers.

9. It values earned privilege over unearned privilege.

Employees are recognized for their actions and accomplishments, not simply
because of their
titles or degrees. Customers are treated with respect regardless of their
socioeconomic status
or class.

10. It accepts and embraces change.

Change is inevitable. An inclusive organization recognizes that current and past

practices
must constantly be reviewed and updated to meet the changing demands and
needs of the
industry, workforce, and customers.

Reflection

. Dear student, can you discus approaches of establishing inclusive culture?

Inclusive values

Activity

. Dear student, list the values of inclusive culture and discuss about them with the
student beside you?

Inclusion is most importantly seen as putting inclusive values into action. It is a

commitment
to particular values which accounts for a wish to overcome exclusion and promote
participation.

The seven Pillars of Inclusion:

Access: Access explores the importance of a welcoming environment and the

habits that
create it.

Attitude: Attitude looks at how willing people are to embrace inclusion and
diversity and to
take meaningful action.

Choice, partnership, communication, policy and opportunity

Values are fundamental guides and prompts to action. They spur us forward, give
us a sense
of direction and define a destination. We know that we are doing, or have done,
the right
thing through understanding the relationship between our actions and our values.
For all
actions affecting others are underpinned by values. Every such action becomes a
moral
argument whether or not we are aware of it. It is a way of saying =this is the right
thing to
do‘.

Hence, inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity,

cooperativeness,
participation, community, and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that
are
fundamental for successful inclusive education.

Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation,

community, and
sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for successful
inclusive
education.

A careful piecing together of a framework of values has resulted in a list of

headings
concerned with equality, rights, participation, community, respect for diversity,
sustainability, non-violence, trust, compassion, honesty, courage, joy, love,
hope/optimism, and beauty.

A values framework can be considered as a universe of interconnected meanings.

http://www.indexforinclusion.org/userfiles/

Reflection

. Dear student, can you discuss policies inclusive values?

4.7Indigenous inclusive values and practices

Activity

. Dear student, what indigenous inclusion mean? And state features of an

endogenous
inclusion?

The term “Indigenous. refers to a better understanding of, and respect for,
indigenous
cultures develops an enriched appreciation of the existing cultural heritage.

Indigenous ways of knowing were often discounted and discredited as non-

scientific because
they were rooted in the story of the people, their language, culture, art, mythology
and
spirituality. It was important to recognize the right of indigenous peoples to land,
resources
and sacred sites.

Incorporating Indigenous ways of learning into educational practices has potential

to benefit
both Indigenous and non-Indigenous learners. The 21st century skills needed in
modern
curriculum include: collaboration, creativity, innovation, problem-solving,
inquiry,
multicultural literacy, etc.

What is indigenous inclusion?

Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a
cultural norm,
with enterprise-wide workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites the
full
participation of indigenous people into all aspects of business operations.

It is where leadership and employees are welcoming of indigenous people, their

experience
and outlooks, where diversity is valued, the spirit of reconciliation has been
embraced and
calls to action have been acted on in meaningful ways.

Features of an indigenous inclusion:

1. Inclusion has been embraced as a core competency and embedded into the
organizational culture;
2. Companies share their organization‘s experience and achievements with
inclusion and
explain how it has helped their performance;
3. Human rights and responsibilities are promoted and respected. Employees are
free of
concerns related to basic equity issues;
4. Comprehensive Indigenous procurement, recruitment and corporate social
responsibility strategies have been developed as part of an enterprise-wide
coordinated approach;
5. Indigenous people are employed and retained in all areas of the organization
including
the senior leadership and executive positions;
6. There are significant revenues and jobs gained by Indigenous people and
businesses
through the organization‘s supply chain;
7. Indigenes community sustainable gains have been realized as a result of the
relationships built between the company and the community;
8. High levels of Indigenous employee engagement are seen and experienced in
the
organization;
9. Leadership has put into place the resources needed to sustain its Indigenous
inclusion
strategy and it may have introduced an inclusion policy framework or statement;
10. Indigenous inclusion is integral to the mission and vision of the organization.

A seven stage model to indigenous inclusion:

Indigenous Works has developed a 7-stage workplace model of Indigenous

inclusion which
is called the Inclusion Continuum.

The model depicts the roadmap that organizations follow to become more
inclusive,
gradually enabling more effective workplace and employment strategies to be
developed.
The Continuum describes the organizational features and competencies needed at
each stage
to achieve elevated levels of performance in Indigenous employment, business
development,
community relations, etc. Movement along the continuum depends on companies
developing
their cultural competencies, improving their understanding of Indigenous people,
their
history and culture. Companies‘ position on the Inclusion Continuum can be
measured from
year to year to track and assess progress.

Types of indigenous inclusion policies

There are quite a range of Indigenous inclusion policies in use by companies and
organizations throughout Ontario and Canada. The diagram below illustrates how
some of
those policies align with workplace needs. Some inclusion policies have a
targeted
application to specific areas of the workplace such as employment, Indigenous
community
relations, Indigenous business development or procurement. Other inclusion
policies strike
across the organization, providing an =enterprise-wide‘ approach to inclusion.

What are inclusive practices?

Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of

students,
enabling all students to access course content, fully participate in learning
activities and
demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment.

The aim of inclusion is to embrace all people irrespective of race, gender,

disability, medical
or other need. It is about giving equal access and opportunities and getting rid of
discrimination and intolerance (removal of barriers). It affects all aspects of
public life.
Inclusive practice is about the attitudes, approaches strategies talent to ensure that
people are
not excluded or isolated. It means supporting diversity by accepting welcoming
people‘s
differences, promoting equality by equal opportunities for all. In addition
inclusive practice
involves having an understanding of the impact that discrimination, inequality,
social
exclusion can have on an individual. Having an understanding of this ensures
appropriate
personalized care, support can be given. This enables the individual to develop
self-respect,
self-worth, also to maintain a valued role in society, the environment surrounding
them.

When we compare inclusive practice with practice which excludes an individual,

inclusive
practice gives an individual more confidence in the care that they were receiving,
it gives
them the option to have an input with the care they are having as they are being
given the
opportunity to do so. In the long run, this could improve the service user‘s health
as they still
have confidence in the careers. Practice that excludes the service user could have
consequences on their own health, for example if they spoke English and were
provided with
a care worker that spoke and understood poor English could result in them not
being able to
communicate, from that they would like for dinner to whether they are feeling ill
and may
need to see a doctor meaning that their health could deteriorate

Inclusive practices in education are based on seven principles:

- Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities

- All learners‘ different learning styles and achievements are equally valued,
respected and
celebrated by society
- All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account individual
requirements and needs
- Support is guaranteed and fully resourced across the whole learning experience
- All learners need friendship and support from people of their own age
- All children and young people are educated together as equals in their local
communities

Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that

address the
needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities.
These
strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment in which
students feel
equally valued.

Benefits of Inclusive practices

The benefits of inclusive practices are numerous for both students with and
without
disabilities.

Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities

- Friendships
- Increased social initiations, relationships and networks
- Peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
- Increased achievement of Individual Educational Plan goals
- Greater access to general curriculum
- Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization
- Increased inclusion in future environments
- Greater opportunities for interactions
- Higher expectations
- Increased school staff collaboration
- Increased parent participation
- Families are more integrated into community

Reflection
. Dear student, can you evaluate the existing inclusive practices?

Chapter Summary

. An inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse

people into a
workplace or industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond basic or
token
presence of workers who have disabilities.
. There are three dimensions/ elements of an inclusive culture: these are Universal
Design, Recruitment, Training and Advancement Opportunities and Workplace
Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice
. Inclusion has been directly advocated since the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights
in 1948 and has been acted at all phases in a number of key UN declarations and
conventions.
. An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic,
and
political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin,
religion, economic, or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind. We
work to
ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.
. An inclusive community can be built at any time. The need to have an inclusive
community, however, is most obvious when there has been a decision or an
incident that
caused harm to a particular group of people.
. Major Characteristics of Inclusive communities are Integrative and cooperative,
Interactive, Invested, Diverse, Equitable, Accessible and Sensitive, Participatory
and
Safe
. An organization is inclusive when everyone has a sense of belonging; feels
respected,
valued and seen for who they are as individuals; and feels a level of supportive
energy
and commitment from leaders, colleagues and others so that all people,
individually and
collectively can do their best work.
. There are four key inclusive leadership behaviors: (i.e., Empowerment,
Accountability,
Courage and Humility)
. Inclusive values are appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness,
participation, community, and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that
are
fundamental for successful inclusive education.
. Appreciating diversity, equality and equity, cooperativeness, participation,
community,
and sustainability are examples of inclusive values that are fundamental for
successful
inclusive education.
. Indigenous inclusion defined as an organizational state that is embraced as a
cultural
norm, with enterprise-wide workplace strategies as well as a culture which invites
the
full participation of indigenous people into all aspects of business operations.
. Inclusive practice is an approach to teaching that recognizes the diversity of
students,
enabling all students to access course content, fully participate in learning
activities and
demonstrate their knowledge and strengths at assessment.
. Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that
address the
needs of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning modalities, and abilities.
These
strategies contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment in which
students feel
equally valued.

Reference

Ainscow, M. (2005). .Developing inclusive education systems: What are the

levers for change?. In Journal of
Educational Change, 6(2): 109-124.

King, L. and S. Schielmann (2004) The Challenge of Indigenous Education:

Practice and perspectives.
Paris: UNESCO.

Florian, L. (2008). .INCLUSION: Special or inclusive education: future trends..

In British Journal of
Special Education, 35(4): 202-208.

Lourens, H., McKinney, E. L. and Swartz, L. (2016). .Disability and Education:

More than Just Access.. In The
Palgrave International Handbook of Education for Citizenship and Social Justice.
London: Palgrave
Macmillan.

Martin 2007. Inclusive Education as extracted from Special Educational Needs

Act of Ireland (2004)

Martin, K. (2007). "The institutionalization of the life course: Looking back to

look ahead." Research in Human
Development 4:253-271

Stanley I. And Greenspan M. D. (2012). Meeting Learning Challenges: Creating

an Inclusive classroom.

Ministry of Education (now named Education, Arts and Culture) (2013). Sector
Policy on Inclusive Education.
Windhoek: Ministry of Education. (The policy document is available for
download at
www.moe.gov.na/downloads.php.)

Peters, S. (2003). .Education for All: Including Children with Disabilities.,

Education Notes, World Bank,
accessed at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/10380.

Thordardottir, E. (2010). Towards evidence-based practice in language

intervention for bilingual children.
Journal of Communication Disorders. doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.06.001
Chapter 5: Inclusion for Peace, Democracy and Development

Chapter overview

Inclusive education is at the heart of any strategy for peace-building, democracy

and
development. It is through inclusive educational that values, skills and knowledge
which
form the basis of respect for human rights and democratic principles can be
developed.
It is through Inclusive education that the rejection of violence, and a spirit of
tolerance,
understanding and mutual appreciation among individuals, groups and nations can
be
enhanced. As a result, inclusiveness should be the first phase towards increasing
participation
and fight for social justice for people with disabilities, vulnerable and general
populations.
Inclusive education provides individuals for these populations, skills, experience
and
empowerment that help them to vocalize for themselves and for others‘ right.
Inclusive
education develops inclusive development in all sectors. In general, inclusive
developments
in all sectors encourage greater acceptance of diversity of gender, culture,
language, economy
and politics; and the formation of more tolerant, equitable and cohesive societies;
simply put,
creates inclusive society.

Chapter Objectives

Dear learners, after the successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

. Define Peace, Democracy and Development

. Identify sources of exclusionary practices
. Discuss exclusionary practices in the community
. Discuss respecting divers needs, culture, values, demands and ideas
. Discus conflict emanated from exclusion
. Explain means and benefits of participation of the marginalized group of people
. Discuss the democratic principles for inclusive practices
. Explain the importance of inclusion for psychosocial development
. Elaborate the importance of inclusion for economic development
. Discus the importance of inclusion for peace

Definition of Peace, Democracy and Development

Activity

1. Dear student, how do you locally define peace, democracy and development?
Inclusion for Peace

Definition

Peace can be defined in several ways. However, for the purpose of this module
peace is
defined as creating mutual understanding, positive relationship between
individuals and
groups. These groups may include culturally, linguistically, economically and
biologically
heterogeneous groups. These groups are living side by side in a harmony with
reciprocated
respect or create societal friendship with all the diversities without conflict. This
means
developed interpersonal peace through deep respect for other persons, justice,
tolerance and
cooperation. This means peace has a notion of societies‘ completeness,
fulfillment,
wholeness, harmony, feeling of security and well being of an individual, a
community or a
society. Human being is interconnected and should be free from negative force,
fear, hatred,
anger, tension, violence stress, anxiety and any kind of destructions. Peace make
the mind
quiet and calm prevents anxieties, worries, stress and fears, and awakens inner
strength and
confidence, develop freedom, happiness, love, joy, justice and gratitude. Peace
can be
achieved through formal and informal inclusive education.

