ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION

There are a wide variety of geometric features that are measured in angular
units. These varieties include angular separation of bounding planes, angular
spacing conditions related to circle, digression from a basic direction etc. Because
of these diverse geometrical forms, different types of methods and equipment are
available to measure angles in common angular units of degree, minute and
second. Several factors come into picture in selection of suitable angular
measuring instruments. These factors may be the size and general shape of the part,
the location and angular accessibilities of the feature to be measured, expected
range of angle variations, the required sensitivity and accuracy of measurement etc.
Because of the different systems and techniques in angular measuring instruments,
it is difficult to categorize them completely.

As in linear measurement, they can be categorized in two groups. The first

one is line standard instrument. It includes divided scales like protractors, bevel
gauges. The second category of angular measuring instruments is called face
standard instruments. Sine bars and angle gauges falls in this category. In this unit,
we will discuss both types of angular measuring devices and the techniques used in
determining the angle. In addition to that, we will have an overview of angle
comparators.

LINE STANDARD ANGULAR MEASURING DEVICES

Line standard gives direct angular measurement from the engraved scales in
the instruments. They are not very precise. Hence they are not used when high
precision is required. However, they can be used in initial estimation of the angles
in measurement. We will discuss some of the line standard angular measuring
devices in the following sub-sections.

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Protractors

It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles between two faces. It

consists of two arms and an engraved circular scale. The two arms can be set along
the faces between which the angle is to be measured. The body of the instrument is
extended to form one of the arms, and this is known as the stock. It is the fixed part
of the protractor and should be perfectly straight. The other arm is in the form of a
blade that rotates in a turret mounted on the body. One of the bodies of the turret
carries the divided scale and the other member carries a vernier or index. The
ordinary protractor measures angles only in degrees and used for non-precision
works. By using angular vernier scale along with it, precision up to 5˚ can be
achieved. Figure1 shows the diagram of a protractor

Figure 1: Protractor

Universal Bevel Protractors

It is an angular measuring instrument capable of measuring angles to within

5 min. The name universal refers to the capacity of the instrument to be adaptable
to a great variety of work configurations and angular interrelations. It consists of a
base to which a vernier scale is attached. A protractor dial is mounted on the
circular section of the base. The protractor dial is graduated in degrees with every
tenth degree numbered. The sliding blade is fitted into this dial; it may be extended
to either direction and set at any angle to the base. The blade and the dial are
rotated as a unit. Fine adjustment are obtained with a small knurled headed pinion

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that, when turned, engages with a gear attached to the blade mount. The protractor
dial may be locked in any position by means of the dial clamp nut.

Measurement in a universal bevel protractor is made either by embracing the

two bounding elements of the angle or by extraneous referencing, for example, the
part and the instrument resting on a surface plate.

The vernier protractor is used to measure an obtuse angle, or an angle greater

than 90˚ but less than 180˚. An acute angle attachment is fastened to the vernier
protractor to measure angles of less than 90˚. The main scale is divided into two
arcs of 180˚. Each arc is divided into two quadrants of 90˚ and has graduation from
0˚ to 90˚ to the left and right of the zero line, with every tenth degree numbered.

The vernier scale is divided into 12 spaces on each side of its zero (total 24).
The spacing in the vernier scale is made in such a way that least count of it
corresponds to 1/12th of a degree, which is equal to 5˚.

If the zero on the vernier scale coincides with a line on the main scale, the number
of vernier graduations beyond the zero should be multiplied by 5 and added to the
number of full degrees indicated on the protractor dial. Figure 2 shows a diagram
of a bevel protractor.

Figure 2: Universal Bevel Protractor

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FACE STANDARD ANGULAR MEASURING DEVICES

Face standard angular measuring devices include angle gauges and sine bars.
The measurements are done with respect to two faces of the measuring
instruments. Precision obtained in such instruments is more than the precision
obtained in line standard angular measuring devices. Some commonly used face
standard angular measuring devices are discussed in the following sub-sections.

Sine Bar

A sine bar is made up of a hardened steel beam having a flat upper surface.
The bar is mounted on two cylindrical rollers. These rollers are located in
cylindrical grooves specially provided for the purpose. The axes of the two rollers
are parallel to each other. They are also parallel to the upper flat surface at an equal
distance from it.

Unlike bevel protractors sine bars make indirect measurements. The

operation of a sine bar is based on known trigonometric relationship between the
sides and the angle of a right-angle triangle. Here, dimension of two sides
determine the size of the third side and of the two acute angles. The accuracy
attainable with this instrument is quite high and the errors in angular measurement
are less than 2 seconds for angle up to 45˚. Generally, right-angled triangle is
obtained by using a horizontal and precise flat plate on which gage blocks are
stacked in the direction normal to the plane of the plate.

Sine block itself is not a measuring instrument. It acts as an important link in

the angle measuring process. The actual measurement consists in comparing the
plane of the part’s top element to the plane of supporting surface plate. Mechanical
or electronic height gauges are essentially used in the process.

Figure 3: Sine bar

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Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of a sine bar. It is specified by the distance
between the two centers of two rollers. The high degree of accuracy and precision
available for length measurement in the form of slip and block gauges may be
utilized for measurement of angle using the relationship as shown in Figure 5,
where we have,
H
sin θ = L

Figure 4: Use of Sine Bar for Angular Measurement

Apparently, the accuracy of angle measurement depends upon the accuracy with
which length L, of the sine bar and height h under the roller is known. Since the
gage blocks incorporate a very high degree of accuracy, the reliability of angle
measurement by means of sine bar depends essentially on the accuracy of the sine
bar itself.

Now, differentiating h with respect to θ, we have

1 ⅆh
cos θ= ⋅
L ⅆθ

ⅆθ 1 sec θ
→ = cos θ=
ⅆh L L

Therefore, the error in angle measurement dθ, due to an error, dh in height h is

proportional to sec θ. Now sec θ increases very rapidly for angle greater than 45˚.
Therefore, sine bars should not be used for measurement of angles greater than 45˚

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and if at all they have to be used, sine bars should measure the complement of the
angle rather than the angle itself.

Accuracy Requirement of a Sine Bar

1) The axes of the roller must be parallel to each other and the centre distance
L, must be precisely known.
2) The top surface of the sine bar must be flat and parallel to a plane connecting
the axes of the rollers.
3) The axes of the two rollers must be parallel to each other.
4) The rollers must be of identical diameters and round to within a close
tolerance.

Use of sine bar

1. Measuring known angles or locating any work to a given angle
• The surface plate is assumed to be having a perfectly flat surface.

• One roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface plate and the other