Activity

1. Dear student, why education is crucial for creating conflict free society?
2. What kind of Education could make peace in the society??
Inclusive education is a foundation for inclusiveness in all aspects of life. It
creates equality
and equity among divers population. Diversity refers to in terms of language,
religion, socio-
economic status, culture and psychology. Equal (sameness and
nondiscrimination) and/or
equitable (social justice and fairness ) distribution of resources within the system;
equal
and/or equitable both in terms of locations and numbers, in relation to resources
such as
money, trained and qualified professionals, teaching and learning materials,
school buildings,
and school furniture. It is important to realize inclusive education to create a
society that is
peaceful, democratize and developed. Hence inclusive education is crucial for:

• Fostering education that promotes the values, attitudes and behavior inherent in
a
culture of peace, including conflict prevention and resolution, dialogue,
consensus-
building and active non-violence;
• Promoting sustainable economic and social development by targeting the
eradication
of poverty and social inequalities;
• Promoting respect for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at all levels;
• Promoting gender equality in economic, social and political decision-making;
• Fostering democratic participation and citizenship and supporting processes that
promote and sustain democracy;
• Advancing understanding, respect for cultural diversity, and human solidarity by
promoting a dialogue among societies;
• Supporting participatory communication and the free flow and sharing of
information
and knowledge in the promotion of a culture of peace;
• Promoting international peace and security through action such as the promotion
of
general and complete disarmament.

Activity

1. Dear student, can we solve the Ethiopian divers‘ problems that create conflict
through inclusiveness? How?
2. Do you think exclusion create chaos in the nation? How?
3. What are other sources of conflicts?
4. How can we overcome all sources of conflicts?

Contrary to the important of inclusive education exclusion in education create

undesirable
result for a nation:

. Educational exclusion cut people off from full involvement in the economic and
social life of their countries
. As an experience of deprivation, social exclusion is often the consequence of
severe
horizontal inequalities, and as such it can underpin grievances that can mobilize
groups
for conflict
. Exclusion through horizontal inequalities undermines social cohesion
. Build shared values;
. Reduce disparities in wealth and income;
. Difficult to enable people to have a sense that they are engaged in a common
enterprise, facing shared challenges, and that they are members of the same
community;
. Educational inequalities reflect social inequalities more broadly;
. Dominant ethnic groups control state resources and may discriminate against
minority
groups in terms of access to social resources, such as education, and employment
opportunities;
. Large horizontal inequalities may instead increase group cohesion among those
who
are marginalized, facilitating mobilization for conflict;
. Factors that increase the risk of the outbreak of conflict could be due to
discrimination on the basis of: gender. Age, class, religion, disability, poverty,
geographical location..etc.
. These may be equally important in mobilizing individuals to participate in
conflict.
. Exclusion and inequalities may furthermore be political, social, or economic in
nature, or a combination of the three

Sources of Conflict

. Spiritual sources of conflict

. Result of original ancestor‘s separation from God and negative influence from
evil
spiritual forces
. Individual sources of conflict
. Disunity within the individual and confusion of values
. Family sources of conflict
. Family dysfunctions affect succeeding generations.
. National/international sources of conflict
. National policies affect future generations and can lead to conflict within or
between
nations

Historical Sources of Conflict

• National crimes burden future generations

• Ethnic/religious resentments accumulate
• Individual Choice: To resolve or repeat past conflicts- rethinking the past and
the
future

In the absence of inclusiveness selfishness (living only for oneself), lust- envy,
exploitation- taking advantage over others, prejudice- partiality, reed- Self-
indulgence,
vengeance- retaliation, arrogance- self-importance those are the basis of conflicts
are in the
minds of human being. Conflict Begins within the Individual. Since wars begin in
the minds
of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of peace must be constructed,
which is
inclusive education. Inclusive education is the basis for harmony. If we develop
true and
practical inclusive education we can create citizens those are unselfishness and
living for the
wellbeing of others, develop self-control, give genuine service, be fair, generous,
attitude of
forgiveness, humility and honesty. If someone is not changed can create conflict
and have no
positive impact on society. Hence, healing all the evils of today is possible only
through
inclusive education. Create access to quality education; focus on shaping social
skills,
behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values and positive human relations to build
sustainable peace.

Activity

7. How can we sustain peace? Discus broadly in your group and report

Sustaining Peace

It is important to expand formal and informal inclusive education with the aim of
creating
inclusive society with the following competencies in young and adult populations:

. Skills of sifting the truth from propaganda or bias that surrounds them in every
culture
. Respect for the wise use of resources and appreciation for more than just the
materialistic aspects of quality of life
. Respect for different points of view and the ability to see the world through the
eyes of
others
. Skills to resolve conflict in non-violent ways
. The desire and ability to participate in shaping society, in their own community,
their
nation and the world.
Activity

5. Do hat rate and fight resolve conflict bring peace or aggravate? Discus this
point and
deliver for the classroom students

. Building of peace requires taking the following steps:

. Fostering inclusion, ensuring access to justice, strengthening the social fabric
and
delivering good governance have repeatedly been shown to be essential to
achieving
development outcomes.
. Reaffirm a commitment to human rights, the foundation for human dignity and
just
societies. Human rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, are the
foundation of a world order based on equality and inclusion.
. Foster social resilience by strengthening inclusion and addressing inequality:
Peace
issues are core to the discussion of resilience. Resilient societies are those where
the
social fabric is strong. They are just and inclusive, where the relationships
between
individuals, their communities and the state are based on trust and the respect,
protection and fulfillment of everyone‘s human rights, and where there are robust
mechanisms for addressing inequalities, difference and grievance. Fostering
resilience
is the foundation of long-term preventive efforts, from preventing conflict to
reducing
the impact of internal and external crises, natural and man-made, and requires
action
both to accompany local efforts and also to provide a supportive international
environment.
. Think local and act global: recommit to multilateralism as a safeguard for the
most
vulnerable
. National implementation alone will not suffice to achieve the SDGs: 40% of the
Fostering the external drivers of peace, justice and inclusion requires concerted
action
by states, as duty holders, to support responsible trade, reduce arms flows,
promote
constructive financial, tax and investment practices, and to strengthen a rules-
based
system that creates a more effective enabling environment that privileges the
long-
term peace, development and human rights needs of all people and communities.
. Protect and support civil society in fostering sustainable peace: Social, political
and
economic changes that contribute to increasing peace are more robust if they are
owned, implemented and sustained by local actors, including youth and women.
Nevertheless, civil society inclusion continues to be under threat around the
world,
with onerous restrictions imposed on the ability of civil society groups to be
effective,
speak out and access funding. We call on Member States to recommit their
support
for and partnership with local and community actors, and for the UN system to
model
inclusion in all its local and global processes

Reflections
Some Quotes on making of peace. Discus each of the following quotes broadly
and present
them in the class

1. Hate rate and fighting cannot bring peace. .We never get rid of an enemy by
meeting
hate with hate; we get rid of an enemy by getting rid of enmity.” Dr. Martin
Luther
King Jr.
2. “When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways of truth and love
have
always won.”
Mahatma Gandhi
3. “Any life that is lost in war is a human life, be it that of an Arab or Israeli.
Innocent
children who are deprived of the care and compassion of their parents are ours.
They
are ours, be they living on Arab or Israeli land.” Anwar Sadat
4. “The reason why God does not punish an enemy is that He is thinking of the
enemy.s
parents, wife and children who all love him. When you understand that heart of
God,
could you take revenge on your enemy?”
Rev. Sun Myung
Inclusion for Democracy

Activities

I. Discus the meaning of democracy?

II. Explain the characteristics of democratic society
III. How can we achieve democracy?
IV. Does inclusive education contribute for the development of democracy?

Definition

Democracy is a great philosophy of inclusion that born and grown in inclusive

schools. It
means the rule of the people, by the people, for the people; and where .people. is
to mean all
human being, regardless of the diversities.

Democratic schools are an educational ideal in which democracy is both a goal

and a method
of instruction. It brings democratic values to education and can include self-
determination
within a community of equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust
of
diversities

Inclusion Education for Democracy

Inclusive education for democracy has not been established as a central purpose
for
schooling in Ethiopia. Schools are the ideal place to promote democracy. One of
the
most important tasks of schools should be helping students to realize the values
of democracy. The democratic values include is to enhance protected right,
independent
quality life for all, freedom, pursuit of happiness, justice, the common good, truth,
respect
and tolerance for diversity and partisanship. The most important function of
democratic education is to make the democracy natural attitude and way of
thinking of man
by developing the thought of democracy in human mind. In democratic classroom
teachers
treat all students equally, provide them support according to the needs and
potentials, share
power with students and supporting them in managing their own behaviors.
Teachers provide
us with as much knowledge as possible. Teachers should promote engagement in
a democracy, by teaching students how democracy works and how important their
role is in
it. Students who have no understanding of how the democracy functions are
unlikely to
become engaged citizens who vote.

Inclusive education sees young people not as passive recipients of knowledge, but
rather as active co-creators of their own learning that help to exercise democracy.
Inclusive
education aims to develop real democracy through active participation by all
divers learners
involved in classrooms and educational institutions. If these are in their places,
everyone
receives the things they need in order to develop in an orderly, sequential way
into members
of society. Inclusive education instills the values of cooperation, fairness and
justice into the
hearts of our students.

In democratic education students have the power to make decisions about

their learning, because power is shared rather than appropriated in advance by a
minority of
people. Inclusive education (when practiced well) is very important because: All
children
are able to be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and
become better
prepared for life in the community today as children and tomorrow as adults. It
provides
better opportunities for learning. In the absence of democracy, exclusion is prone
to be
exercised, today in the school and tomorrow in the society. Hence, democracy is
one of the
principles of inclusiveness in the process of building inclusive society that begun
in schools.

Democratic principles for inclusive practices

Inclusive education is based on seven principles:

. Diversity enriches and strengthens all communities.

. All persons with disabilities different in their needs, potentials, learning and
working styles;
. Their achievements according to their potentials are equally valued, respected
and celebrated by society
. All learners are enabled to fulfill their potential by taking into account
individual requirements and needs.

Inclusion for Development

Definition

The word development is widely used to refer to a specified state of advancement

or growth
a new and advanced idea, profession, physical, mental, product; or an event that
constitutes a
new stage under changing circumstances. Development is a positive growth or
change in
economical, social and political aspects of a country. Any kind of development
should be
inclusive. Some scholars define inclusive development as a .process that occurs
when social
and material benefits are equitably distributed across divides in society. (Hikey,
2015),
others focus on the .voice and power to the concerns and aspirations of otherwise
excluded
groups. (Johnson and Anderson 2012). Inclusive development also has an
.integral focus on
the achievement of equity and the rights of citizenship. (Hickey, 2013).
Inclusive education for Development

Activities

1. Discus the meaning of development?

2. Explain the characteristics of development
3. How can we achieve development?
4. Does inclusive education contribute for the development?

The meaning of development for an individual is that which tends towards a

person realizing
his or her full potential as a human being through inclusive education and then
inclusive
society; to expand the range of choices for every human being without
discrimination.

Inclusive development consists of ensuring that all marginalized and excluded

groups are stakeholders in development processes. It is obvious that many
groups are excluded from social and economic development because of their
gender,
ethnicity, age, religion, disability or poverty. If there is no inclusiveness in all
walks of life,
development cannot be sustainable. Inclusive and sustainable development is
crucial to
reduce poverty in all its dimensions so that all members of the society are
benefitted. The
goal of inclusiveness is to prevent social exclusion and creating more social
inclusion that
aim at including all members of society in the growth process.
Social inclusion is an integral part of inclusive development. Social inclusion
enhances capabilities, broadens social ties of respect and recognition, and at the
collective
level, enhances social bonds, cohesion, integration and solidarity (UNDP, 2015)
among
human race. The initial emphasis of inclusion has been on economic inclusion
through
poverty reduction, social protection and employment creation. However, it has
become
increasingly clear that inclusion also has social and political dimensions (Abbot et
al, 2016).
Some scholars have thus argues that social inclusion is a .membership of society-
with
citizenship as the basis for participating in the social, economic, political and
cultural
institutions of a society (Levitas 1998).

Social inclusion ought to be based on .the recognition of rights and

responsibilities,
accountability and judgment and of the fundamental equality of all and on the
provision of
life chances for all members of society to participate in the activities of society.
(Silver,
2015). Social inclusion is thus also inherently political, and it is crucial for
inclusive
development to address social inclusion considering the various dimensions and
its effect on
dimensions of well-being. Development efforts of any organization need to
include and
benefit people with disabilities and all marginalized groups through providing
education,
creating employability, promoting prosperity, reducing poverty and enhancing
stability. It is
obvious that people with disabilities and marginalized population are large and
most
disadvantaged minority in the world. Without creating inclusiveness for these
populations we
cannot realize peace, democracy and development.

Importance of Inclusion

1. It is important to support people learn, productive, successful and live

independently, be successful without helping them too much.
2. Inclusiveness when practiced well is very important because: All people are
able to
be part of their community and develop a sense of belonging and become better
prepared for life in the community as children and adults. It provides better
opportunities for learning.
3. Inclusion values diversity and the unique contributions, where everybody
brings to
the milieu. In a truly inclusive setting, every individual feels safe and has a sense
of
belonging. A person who participates in setting life goals and take part in
decisions
that affects them.
4. the opportunity to participate in the typical experiences in life; to be with other
people
and form friendships and develop other social skills; for natural lifelong learning
in
real situations and access to inclusion models
5. The inclusion model is also beneficial because it prepares individuals today and
in
the future
Respecting divers needs, culture, values, demands and ideas

Activities

1. Why we have to respect diversity?

2. What diversities are available in our environment?
3. How can we create inclusiveness with all these diversities?
4. What are the advantages of diversity?

These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic

status,
gender, religion, or sexual orientation. The group is diverse if a wide variety of
groups are
represented. Cultural diversity has become a hot-button issue when applied to the
workplace.

For this reason, we've created a list of the biggest diversity issues in the
workplace.

. Acceptance and Respect

. Accommodation of Beliefs
. Ethnic and Cultural Differences
. Gender Equality
. Physical and Mental Disabilities
. Generation Gaps
. Language and Communication

Diversity may happen in the Workplace

. Ethnicity (language and cultural differences)

. Age and Generation differences
. Gender and Gender Identity
. Religious and Spiritual Beliefs
. Disability and Ability
. Socioeconomic Status and Background
- Poor and rich
- Educated and uneducated
- Highly educated and less educated
- Rural vs. urban history
- Married and unmarried
- Hard worker and non hard worker
- Mental health problems…etc

Valuing diversity

Recognizes differences between people and acknowledges that these differences

are a valued
asset. Multicultural education is an important component of valuing diversity. It
respects diversity while teaching all children and youth to become effective and
participating
members of a democracy.

Diversity in the workplace is vital for employees because it manifests itself in

building a
great reputation for the company, leading to increased profitability and
opportunities for
workers quality services. Workplace diversity is important within the organization
as well
as outside.

It is important to value diversity because; people build a stronger sense of identity

and wellbeing, and have better education and career outcomes when their diverse
strengths,
abilities, interests and perspectives are understood and supported. It helps dispel
negative
stereotypes and personal biases about different groups. In addition, cultural
diversity helps
us recognize and respect .ways of being. that are not necessarily our own; so that
as we
interact with others, we can build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding
across cultures.
Cultural Diversity

In relation to human diversity, so many questions may be raised, such as what

language
someone speak, religion, holidays celebrated, ethnic identity, culture and the like.
Our
culture is what shapes us; it shapes our behavior and our identity. Culture is our
way of
living, it refers to the shared language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and
material objects
that are passed down from one generation to the next. Cultural diversity in the
world is divers
and a blessing gift for development; but become sources of conflict. Why?

The term .culturally diverse. is often used interchangeably with the concept of
.multiculturalism.. Recognition of the abundant diversity of cultures; respect for
the
differences; acknowledging the validity of different cultural expressions and
contributions;
valuing what other cultures offer; encouraging the contribution of diverse groups;
empowering people to strengthen themselves and others to achieve their
maximum potential
by being critical of their own biases; and celebrating rather than just tolerating the
differences
in order to bring about unity through diversity are important elements in defining
and
describing multiculturalism

The multicultural person, therefore, is not simply the one who is sensitive to many
different
cultures. Rather, this person is always in the process of becoming a part of and
apart from a
given cultural context. He or she is a formative being, resilient, changing, and
evolutionary.
Cultural diversity is when population differences are well represented within a
community.
These include race, ethnicity, age, ability, language, nationality, socioeconomic
status,
gender, religion and geographical area. Here we will discuss the following
diversities:

Ethnic diversity

Activities

1. What do we mean by ethnic diversity?

2. What are the strengths and weakness of ethnic diversity?
3. Why are the causes of ethnic conflict?
4. What could be the mitigation for ethnic conflict?

The diversity of something is the fact that it contains many very different
elements. The
terms "race" and "ethnicity" used interchangeably, but, generally speaking, the
meanings are
distinct. Race is usually seen as biological, referring to the physical characteristics
of a
person, while ethnicity is viewed as a social science construct that describes a
person's
cultural identity. It is including nationality, regional culture, ancestry, and
language.
An example of race is brown, white, or black skin (all from various parts of the
world), while
an example of ethnicity is German or Spanish ancestry (regardless of race) or Han
Chinese.

Cultural diversity is important; because our country, workplaces, and schools

increasingly
consist of various cultural, racial, and ethnic groups; so that as we interact with
others we can
build bridges to trust, respect, and understanding across cultures.

We can learn from one another, but first, we must have a level of understanding
about each
other. Learning about other cultures helps us understand different perspectives
within the
world in which we live. It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases
about
different groups. Cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect .ways of being.
that are
not necessarily our own; so that as we interact with others we can build bridges to
trust,
respect, and understanding across cultures. Furthermore, this diversity makes our
country a
more interesting place to live. As people from diverse cultures contribute
language skills,
new ways of thinking, new knowledge, and different experiences are learned and
developed.

In uneducated or poorly educated nations, the negative effect of ethnic diversity

on economic
performance is that more ethnically diverse societies suffer more serious internal
conflicts;
because quality education teaches tolerance. Inequality among the ethnic groups,
when the
majority dominates the minority, creates conflict.

Ethiopia is made up of people of different ethnic origin. Despite the popular

belief that
Ethiopia is just one big country of a single ethnic group, there are over 83
different ethnic
groups speaking more than 83 different languages and 200 dialects. Ethnicity is
more than
just language, song, and dance. It is the embodiment of values, institutions, and
patterns of
behavior, a composite whole representing a people‘s historical experience,
aspirations and a
world view. If the majority deprive minority people of their ethnicity, and their
culture, this
situation deprive them of their sense of direction, purpose and eventually their
identity, so
that conflict can be created. Such conditions can create conflicts with so much
hatred,
genocides may be committed and all types of crimes against humanity can be
carried out. In
Rwanda the Tutsis and the Hutus fought each other in a genocide in 1994 that
claimed the
lives of approximately 800 000 lives. This culture of ethnic groups has not
stopped but has
reared its ugly head in recent years taking the form of Xenophobia in particular
South Africa.
Brother has arisen against brother, to the extent of burning the other alive.
Listening to
reasons offered by those committing these heinous crimes leaves a lot to be
desired. There is
a lot of hate being passed around, with South African nationals chanting that
foreigners are
denying them opportunities in their own land and such should go back to their
country of
origin. It is sad to note that with the advent of globalization, people have been
travelling to
various countries, some to acquire business opportunities, some to offer a
particular skill set
required. And these nationals contribute economically to the success of host
countries. As
such it is clear testimony that is ethnic groups is able to see past their ethnic
divide, they have
the potential to make Ethiopia great and the world at large.

Activities

1. Who is the winner in ethnic conflict?

2. What do we learn from Rwanda?
3. What is expected from Ethiopians to enhance peace among all ethnic groups?
4. How can we create inclusive society?

Benefits of Cultural Diversity

There are many advantages of a diverse in schools and workplaces. Organizations

can benefit from employees who bring language skills, cultural experience, and
creativity to
the table. An organizations success can be dependent upon its ability to embrace
a diverse staff. The following are some of the benefit of cultural diversities

. Increased productivity
. Improved creativity
. Increased profits
. Improved employee engagement
. Reduced employee turnover
. Improved company reputation
. Wider range of skills
. Improves cultural insights
. Reduced Fear, Improved Performance
. Put a variety of world views into one room, and you'll come out the other side
with
better ideas
. Boost Your Brand's Reputation
. Global Impact
. In the same vein, workplace diversity boosts creativity
. Schools‘ cultural diversity enriches the educational experience
. Through culturally diverse classroom and in a cooperative learning, students
have
the opportunity to learn from people with different backgrounds and upbringings,
leading to increased innovation and collaboration
. It helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases about different groups.
. In addition, cultural diversity helps us recognize and respect .ways of being. that
are not necessarily our own; so that as we interact with others we can build
bridges to
trust, respect, and understanding across cultures; inclusiveness.

Religious diversity

Activities

1. Why religion is the causes of hate rate and conflict?

2. What are the causes of conflicts?
3. Who benefit from conflict?
4. Can we create win-win through conflict?
5. How can we create win-win scenarios?

What causes workplace conflict?

A religious conflict is a conflict primarily caused or justified by differences in

religion. In
the modern period, debates are common over the extent to which religious,
economic, or
ethnic aspects of a conflict predominate in a given conflict.

. Lack of values for differences and poor management of religious institutions

. Disrespect and unfair treatment other religions
. Unclear roles as followers of a given religion
. Inadequate spiritual education and training or ill thought
. Poor communication with each other
. Lack of collaboration and poor living environment
. Partiality or lack of equal treatment from political leaders
. Bullying and harassment of other religion
Religious diversity is the fact that there are significant differences in religious
belief and
practice. It has always been recognized by people outside the smallest and most
isolated
communities. Roughly, pluralistic approaches to religious diversity say that,
within bounds,
one religion is as good as any other. Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy
regarding the
diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society; harmonious co-
existence between
adherents of different religions or religious denominations. To be multipath is to
feel an
affinity with aspects of more than one religion, philosophy or world-view, and
perhaps to
believe that no one is superior to the others. This term should not be confused
with interfaith,
which concerns the communication between different religions. Activities related
to
social hostility like violence, terrorism, harassment over dressing because of
religious
cause and religion abuse has increased

How to Resolve Conflict

1.Agree on a mutually acceptable time and place to discuss the conflict

2.State the problem as you see it and list your concerns
3.Let the other person have his/her say
4.Listen and ask questions
5.Stick to one conflict at a time — to the issue at hand
6. Seek common ground
7. Seek for win-win approaches. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as
an
opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying your
opponent's
underlying concerns and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns.

Gender differences

In general terms, "sex" refers to the biological differences between males and
females, such
as the genitalia and genetic differences. "Gender" can refer to the role of a male or
female in
society, known as a gender role, or an individual's concept of themselves, or
gender identity.
either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with
reference to
social and cultural differences rather than biological ones. The term is also used
more
broadly to denote a range of identities that do not correspond to established ideas
of male and
female. "a condition that affects people of both genders" Or in the other way, sex
refers
to biological differences between males and females. For example, chromosomes
(female XX, male XY), reproductive organs (ovaries, testes), hormones
(oestrogen,
testosterone) and gender is the cultural differences expected (by society / culture)
of men and
women according to their sex.

Activities

1. Are there differences in abilities between man and woman? How?

2. Why females are not equally valued with male?
3. Why male oppress female while female have irreversible biological and
cultural role ?
4. Why female are thought to be weak in math and science?
5. What are the consequences of not equally considering female in developments?

Mental abilities

Women are generally better at language tasks. And men on average are a little bit
better at
organizing things in space. But really there's much more variability within the
women, or
within men, than there is difference between the woman and men. There are
genius male
female and less geniuses in both cases. Both Male and female can be gifted in
math and
science, engineering or any other discipline. In the past there was a claim that
boys are out
performing in math and science than girls. But, some reports are showing that
girls are much
better than boys in academic achievements

Undeniable elements are the differences and physical abilities and behavior. Men
are, in
general, more muscular than women. Women are just over half as strong as men
in their
upper bodies, and about two-thirds as strong in their lower bodies.
There are also behavioral differences between men and female. Most studies have
also found
testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with
criminality such
as antisocial behavior and alcoholism. In species that have high levels of male
physical
competition and aggression over females, males tend to be larger and stronger
than females.

Stereotype thinking against woman

In his Politics, Aristotle saw women as subject to men, but as higher than slaves,
and lacking
authority; he believed the husband should exert political rule over the wife.
Among women's
differences from men were that they were, in his view, more impulsive, more
compassionate,
more complaining, and more deceptive. He gave the same weight to women's
happiness as to
men's, and in his Rhetoric stated that society could not be happy unless women
were happy
too. Whereas Plato was open to the potential equality of men and women, stating
both that
women were not equal to men in terms of strength and virtue, but were equal to
men in terms
of rational and occupational capacity, and hence in the ideal Republic should be
educated and
allowed to work alongside men without differentiation, Aristotle appears to have
disagreed.

In his theory of inheritance, Aristotle considered the mother to provide a passive

material
element to the child, while the father provided an active, ensouling element with
the form of
the human species
In Ethiopia, discriminatory attitudes and social norms are major drivers of gender-
based
violence where women are victims and the perpetrators are men. Factors
associated with
men's use of violence include rigid gender attitudes, abuses and harassments

Woman’s participations in developments

Activities

1. Are there relationships between poverty and participation of women?

2. Compare Africa and Europe in the level of women‘s participation and
development

What is expected from society to equally treat of female?

. Our priorities are winning economic equality and securing equal rights for
women;
. Reproductive freedom and other women's health issues;
. An equitable distribution of life's opportunities and resources between women
and
men, and/or the equal representation of women and men
. Every woman and girl is entitled to live in dignity and in freedom, without any
fear.
. Caring practices for female, not violence
. Equal opportunity for education and employment
. Gender Justice is indispensable for development, poverty reduction, and is
crucial to
achieving human progress

Marginalized group of people

Marginalization is a process that includes many external forces. People may be

marginalized on the basis of the social, gender, cultural, ethnic, economic, social
order,
beliefs and other factors. Marginal groups can always be identified by members of
dominant
society, and will face irrevocable discrimination. Marginalized groups exist nearly
everywhere. They are people who, for whatever reason, are denied involvement in
mainstream economic, political, cultural and social activities.

Targeting or ignoring one group can ultimately affect the whole society in all
aspects
of development. Marginalization comprises those processes by which individuals
and groups
are ignored or relegated to the sidelines of political debate, social negotiation, and
economic
bargaining and kept there. Neoclassical economists trace marginalization to
individual
character flaws or to cultural resistance to individualism. Marginalization is the
result of
systemic actions that the "in group" takes, whether consciously or unconsciously,
to alienate
or disenfranchise a specific person or groups of people by sidelining them from
the group's
main activities and contributions

Creating friendly environments for marginalized people

1. Tolerate for the differences opinions and attitudes
2. Seek out marginalized voices and perspectives and provide support
3. Confront your own racist thought and try to be inclusive of all the differences
4. Use your privilege to support marginalized people‘s movements
5. Give your time and money, if possible for the success of inclusive development
6. Be proactive about inclusion in your daily life
7. Avoid segregation
8. Do the work that help to promote inclusiveness

The most vulnerable are women, children, aged, those living with HIV/AIDS,
mental illness,
minority people with language and cultural diversity, disability and the like. Girls
and
women from the marginalized groups are more vulnerable to violence. The
dropout,
illiteracy, un-employability and poverty rates among them are also high.

Chapter summary

Inclusiveness is standing against exclusion and marginalization; and the move

towards peace,
democracy and development. It is important to help people to become
independent, develop a
belief in themselves (confidence) so that they become successful without further
helping
them too much. Provide opportunities for children and women to have sustained
social
interactions and participate fully in the program. Inclusiveness values all kinds of
diversities
and the unique contributions of each student bring to the classroom and adults to
the work
and social environments. In a truly inclusive setting, every person feels safe and
has a sense
of belonging. Students and their parents participate in setting learning goals and
take part in
decisions that affect them. Finally, inclusive education creates inclusive society.

References

Alemayehu Teklemariam and Temsegen Fereja (2011). Special Need Education

in Ethiopia: Practice of Special
Needs Education around the World. Washington: Gallaudet University Press.

Alemayehu Teklemariam (2019). Inclusive Education in Ethiopia: WILEY and

Blackwell: Singapore

A Teachers Guide (2001). UNESCO. Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice

in Secondary Education
(2004).

Berit H. Johanson and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2006). Towards Special Needs

Education as a University
Discipline: An Important step on the way to Education for All. In When All
Means All. Hakapaino Oy:
Helsinki

Tirussew Teferra and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2007). Including the Excluded:

Integrating disability into EFA
Fast Track Initiative Process and National Education Plans in Ethiopia. World
Vision
MOE (2010). Special Needs Program strategies implementation guide.

MOE (Ministry of Education). (2006). Special Needs Education Program

Strategy. Addis Ababa

Understanding and responding to children‘s need in inclusive classroom

(2010).www.european-agency.org

..... ....... (2009). ...... ....- ... ..... ... ..... ... ....- ..... ...

..... ....... (2011). ... ..... ........... ..... ... ....- ..... ...
Chapter 6: Legal frame work

Chapter Overview

In this chapter students will learn concept o legal framework, its uses and impact
on inclusive
education development. Moreover, the students will learn international and
national
(Ethiopian legal frameworks that promote inclusion philosophy development. In
addition the
students read and understand and conceptualize parts of legal frameworks that
may
incorporate: legislations, conventions, policies and related legal frameworks.

Activities

Discuss over the following concepts:

Every child has a right to learn in a natural environment with their peers

There is legitimate background to teach students in segregated settings (for

example,
special and regular schools).

Every child should get quality education that helps his/her holistic development.

Chapter Objectives

After completing the study of this chapter, the students will be able to:
. Discuss the concept of legal framework
. Identify international and national legal frameworks in relation to inclusiveness
. Discuss legal frameworks and their implementation
. Explore gaps in implementation of legal frameworks to implement inclusion

General Overview of Legal frameworks

Braining storming questions

1. Do you think legal framework is necessary to implement inclusion? If your

answer is
“yes,” explain reasons or your answer. If your answer is “no,” please try to give
reason(s).

2. Do you think that inclusion in Ethiopia is supported by legal frameworks? If

your answer
is “no,” please try to give reason(s).

Discrimination against persons with disabilities has a long history and persons
with
disabilities are regularly excluded from participation in society and denied their
human
rights. Discrimination against the disabled can take many forms, ranging from
limited
educational opportunities to more subtle forms, such as segregation and isolation
because of
physical and social barriers. The effects of discrimination are most clearly felt in
the sphere
of economic, social and cultural rights, in the fields of, for instance, housing,
employment,
transport, cultural life and access to public services. The obstacles the disabled
face in
enjoying their human rights are often the result of exclusion, restriction, or
preference, and,
for instance, when the disabled do not have access to reasonable accommodation
on the basis
of their limitations, their enjoyment or exercise of human rights may be severely
restricted. In
order for disabled persons to freely enjoy their fundamental human rights,
numerous cultural
and social barriers have to be overcome; changes in values and increased
understanding at all
levels of society has to be promoted, and those social and cultural norms that
perpetuate
myths about disability have to be put to rest.

According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, .All human beings are
born free
and equal in dignity and rights.. However, this is far from being a reality for
persons with
disability around the world. This is because people with disabilities‘ living
conditions are
always worse than those of other citizens. They are very often excluded and
marginalized
different areas o life such as participation in education, social activities, economy,
and
politics and so on.

The rights of persons with disability have increasingly been recognized by

international and
national law. For example, The Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded
Persons
(1971) and the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons (1975) both
establish the
principle of equality of the rights of persons with disability. The Declaration on
the Rights
of Deaf-Blind Persons (1979) adopted by the Economic and Social Council
provides
universal rights.

The above legislations and other which were enacted after the above declarations
prompted
people with disabilities addresses all aspects of disabled persons‘ lives, such as
equal
opportunities, physical environment, services, education, employment, and social
welfare.
Using legal frameworks regarding persons with disability suggests some measures
governments should take in order to ensure that persons with disability become
fully equal
citizens. The rules also act as an international instrument and as a mechanism of
control to
guarantee the effective application of the stated rights. However, it is not possible
to force
governments to apply them, and the rules require a concrete commitment from
governments
in order to transform equal opportunities for disabled persons into reality—a
commitment
which is often lacking.

Legal Frameworks Regarding Inclusion

They also have right to use public services (civil right), membership of any
associations and
organization, participation in different activities like voting. Children and youth
with
disabilities have moral, civil, parental, ethical and legal rights (right to learn with
non-
disabled children).They should not be treated as marginal, rather they must
involve in
different community activities. They must be consulted and be involved in
decision making
processes. Inclusive in education is the most effective means of combating
discriminatory
Attitudes, creating welcoming community and building an inclusive society. They
are
essential to the enjoyment and exercise of human right. Thus, the right to an
inclusive
education for persons with disabilities is a fundamental human right. It emerged
first in
general guarantees set forth in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and
then in more
detailed expression in the International Covenant on Economic and Cultural
Rights
(ICESCR). Other international instruments express the link between the right to
education
and the needs of persons with disabilities.

In addition, states have specific obligations under international law to respect,

protect and
fulfill the right to inclusive education for persons with disabilities. The obligation
to respect
requires States to refrain from denying or limiting equal access to inclusive
education for
persons with disabilities. This right should be guaranteed by law.

International and National Legal Frameworks

International Legal Framework

Group activities

1. Do you know that people with disabilities are full members of the community
with the
same rights as everyone else?

2. What different international conventions and declarations protecting the rights

of
people with disabilities do you know? Would you list them as many as you can?

3. Discuss how each of the international conventions and declarations protecting

the
rights of people with disabilities.

4. How do you think these international conventions and declarations promote

inclusive
education?

There have been international efforts to address equal opportunity of PWDs in

employment to address such challenges primarily from ILO a specialized agency
of UN and
the General Assembly of the UN itself. Most of the endeavors resulted in the
adoption of
resolutions and recommendations as well as conventions featuring different legal
effect.
While conventions produce a binding legal effect, resolutions, declarations and
recommendation, which are referred as soft laws, do not create binding legal
effect.
However, it does not mean that they are adopted for no purpose since they can
have a role to
play in awareness raising, influencing future development and encourage national
policy
initiatives.
International human rights instruments protect the rights of persons with
disabilities
through the principles of equality and non-discrimination. There are a number of
international legal frameworks regarding people with disability that are aimed at
protecting
the rights of persons with disabilities through the principles of equality and non-
discrimination. The table below indicates the major types of international legal
frameworks.

Key International Instruments and other Documents that Promote Inclusion

. 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Article 26

. 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education – Articles 1, 3
and 4
. 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination – Article 5
. 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights – Article
13
. 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights – Articles 18 and 19
. 1973 ILO Convention on the Minimum Age for Employment – Article 7
. 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women – Article 10
. 1982 World Program of Action Concerning Disabled Persons proposals for
implementation, national
action, part 2
. 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child – Articles 23, 28 and 29
. 1989 ILO Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples – Articles 26,
27, 28, 29, 30 and 31
. 1990 The World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien
. 1993 The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities
. 1994 The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs
Education
. 1999 ILO Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor – Article 7
. 1999 Salamanca Five Years On Review
. 2000 World Education Forum Framework for Action, Dakar
. 2000 Millennium Development Goals focusing on Poverty Reduction and
Development
. 2002 EFA Global Monitoring Report: EFA
. 2004 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Gender and Education for All – the leap to
quality
. 2005 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All – the quality imperative
. 2006 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Literacy for Life
. 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
. 2007 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Strong Foundations – early childhood care
and education
. 2008 EFA Global Monitoring Report: Education for All by 2015

The following are some of the major international legal frameworks that support
inclusion
of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities.

A) 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Article 26

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally
accessible
to all on the basis of merit.

(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality
and to the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious
groups, and
shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to
their
children.

B) The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 Extracts from Articles, 2,
23, 28
and 29

Article 2

States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present
Convention to each
child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of
the child‘s
or his or her parent‘s or legal guardian‘s race, color, sex, language, religion,
political or other
opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status.

Article 23

1. States Parties recognize that a mentally or physically disabled child should

enjoy a full and
decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance, and
facilitate the
child‘s active participation in the community.

2. Recognize the right of the child to special care......subject to available

resources.

3. Recognizing the special needs of a disabled child...taking into account the

financial
resources of the parents or others caring for the child... ensure that the disabled
child has
access to and receives education, training, health care services, rehabilitation
services, pre-
parathion for employment and recreation opportunities in a manner conducive to
the child‘s
achieving the fullest possible social integration and individual development,
including his or
her cultural and spiritual development

Article 28

1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to education and with a view to
achieving
this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in
particular: (a)
Make primary education compulsory and available free to all; (b) Encourage the
development of different forms of secondary education, including general and
vocational
education, make them available and accessible to every child;(c) Make higher
education
accessible to all;(d) Make educational and vocational information and guidance
available and
accessible to all children; (e) Take measures to encourage regular attendance at
schools and
the reduction of drop-out rates.

Article 29

1. States Parties agree that the education of the child shall be directed to: (a) The
development of the child‘s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to
their
fullest potential; (b) The development of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms;
(c) The development of respect for the child‘s parents, his or her own cultural
identity,
language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is
living, the
country from which he or she may originate, and for civilizations different from
his or her
own;

120 (d) the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society; (e) The
development
of respect for the natural environment.. Article 23 focuses specifically on children
with
disabilities and positively affirms their right to a .full and decent life.. However, it
has
weaknesses because it makes the rights of children with disabilities .subject to
available
resources. and focuses on .special needs. without defining this. This article needs
to be
considered in the context of the underpinning principles of the UNCRC, plus
Articles 28 and
29 on education that apply to all children.

C) World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien, and 1990 World Declaration
on
Education for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs

It acknowledged that educational disparities existed and that many different

particular
groups were vulnerable to discrimination and exclusion. These included girls, the
poor, street
and working children, rural and remote populations, minority ethnic groups and
other groups,
with particular mention made of people with disabilities. Jomtien also catalyzed a
move away
from a rigid, prescriptive education system towards a flexible system that would
be tailor-
made, adapted to the needs, cultures and circumstances of learners.
Article III – Universalizing access and promoting equity

1. .Basic education should be provided to all children, youth and adults. To this
end, basic
education services of quality should be expanded and consistent measures must be
taken to
reduce disparities.

2. For basic education to be equitable, all children, youth and adults must be given
the
opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning.

3. The most urgent priority is to ensure access to, and improve the quality of,
education for
girls and women, and to remove every obstacle that hampers their active
participation. All
gender stereotyping in education should be eliminated.

4. An active commitment must be made to removing educational disparities.

Underserved
groups: the poor; street and working children; rural and remote populations;
nomads and
migrant workers; indigenous peoples; ethnic, racial, and linguistic minorities;
refugees; those
displaced by war; and people under occupation, should not suffer any
discrimination in
access to learning opportunities.
 5. The learning needs of the disabled demand special attention. Steps need to be
taken to
provide equal access to education to every category of disabled persons as an
integral part of
the education system..

D) The World Programmed of Action, 1982 and the Standard Rules, 1993 the
World
Programmed of Action Concerning Persons with Disability

This originated from the International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981, a

landmark period
in the history of disability rights. The World Program of Action laid the
foundations for
inclusive education by stating that:

. The education of disabled persons should as far as possible take place in the
general
school system.
. Responsibility for their education should be placed upon the educational
authorities.
(Note, in many countries the education of disabled children was under the
authority of
other ministries such as health or social welfare, or none at all)
. Laws regarding compulsory education should include children with all ranges of
disabilities, including the most severely disabled
. Educational services for disabled children should be individualized, locally
accessible
and comprehensive.

E) The Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with

Disabilities - Rule 6
This consists of rules governing all aspects of the rights of people with
disabilities. Rule 6
focuses on education and agrees with Jomtien that people with disabilities should
be
educated as .an integral part of the educational system., and that States should
have
responsibility for the education of people with disabilities. Too often, education
for people
with disabilities was provided by non-government agencies, letting governments
=off the
hook‘. Key points include:

. The State should take responsibility for the education of people with disabilities,
and
should a) have a clear policy b) have a flexible curriculum c) provide quality
materials,
and on-going teacher training and support.
. Integration in mainstream schools is promoted with some key conditions; it
should be
properly resourced and of high quality – it should not be seen as a cheap option.
. Special attention should be given to very young and pre-school children, and to
women
with disabilities
. Community-based program are seen as complementary to =integrated‘ education
. Special education is not ruled out where the mainstream system is inadequate,
and for
deaf and deaf/blind students
. Rule 6 States should ensure that the education of persons with disabilities is .an
integral
part of the educational system.
. Para 1: general education authorities are responsible for the education of people
with
disabilities
. Para2: education in mainstream schools presupposes provision of appropriate
support
services
. Para 6: states the need to a) have a clear policy, b) have a flexible curriculum, c)
provide
quality materials, and on-going teacher training and support
. Para 7: community-based programs should be seen as complementary to
integrated
education
. Para 8: in cases where the general school system does not adequately meet the
needs of
all disabled persons, special education may be considered in some instances
special
education may currently be the most appropriate form of education for some
students
. Para 9: deaf and deaf/blind students may receive more appropriate education in
separate
schools, special classes or units

F) The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs

Education,
1994

The Framework gave rise to the thinking and practice from a different perspective
–
not from disabled activists, but from the professionals working in schools, trying
to find ways
to enable all children to learn together. A key difference is that, rather than talking
about a
particular group (for example children with disabilities or girls) and their rights, in
Salamanca the focus was on diversity of children‘s characteristics and educational
needs. It
marked a big shift away from the dominant paradigm in special needs education,
which was
strongly supportive of segregated special schools. It reflected the =new thinking‘
in special
needs education and promoted the concept of the fully inclusive school. The
Salamanca
Statement and Framework for Action is still a key international document on the
principles
and practice of inclusive education. It brings together very eloquently several
pioneering and
fundamental principles of inclusion, some of which had not been discussed in
earlier
documents.

Article 2: .Education systems should take into account the wide diversity of
children‘s different characteristics and needs regular schools with this inclusive
orientation
are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating
welcoming
communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all;
moreover, they
provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the
efficiency and
ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system..

Article 3: Governments should .adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of

inclusive
education... unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise.. This Article
.The
guiding principle of this Framework is that schools should accommodate all
children. This
should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children
from
remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural
minorities and
children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups. The challenge
confronting the inclusive school is that of developing a child-centered pedagogy
capable of
educating all children.

Article 4: .human differences are normal and learning must be adapted to the
needs
of the child rather than the child fitted to preordained assumptions, a child-
centered pedagogy
is beneficial to all students, and as a consequence, to society as a whole... it can
substantially
reduce drop-out and repetition while ensuring higher average levels of
achievement. Child-
centered schools are, moreover, the training ground for a people-orientated
society that
respects both the differences and dignity of all human beings..
Article 6: .Inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and to the
enjoyment
and exercise of human rights..

Article 7: .The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children
should learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or
differences they
may have. Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of
their
students, accommodating both different styles and rates of learning....

Article 10: .Experience suggests that inclusive schools, serving all of the children
in a
community, are most successful in eliciting community support and in finding
imaginative
and innovative ways of using the limited resources that are available..

Article 18: .Educational polices at all levels, from the national to the local, should
stipulate
that a child with a disability should attend the neighborhood school that is, the
school that
would be attended if the child did not have a disability..

G) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006

Article 24 – Education

1. States Parties recognize the right of persons with disabilities to education. With
a view to
realizing this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal
opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all
levels and lifelong learning directed to:

(a) The full development of human potential and sense of dignity and self-
worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental
freedoms and human diversity;

(b) The development by persons with disabilities of their personality, talents

and creativity, as well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest
potential;

(c) Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free

society.

2.In realizing this right, States Parties shall ensure that:

(a) Persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education
system on the basis of disability, and that children with disabilities are
not excluded from free and compulsory primary education, or from
secondary education, on the basis of disability;

(b) Persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality and free primary
education and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the
communities in which they live;

(c) Reasonable accommodation of the individual‘s requirements is provided;

(d) Persons with disabilities receive the support required, within the general
education system, to facilitate their effective education;

(e) Effective individualized support measures are provided in environments

that maximize academic and social development, consistent with the goal
of full inclusion.

3. States Parties shall enable persons with disabilities to learn life and social
development
skills to facilitate their full and equal participation in education and as members of
the
community. To this end, States Parties shall take appropriate measures, including:

(a) Facilitating the learning of Braille, alternative script, augmentative and

alternative modes, means and formats of communication and orientation and
mobility skills, and facilitating peer support and mentoring;

(b) Facilitating the learning of sign language and the promotion of the
linguistic identity of the deaf community;
(c) Ensuring that the education of persons, and in particular children, who are
blind, deaf or deaf blind, is delivered in the most appropriate languages and
modes and means of communication for the individual, and in environments
which maximize academic and social development.

4. In order to help ensure the realization of this right, States Parties shall take
appropriate
measures to employ teachers, including teachers with disabilities, who are
qualified in
sign language and/or Braille, and to train professionals and staff who work at all
levels of
education. Such training shall incorporate disability awareness and the use of
appropriate
augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication,
educational
techniques and materials to support persons with disabilities.

5. States Parties shall ensure that persons with disabilities are able to access
general tertiary
education, vocational training, adult education and lifelong learning without
discrimination
and on an equal basis with others. To this end, States Parties shall ensure that
reasonable
accommodation is provided to persons with disabilities

H) World Education Forum, Dakar, 2000

In April 2000, more than 1,100 participants from 164 countries gathered in Dakar,
Senegal,
for the World Education Forum. Ranging from teachers to prime ministers,
academics to
policy-makers, non-governmental bodies to the heads of major international
organizations,
they adopted the 2,000-word Dakar Framework for Action – Education for All:
Meeting Our
Collective Commitments.
Education For All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments-this was the text
adopted by the
World Education Forum Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 April 2000 7. .We hereby
collectively
commit ourselves to the attainment of the following goals:

i) expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education,

especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children;
ii) ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult
circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and
complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality;
iii) ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programs;
iv) achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,
especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education
for all adults;
v) eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005,
and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring
girls‘ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good
quality; and
vi) improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of
all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all,
especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills..

I) 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education – Articles 1, 3

and 4

Article 1

1. For the purposes of this Convention, the term `discrimination' includes any
distinction,
exclusion, limitation or preference which, being based on race, color, sex,
language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, economic condition
or birth,
has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing equality of treatment in
education and
in particular:
a. Of depriving any person or group of persons of access to education of any type
or at any
level;
b. Of limiting any person or group of persons to education of an inferior standard;
c. Subject to the provisions of Article 2 of this Convention, of establishing or
maintaining
separate educational systems or institutions for persons or groups of
persons; or
d.Of inflicting on any person or group of persons conditions which are in-
compatible with
the dignity of man.
2. For the purposes of this Convention, the term `education' refers to all types and
levels of
education, and includes access to education, the standard and quality of education,
and the
conditions under which it is given.
Article 3
In order to eliminate and prevent discrimination within the meaning of this
Convention, the
States Parties thereto undertake:
(a) To abrogate any statutory provisions and any administrative instructions and
to
discontinue any administrative practices which involve discrimination in
education;
(b) To ensure, by legislation where necessary, that there is no discrimination in
the admission
of pupils to educational institutions;
(c) Not to allow any differences of treatment by the public authorities between
nationals,
except on the basis of merit or need, in the matter of school fees and the grant of
scholarships
or other forms of assistance to pupils and necessary permits and facilities for the
pursuit of
studies in foreign countries ;
(d) Not to allow, in any form of assistance granted by the public authorities to
educational
institutions, any restrictions or preference based solely on the ground that pupils
belong to a
particular group;
(e) To give foreign nationals resident within their territory the same access to
education as
that given to their own nationals.
Article 4
The States Parties to this Convention undertake furthermore to formulate, develop
and apply
a national policy which, by methods appropriate to the circumstances and to
national usage,
will tend to promote equality of opportunity and of treatment in the matter of
education and
in particular:
(a) To make primary education free and compulsory; make secondary education
in its
different forms generally available and accessible to all; make higher education
equally
accessible to all on the basis of individual capacity; assure compliance by all with
the
obligation to attend school prescribed by law;
(b) To ensure that the standards of education are equivalent in all public
educational
institutions of the same level, and that the conditions relating to the quality of the
education
provided are also equivalent;
(c) To encourage and intensify by appropriate methods the education of persons
who have
not received any primary education or who have not completed the entire primary
education
course and the continuation of their education on the basis of individual capacity;
(d) To provide training for the teaching profession without discrimination.

Reflection Exercise

1. Have you read the above legal frameworks carefully? Well, most of them have
overlapping concepts. Please find out the main overlapping ideas tell them to one
of your
course mates.

2. Which of the international legal frameworks are directly related to inclusive

education of
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities? Discuss them with your classmates.

National Laws and Policy Frameworks

Brain storming questions

1. Why do you think countries enact national laws and policy frameworks
regarding issues o
the persons with disability and vulnerability?

2. What national laws and policy frameworks do you know? List and discuss in
relation to
how they protect rights of persons with disabilities in various areas of life.
If we talk about Ethiopia‘s legal and policy documents, he/she finds no disability
related
instrument until 1971 of the imperial order to provide for the establishment the
rehabilitation
agency. Hence, it is possible to speak confidently that =disability was not a matter
of law and
policy before 1991‘. This is because of the fact that Ethiopia‘s serious policy and
legal
regard towards the right of PWDS had begun after the introduction of a new
constitutional
order in the country.

Ethiopia has signed most of the international conventions and declarations

protecting the
rights of persons with disabilities. There are also national policies on the rights of
persons
with disabilities. These different national and international policies, conventions
and
declarations are presented in various international and local policy documents.
The table
below is about major national legal frameworks that are related with protecting
persons with
disabilities rights in participating different areas of life.

National Laws and Policy Frameworks Related With Rights of People with
Disabilities
Equal Participation in Education, Social, Economic, Apolitical and Other Aspect
of Life

1. Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-1995: Article

41(5) of the
Constitution sets out the State‘s responsibility for the provision of necessary
rehabilitation
and support services for people with disabilities. This provision, which is found in
the socio-
economic rights of citizens, does not ensure the equal employment opportunity of
PWDs.
Rather, it conveys a message that PWDs are among those who deserve assistance
since they
are incapable of engaging in productive life.
2. Labor Proclamation, No. 377/2003, amended by Labor Proclamation No.
494/2006: It states that it
is unlawful for an employer to discriminate against workers on the basis of
nationality, sex, religion, political outlook or on any other conditions.
3. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation- No. 515/2007: It offers for special
preference in the
recruitment, promotion, and deployment, among others, of qualified candidates
with
disabilities. This provision is applicable to government offices only.
4. Proclamation concerning the Rights to Employment for Persons with
Disabilities- No. 568/2008:
The proclamation makes null and void any law, practice, custom, attitude and
other
discriminatory situations that limit equal opportunities for persons with
disabilities. It
also requires employers to provide appropriate working and training conditions;
take
all reasonable accommodation measures and affirm active actions, particularly
when
employing women with disabilities; and assign an assistant to enable a person
with
disability to perform their work or follow training.
5. Framework Document- 2009: provides for Special Needs Education (SNE) in
Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET).
6. Building Proclamation- No. 624/2009: provides for accessibility in the design
and construction
of any building to ensure suitability for physically impaired persons.
7. Proclamation on Definition of Powers of Duties of the Executive Organs of the
Federal

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, No. 691/2010: This provides for conditions of

equal opportunities
and full participation of persons with disabilities and those living with HIV/AIDS.

8. Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) 2010-2015: It focuses on establishing

disability as a
cross cutting sector of development where focus is given to preventing disability
and to
providing education and training, rehabilitation and equal access and

opportunities to persons with disabilities.

9. National Plan of Action of Persons with Disabilities -(2012-2021): The

documents aim at making
Ethiopia an inclusive society. It addresses the needs of persons with disabilities in
Ethiopia for
comprehensive Rehabilitation services, equal opportunities for education, skills
training and
work, as well as full participation in the life of their families, communities and the
nation.
10. Proclamation concerning the Rights of Disabled Persons to Employment-
No.101/1994: This
document was the only legislation in Ethiopia which specifically provides for the
employment of
disabled persons. The Proclamation aims to protect and promote the rights of
disabled persons to
appropriate training, employment opportunities and salary, and to prevent any
workplace
discrimination. Sections 3 and 4 refer to the promotion of employment
opportunities for disabled
persons in the open labor market
11. The Federal Civil Servant Proclamation (Proclamation -No 1064/2017:
Article 13/2 of
proclamation no 1064/2017 recognizes that:‘ There shall be no discrimination
among job
seekers or civil servants in filling vacancies because of their ethnic origin, sex,
religion, political
outlook, disability, HIV/AIDS or any other ground.‘ Therefore, there can be no
discrimination
against persons with disabilities during job recruitment on the basis of their
disability. Moreover,
Article 49 of the same proclamation provides for the applicable conditions of
work for workers
with disabilities as follows: 1) Persons with disabilities shall be entitled to
affirmative action in
recruitment, promotion, transfer, redeployment, education and training; 2) Any
government
institution shall ensure that its working environment is conducive to civil servants
with
disabilities, provide them with the necessary tools and materials and train them
how to use such
tools and materials; 3) Any government institution shall have the responsibility to
assign a
person who shall provide proper assistant for those civil servants with disability
that requires
assistance; and 4) Privileges prescribed by other laws to persons with disabilities
shall be
applicable for the implementation of this Proclamation.
12. Labor Proclamation-1156/2019: This proclamation controls the private sector
employment
relationship. Article 15 of the proclamation outlaws discrimination on the basis of
disablement. It
provides: discrimination any distinction, exclusion or preference made on the
basis of nation,
race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin,
HIV/AIDS status,
disablement and others which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of
opportunity or
treatment in employment or occupation.
13. Organization of Civil Society Proclamation -No. 1113/2019: This
proclamation is a newly enacted
legislation replacing its predecessor proclamation 621/2009. It regulates issues
concerning
formation, registration, activities and dissolution of civil society organization.
Agency for civil
society organization has been also established to facilitate and monitor the
activities of civil
society organization. Article 11 of this proclamation expressly provides that
persons with
disabilities should be included as a member to enhance and strengthen benefit and
involvement
of part of the society with disability. Furthermore, article 62/9 of the same
proclamation orders
those civil society organizations working on the benefit of the general public to
take into account
the issue of persons with disabilities. It is established for the benefit of the general
public or
third parties shall ensure that its activities take into account the interests of
women, Children,
persons with disabilities, the elderly and others exposed to threat or vulnerable
groups of the
society.
14. The Revised higher institutions proclamation- No. 1152/2019: This
proclamation has been enacted
in replacement of its predecessor proclamation 650/2009. This proclamation has
incorporated
some rights entitling students with disabilities. According to article 51 of such
proclamation.
accordingly the institutions shall: make, to the extent possible, their facilities and
programs
amenable to use with relative ease for students with physical disabilities; shall, to
the extent that
situations and resources permit, relocate classes, develop alternative testing
procedures, and
provide different educational auxiliary aids in the interest of students with
physical disabilities
and learning disabilities; consider building designs, campus physical landscape,
computers and
other infrastructures of institutions shall take into account the interests of
physically disabled
students; shall ensure that students with physical challenges get academic
assistance, including
tutorial sessions, exam time and submission date deadline extensions; shall
provide additional
resources, as necessary, to maintain the speed and need of education, the
allocation of additional
resources, is necessary. The details shall be determined by a directive
15. Advertisement Proclamation -No. 759/2012: It focuses on regulating
commercial advertisement
are made. According to article 7/4 of this proclamation, advertisement which
undermines the
dignity and emotional feeling of a physically disabled person is immoral.
According to Article 7
advertisements shall be deemed to be as having unlawful or immoral content or
presentation
when they undermine the dignity or emotional feeling of physically disabled
person or a person
living with HIV/AIDS or suffering from other disease.
16. The Ethiopian Building proclamation -No 624/2009: Its focuses on buildings
and construction-
it says that all public building to have a means to access by physical disabled
persons.
Moreover, it dictates that toilet on such buildings must be accessible. Article 36
states that any
public building shall have a means of access suitable for use by physically
impaired persons,
including those who are obliged to use wheelchairs and those who are able to
walk but unable to
negotiate steps. Additionally, toilet facilities are required in any building, as
adequate number of
such facilities shall be made suitable for use by physically impaired persons and
shall be
assessable to them
17. Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal
Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia Proclamation -No. 1097/2018: It mainly focuses on addressing common
responsibility of
ministries in general and the specific duty for ministry of labor and social affair in
Creating
conditions whereby persons with disabilities, the elderly, and segments of society
vulnerable to
social and economic problems benefit from equal opportunities and full
participation
(article10/4). Moreover, it obliges the mistress work in cooperation with
concerned bodies
(Article 29/11 A).
18. Developmental Social Welfare Policy 1997: It specifically targets people with
disabilities and
sets out to safeguard their rights and to promote opportunities for vocational
rehabilitation. full
participation in education, health, political, economic and social activities and
other activities
19. The FDRE Education and Training Policy of 1994: This document recognizes
that special
attention must be provided for those with special needs. However, it does not
have any clear
recognition for reasonable accommodation
20. The FDRE special needs/inclusive education strategy 2012: This document
focuses on inclusive
education policy, strategies and responsibilities of stakeholders.

Reflection activities

List down at least six national policies and laws and discuss their impact on equal
participation of people with disabilities participation in education, socio-economic
and other
activities.

What factors do you think affect implementation of international and national

legal
frameworks to promote inclusive education in Ethiopia?

Chapter Summary

Legal frameworks are one of the drivers for the rights of persons with disabilities
and
vulnerabilities. They have influence on especially educational rights of these
people with
their peers. Legal frameworks are supposed to serve people with disabilities needs
by
keeping equal rights and creating equal opportunity of learning for all such as
children and
youth in the mainstreamed classrooms. Moreover, it is believed to create
academic and social
inclusion, and maintain friendship among persons with and without disabilities
and
vulnerabilities. Besides, legal frameworks are thought to help the persons with
disabilities
and vulnerabilities to exploit their potential to the optimum possible level.

International national legal frameworks are written in the form of public laws and
acts,
declarations, conventions and frameworks. These legal frameworks focus on
various issues
(social, educational, occupational, vocational etc) of children, youth and adults
with
disabilities.

The Ethiopian government has endorsed almost all of the conventions and
declarations. But
studies showed that various challenges are facing their implementations. As a
result, there is
mismatch between practice and these frameworks implantation.

There also national legal frameworks mainly in the form of laws and policies that
promote
persons with disabilities and vulnerabilities equal participation in education,
social welfare,
economy and other areas of life. Although Ethiopia has lots of laws, polices and
others
international legal frameworks ratified by the country, there is gap in
implementation and
practices that promote equality of people with disabilities and vulnerabilities
equal
participation in social, educational, occupational, vocational and other aspects of
life.

References

Hayes, A. M., and Bulat, J., (2017). Disabilities inclusive education systems and
policies guide for low- and
middle-income countries. RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research
Triangle Park, NC: RTI
Press

Loreman, T., Deppeler, J. and Harvey, D. (2005). Inclusive education: a practical

guide to supporting
diversity in the classroom. Routledge, Falmer,UK, Taylor and Francis Group.

MoE (2012a). Special needs/inclusive education strategy. The Federal

Democratic, Republic of Ethiopia
MoE (2012b).Guideline for curriculum differentiation and individual educational
program. Addis Ababa:
Federal Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa.

Ethiopia, Federal Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa.

Tirussew Teferra (2005). Disability in Ethiopia: Issues, insights and implications.
Addis Ababa University
Printing Press.

UNICEF (2014). Conceptualizing Inclusive Education and Contextualizing it

within the UNICEF Mission -
Companion Technical Booklet .Webinar,New York.

UNESCO (2001). Open file on inclusive education, support materials for

managers and administrators.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001252/ 125237eo.pdf

…… (2006). Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive, Learning-

Friendly Environments. Bangkok.

………. (2007). Regional Seminar on poverty alleviation, HIV and AIDS

education and inclusive education:
Priority issues for inclusive quality education in Eastern and Western Sub-
Saharan Africa.
Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.
unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Inclusive_Education/Reports/nairobi_07/ethiop
ia_inclusion_07.pdf

……… (2009). Defining an inclusive education agenda: reflections around the

48th session of the international
conference on education. UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. Retrieved
from
http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001868/ 186807e.pdf

……… (2013). Promoting inclusive education-curriculum (Advocacy Guide 3).

Bankok: Tiland.
Chapter 7: Resources Management for Inclusion

Overview of the Chapter

Inclusion demands resources to meet the need of all members of communities and
to
facilitate equal participants in all sphere of life. Our environment, now more so
than before,
need to be ready to include people from different backgrounds, with differing
needs and
abilities. For such a situation we need to adapt and modify our environment to all
people be
accessible. Inclusion refers to the process of providing all necessary services
according to the
needs of divers‘ population in the community and bringing support services
instead of
mobilizing resources in a separate setting. Inclusion assumes that the best
provision for all
according to their need and potential regular schools, in the work place and in the
community. Population with a wide range of diversities such as disabilities,
cultural and
linguistic minorities and vulnerabilities, academic abilities and behavioral needs
are
represented in inclusive environment.

Activity

1. Dear student, Please list resources important for people with diversities in
Education.
2. What are the resources important for persons with disabilities to be successful
in the
world of work and social life?
Provisions of Resources

The resource should be considered for people with disabilities in workplaces,

social
gatherings, recreational and in schools that help them to feel comfortable, secure
and work at
their independent and team activities. Available resources those meet their needs
can help
persons with disabilities move towards success.

Resources for school children

All concerned bodies should be inclusive in their planning, budgeting and taking
action for
the education of persons with disabilities. In the school settings resource rooms
are very
important at.

School based resource room

The resource room is a classroom where a special education program can be

delivered to a
student with a disability and learning difficulty. It is for those students who
belong to a
regular class but need some special instructions in an individualized or small
group setting
for a portion of the day. It is typically a large room in the main school building
with lots of
facilities for children with special needs. This program includes remedial,
compensatory and
developmental instruction, which is provided in small groups for usually three to
five hours
per week. Students may be provided direct services in the classroom. Indirect
services can
also be provided to the student through consultation with the general education
teachers to
support in adjusting the learning environment or modify the instructional
methods. When
additional support is appropriate to meet the student‘s needs, the student can
receive the pull-
out program. This form of a .pull out. system, where a child attends a session in
the
resource room during a light period of the day such as singing or physical
training, receives
individual help in a weak area of learning such as reading or writing. Methods and
materials
are adapted to students' learning styles and characteristics using multisensory and
other
specialized approaches

Activity

1. What human resources are required in this resource room?

2. What material resources are important for equally present in the classroom,
participate, receive support and achievement?

Human resources in schools

. Sign language interpreter

. Braille specialist
. Mobility and orientation expert
. Special needs educators
. Speech and language therapist
. Physiotherapist
. Behavioral therapists…etc

School based material resources

. LCD and/or Smart Board

. E - Chart
. Various magnifying lenses
. Slate and styles
. Perkins Braille writer
. White Cane
. Blind folder
. Tuning fork
. Audiometer
. Hearing aids (various type)
. Sign language books and videos
. Various instructional videos related this unit
. Braille atlases
. Molded plastic, dissected and un-dissected relief maps
. Relief globs
. Land form model
. Abacus
. Raised clock faces
. Geometric area and volume aids
. Write forms for matched planes and volumes
. Braille rulers
. Raised-line check books
. Signature guide
. Longhand-writing kit
. Script letter – sheets and boards
. Talking calculator
. Closed-circuit television
. Computer software for various students with special needs; for example Jawse
for blind and sign language software for deaf
. Orthosis
. Prosthosis
. Environmental accessibilities
- Ramps
- Elevators
- Wheel chairs
. And others additional resources

Accommodations

Accommodations are adjustments that teachers and school personnel make to

maximize
learning and social well-being for individual students.

Instructional accommodation checklist

. Use a multisensory approach.
. Use a highly structured format for presentations.
. Use graphic organizers.
. Present material in small, sequential steps.
. Teach specific strategies (e.g. taking notes, reading comprehension).
. Review key points frequently.
. Assign a buddy reader or note taker.
. Provide students with outline of notes.
. Use color coding to match materials and concepts.
. Reduce visual distractions.
. Seat student close to board, teacher, or student helper: away from door or
window.
. Provide a quiet work area.
. Allow students to move if needed. Use visual reminders as memory aids.
. Use teacher-initiated signals for redirecting attention.
. Highlight sections of text.
. Provide tape recording of lecture or required texts.
. Give oral and written directions.
. Speak slowly and clearly.
. Allow for longer response time.

Organization and Task Completion

. Keep work area clear.

. Post assignments and work completed in a consistent spot.
. Assist student with notebook organization.
. Use assignment notebook.
. Extend time to complete assignments.
. Shorten or chunk assignments.
. Give timeline for longer projects.
. Give specific feedback.
. Provide peer tutoring.
. Use cooperative learning groups.
. Provide structured daily activities.
. Explain changes in routine.

Evaluation

. Explain grading and give rubric.

. Give specific feedback.
. Preview before test; give frequent quizzes; give sample questions.
. Orient student to test format.
. Use a clear, uncluttered copy; enlarge print.
. Make test directions simple and clear.
. Provide ample space for answers on test.
. Allow alternate test response (oral, computer).
. Read test aloud to student. Give open-note or take-home tests.
. Use alternate forms of evaluation (oral report, group projects, and debate).
. Reduce required assignments.
. Provide proofreading checklist.
. Accept print or cursive writing

Resources for work/social environment

Activity

1. What human resources are required work places?

2. What material resources are important for persons with disability in work
places and
social environment?

Human resources
. Special needs educator at every organization to create inclusive environment
. Sign language interpreter
. Sighted guide

Material resources

. Various magnifying lenses

. Slate and styles
. Perkins Braille writer
. White Cane
. Hearing aids
. Sign language books and videos
. Braille atlases
. Braille rulers
. Signature guide
. Talking calculator
. Talking mobile
. Closed-circuit television
. Computer software for various students with special needs; for example Jawse
for blind and sign language software for deaf
. Orthosis
. Prosthosis
. Environmental accessibilities
- Ramps
- Elevators
- Wheel chairs
. And others additional resources

Chapter Summary

Resources are very important to create inclusiveness. Resources are for all human
being;
though the attention if much given for persons with disabilities. All individuals
can grow and
develop if they are accessed and provided. Primarily understanding the diverse
needs of all
people is very important to plan for the resources. Incorporating the
communication
styles/channel of diver‘s population is vital. Creating equal opportunities and
access to equal
growth and development is necessary and considering and encouraging different
perspective
using the provided resources is important to celebrate diversity. If we neglect
human and
material resources to create inclusiveness, we remain with our poverty ever.
REFERENCES

Abrams, B. J.. & Segal. A. {1998). How to prevent aggressive behavior. Teaching
Exceptional Children. 30(4),
10-15. Bradley, D. R, King-Sears, M. E., & Tessier-Switlick, D. M. (1996).
Teaching students in
inclusive settings: From theory to practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bentum, K. E., & Aaron, P. G. (2003). Does reading instruction in learning

disability resource rooms really
work?: A longitudinal study. Reading Psychology, 24, 361-382

Gardill, M. C, DuPaul, G. J., & Kyle, K. E. (1996). Classroom strategies for

managing students with attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Intenention in School and Clinic. 32(2), 89-94.

Hall, S. (2007). NCLB and IDEA: Optimizing success for students with
disabilities. Perspective on Language
and Literacy, 33(1), 35-39 Retrieved from http://search.proquest.comproxy-
iup.klnpa.org.

Malouf, D.. & Schiller, E. (1995). Practice and research in special education.
Exceptional Children. 61. 414-
424. Peterson, A. (1995). Teacher-researcher compatibility: A view from both
sides. Remedial and
Special Education. 16{6), 364-367. Salend, S. J. (1995). Modifying tests for
diverse leamers.
Intervention in School and Clinic. i7(2), 84-90. Schumm, J. S., & Vaughn, S.
(1992). Planning for
mainstreamed special education students: Perceptions of general classroom
teachers. Exceptionality. 3.
81-98.

Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S., & Hams, J. (1997). Pyramid power for collaborative
planning. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 29(6), 62-66. Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S., & Leavell, A.
(1994). Planning
pyramid: A framework for planning for diverse student needs during content area
instruction. The
Reading Teacher, 47, 608-615.

Semmel, M. I., Abemathy, T V., Butera, G., & Lesar, S. (1991). Teacher
perceptions of the regular education
initiative. Exceptional Children, 58, 9-24.

Stainback, W., Stainback, S., & Stefanich, G. (1996). Learning together in

inclusive classrooms: What about the
curriculum? Teaching Exceptional Children, 25(3), 14-19.

Vaughn, S., Hughs, M. T., Schumm, J. S., & Klinger, J. (1998). A collaborative
effort to enhance reading and
writing instruction in inclusion classrooms. Learning Disability Quarterly, 21, 57-
74. Vaughn, S., &
Schumm, J. S. (1995). Responsible inclusion for students with learning
disabilities. Journal of Leaming
Disabilities, 25(5), 264-270, 290.

Vannest, K. J., Hagan-Burke, S., Parker, R. I., & Soares, D. A. (2011). Special
education teacher time use in
four types of programs. The Journal of Educational Research, 104, 219-230.

Walther-Thomas, C. S. (1997). Co-teaching experiences: The benefits and

problems that

teachers and principals report over time. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(4),
395

407.
Chapter
8
: Collaborative
(Cooperative)
Partnerships
with
stakeholders

Time allotted: 5 hours

Introduction

An individual or an institute cannot do everything they want for the success of

inclusiveness.
They require collaboration and partnership. Collaborative is becoming an
effective team
player for the intended success. Collaboration referred to as collaborative
consultation,
cooperative planning, implementation, assessment, co-teaching and any kind of
team-based
services or community of practice. It has potential to create synergy – where the
whole is
greater than the sum of the parts. It has the potential to provide opportunities for
you to learn
new ways of addressing barriers to learning, working, living and for colleagues to
learn from
each other. Collaboration should be with all human being for the success of
inclusiveness.
Collaboration should be based on avoiding stereotype thinking that discriminate
or
undermine the capacities of human being, demands equality, equity and creating
mutual
respect. Besides collaboration, cooperation is also vital for human being to meet
life goal.
Chapter objectives

Dear students at the end of this unit you will be able to:

. Define collaboration, partnership and stakeholder

. Identify key elements of successful collaboration
. Describe the benefits and challenges of collaboration for various stakeholders
for the success of inclusion
. Discus the strategies for effective co-planning and team working
. Identify characteristics of successful partnerships
. Design strategies for community involvement

Activities

1. What is collaboration from your own understanding?

2. Have you every create collaboration with people? For what purpose? What
have you achieved?
3. What was the successful of your collaborations?
4. What will be your future collaboration?
Definition of collaboration, partnership and stack holder

Collaboration is defined as .the act of working together to produce or create

something
according to the capacities and abilities of individuals. Each individual‘s
collaboration is
based on his knowledge and skills. A person should not be discriminated due to
mismatch
with other people‘s abilities; because he has his own quality in other perspectives.
Collaboration means 'to work with another person or group in order to achieve
accomplish
intended goals. Collaboration provides every team member with equal
opportunities to
participate and communicate their ideas. Collaboration in the workplace is when
two or
more people (often groups) work together through idea sharing and thinking to
accomplish a
common goal. It is simply teamwork taken to a higher level. The phrase 'putting
our heads
together' would be a good example of this important element of collaboration.

Collaboration enables individuals to work together to achieve a defined and

common
business purpose. It exists in two forms:

. Synchronous, where everyone interacts in real time, as in through telephone,

email,
online meetings, through instant texts messages, or via Viber, and
. The team sees value in working together as the common goal gives them a
meaningful reason to work together, along with receiving mutual benefits for the
institution as well as the team.

The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output.

Creating a
sense of teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to work for the
collective
rather than just themselves.

Activities

1. Mention some important experiences of collaboration in your community?

2. What are the important elements of collaboration in your community?
3. What is your intention to create collaboration with people in your life?

Key elements of successful collaboration

The relationship includes a commitment to: mutual relationships and goals; a

jointly
developed structure and shared responsibility; mutual authority and accountability
for
success; and sharing of resources and rewards. A Collaboration Checklist What
factors are
helping or hindering your collaboration efforts?
We've got the four most important elements of teamwork to help you build a team
that will
lead your company to success.

. Respect. This one should be a no-brainer. ...

. Communication. While respect is probably the most important element of
teamwork,
communication is the tool that will generate that respect. ...
. Delegation. ...
. Support.

To kick off our All about collaboration series, we consider the nature of
successful
collaboration, its benefits and what is needed within an organization for it to
flourish. Collaboration in the workplace is when two or more people work
together through
idea sharing and thinking to achieve a common goal.

Here are a few qualities that a successful team possesses.

1. They communicate well with each other. ...

2. They focus on goals and results. ...
3. Everyone contributes their fair share. ...
4. They offer each other support. ...
5. Team members are diverse. ...
6. Good leadership. ...
7. They're organized. ...
8. They have fun.

General principles of collaboration

. Establish clear common goals for the collaboration.
. Define your respective roles and who is accountable for what, but accept joint
responsibility for the decisions and their outcomes
. Take a problem-solving approach – with a sense that all those in the
collaborative
arrangement share ownership of the problem and its solution.
. Establish an atmosphere of trust and mutual respect for each others‘ expertise.
. Aim for consensus decision-making.
. Ask for and give immediate and objective feedback to others in a nonthreatening
and
non-judgmental manner.
. Give credit to others for their ideas and accomplishments
. Develop procedures for resolving conflicts and manage these processes
skillfully.
. Better still, anticipate possible conflicts and take steps to avoid them as far as
possible. This is not to say that disagreements can, or even should, be avoided.
. Arrange periodic meetings to review progress in the collaborative arrangements.

What are the advantages of collaboration?

. Higher employee productivity

. The advantages of collaboration can also be seen in terms of individual output.
. Creating a sense of teamwork and building bonds encourages team members to
work
for the collective rather than just themselves

Benefits of collaboration

. Greater efficiency and less duplicated effort.

. Access to additional resources or lower costs through sharing resources such as
office
space, administration or other aspects of an organization‘s operation.
. Improved service coordination across agencies, with better pathways or referral
systems for service users.

Challenges to Team Collaboration

. Indecisive decision-makers. Ironic, isn't it? ...

. "E-fail" This is a little term used for when email straight up fails. ...
. Mis (sing) communication. When collaborating, there is always room for
misinterpretation and miscommunication.
. Process sinking vs. process syncing.
. Too many cooks.
. Negative Nancy.

Cooperativeness
Cooperation is one of the components of collaboration. As an
adjective, cooperative describes working together agreeably for a common
purpose or goal
as in cooperative play or cooperative employee. As a noun, a cooperative is a
jointly-
owned business or enterprise where members pool their resources to purchase, do
work,
and/or distribute things. Cooperativeness helps individuals to willing learn from
each other.
Learners work together in small groups, helping each other to carry out individual
and group
tasks. Interdependence: all group members seek to achieve a group goal and help
each
others‘ achievement; Individual accountability: each member of the group is held
responsible
for his or her own learning, which in turn contributes to the group goal;
Cooperation: the
learners discuss, problem-solve and collaborate with each other; Face to face
interaction and
establish consensus; and Evaluation: members of the group review and evaluate
how they
worked together and make changes as needed. It requires interdependence, which
can take
one or more forms that help to create inclusiveness:

1. Goal interdependence: the group has a single goal.

2. Reward interdependence: the whole group receives acknowledgement for
achieving
the goal
3. Resource interdependence: each group member has different resources
(knowledge
or materials) that must be combined to complete a task
4. Role interdependence: each group member is assigned a different role (e.g,
leader,
reporter, time-keeper)

In cooperative learning and works, the strategies for effective co-planning and
team working
are very important. The following steps will help you and your group to work
effectively
together.

1. Have clear objectives

2. At each stage you should try to agree on goals
3. Set ground rules
4. Communicate efficiently
5. Build consensus
6. Define roles
7. Clarify your plans, process and achievements all the time
8. Keep good records
9. Stick to the plan

Reflection

Do you think collaboration and cooperation move us towards inclusive life?

How?
Stakeholder

Definition of a Stakeholder

A stakeholder is any person, organization, social group, or society at large that

has a stake in
the business. Thus, stakeholders can be internal or external to the business. A
stake is a vital
interest in the business or its activities. Be both affected by a business and affect a
business.
A business is any organization where people work together. In a business, people
work to
make and sell products or services. A business can earn a profit for the products
and services
it offers. The word business comes from the word busy, and means doing things.
It works on
regular basis. All human being can participate in any kind of business equally
without
discrimination based on their disability, culture, language, religion, gender, rural,
urban and
the like.
Stakeholders can affect or be affected by the organization's actions, objectives and
policies.
Some examples of key stakeholders are creditors, directors, employees,
government (and its
agencies), owners (shareholders), suppliers, unions, and the community from
which the
business draws its resources.

In business, a stakeholder is usually an investor in your company whose actions

determine
the outcome of your business decisions. Stakeholders don't have to be equity
shareholders. They can also be your employees, who have a stake in your
company's success
and incentive for your products to succeed.

Activities

1. Do people have stakeholders in their daily business? Please describe from your
communities perspective
2. Do these stakeholders meet their goals? How?
3. Do you have stakeholders in your university experiences? Who are they?
4. Explain the benefits and challenges of collaboration for various stakeholders
for the
success of inclusive life

Roles of Stakeholders in a Project

Stakeholders are usually parties who have a stake in a project and have a great
influence on
its success or failure. They may be equity or preference shareholders, employees,
the
government agencies, contractors, financial institutions, competitors, suppliers
and the
general public

What are the benefits of stakeholder participation?

. Provide all stakeholders with full opportunities to share their views, needs and
knowledge on flood management.
. Build consensus through bringing together a diverse range of stakeholders to
share
needs, information, ideas and knowledge and harmonize the objectives of
individual
groups to reach common societal goals.

Characteristics of successful stockholders partnerships

. Existence of an agreement: Partnership is the outcome of an agreement between

two
or more persons to carry on business or offer services for the community
. Sharing of profits or stratification for the services offered to the community
. Establishing equal and equitable relationship
. Membership without discrimination
. Nature of liability
. Fusion of ownership and control
. Non-transferability of interest
. Trust. Without trust there can be no productive conflict, commitment, or
accountability
. Common values. I believe that having common values is the very foundation of
the
successful partnership
. Defined expectations
. Mutual respect
. Synergy
. Great two-way communications

What makes a good strategic alliance partner?

. They have a similar audience

. They are not your competitors
. They can give you access to new customers and prospects
. They want to work with you
. They want something you can offer

What qualities make for a great business partner?

. Passion
. Reliability
. Compatibility
. The Ability to Build Strong Relationships
. Fiscal Responsibility
. Creativity
. Open-Mindedness
. Comfort with Risk.

What are the main features of a partnership?

Participants described the right partnership behaviors principally as being
effective co-
ordination and chairing, and a set of personal skills and qualities including good
listening,
clear communication, honesty, patience, enthusiasm, acceptance and love.

A strategic alliance implies that: the success of the alliance impacts one or more
major
business or service goals. The success of the alliance develops or reinforces a core
competency, especially one which provides a competitive advantage and / or
blocks a
competitive threat

Strategies for community involvement inclusive development

. Commit to participation of all persons with diversities

. Establish non-discriminative effective communication with all people with
divers
back ground
. Expect to do most of the work yourself following the inclusive principle
. Tap into local networks, culture and indigenous experiences of inclusiveness
. Use all possible communication channel including sign language for deaf people

Community development is about the inclusive involvement of all people,

regardless of their
diversities, enhancing equality, respecting their full right in terms of educational
opportunities and employability. The creation of opportunities to enable all
members of
a community to actively contribute to and influence the development process and
to share
equitably in the fruits of any development endeavors. Participation has an
intrinsic value
for participants and a catalyst for further development; encourages a sense of
responsibility;
guarantees that a felt need is involved; ensures things are done the right way; uses
valuable
indigenous knowledge; frees people from dependence on others' skills; and makes
people
more independent and productive

References

Alemayehu Teklemariam and Temsegen Fereja (2011). Special Need Education

in Ethiopia:
Practice of Special Needs Education around the World. Washington: Gallaudet
University Press.

Alemayehu Teklemariam (2019). Inclusive Education in Ethiopia: WILEY and

Blackwell:
Singapore
A Teachers Guide (2001). UNESCO. Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice
in Secondary Education
(2004).

Berit H. Johanson and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2006). Towards Special Needs

Education
as a University Discipline: An Important step on the way to Education for All. In
When All Means All. Hakapaino Oy: Helsinki

Tirussew Teferra and Alemayehu Teklemariam (2007). Including the Excluded:

Integrating disability into EFA
Fast Track Initiative Process and National Education Plans in Ethiopia. World
Vision

MOE (2010). Special Needs Program strategies implementation guide.

MOE (Ministry of Education). (2006). Special Needs Education Program

Strategy. Addis Ababa

Understanding and responding to children‘s need in inclusive classroom (2010).

www.european-agency.org

..... ....... (2009). ...... ....- ... ..... ... ..... ... ....-
..... ...

..... ....... (2011). ... ..... ........... ..... ... ....- .....
...
Approach/Methods/Strategies of learning and Teaching

This section is flexible to involve the instructor‘s creativity in identifying

selecting and
adapting the instructional method to the context of the learner. Some general
approaches are
listed below. The instructor can select among this and add his own that he/she
feels
appropriate.

Approach/Methods/Strategies

This section is flexible to involve the instructor‘s creativity in identifying

selecting and
adapting the instructional method to the context of the learner. Some general
approaches are
listed below. The instructor can select among this and add his own that he/she
feels
appropriate.

. Interactive lectures
. Cooperative learning
. Brainstorming
. Discussion
. Role play
. Independent/self learning
. Field visits
. Individual and group assignments and presentation
. Seminars
. Individual and group presentations
. Special needs/inclusive education expert consultancy
Assessment and Evaluation Methods

Dear students, for each contents you will complete getting started activities, read
selected
materials complete course works and group assignments. Assessment of the
students would
be a continuous process. The following schemes of evaluation would be used:

. Tests 10%
. Assignment/group/assignment 10%
. Mid exam 30%
. Final exam 50%

Course Policy

Responsibilities of Instructors

Profile of instructors in this course must be the right professional in Special

needs/inclusive education. In order to produce quality teachers, this course should
be
offered only instructor, MEd/MA or PhD in special needs/inclusive education. To
meet
the learning outcome aforementioned and enhance teachers‘ quality, the special
needs/inclusive education instructors will have the following major
responsibilities.

. Advise students on all the aspects of the course

. Provide the students with the syllabus and other materials well ahead
of the delivery of it
. Conduct the interactive lectures as per the plan
. Facilitate students‘ individual assignments, group assignments, field
works, practicum, seminars, presentations, and collaborative learning
. Periodically assess the students‘ work
. Provide the students with timely feedbacks on their graded and
ungraded academic works
. Follow on students‘ progress and communicate to the students
. Keep student records on the whole work of the students
. Design and execute students‘ consultation program

Responsibilities of Students

This course is designed for would teachers after completion of Bachelor degree in
various
fields. For successful completion of this course the teacher candidates would have
the
following responsibilities

. Students are expected to actively and fully attend as per the university
legislation and participate all the in class and outclass learning
activities. Missing a single class will cost students 2 points.
. Carry out individual assignments, group assignments, field works,
practicum as per the details and deadlines
. Students are expected to read given materials before class
. Students are expected to read selected books and ten articles
. Actively participate in the planning, organizing and conducting of all
the seminars and presentations
. Reflect on feedbacks and initiate actions on them
. Passing the exams successfully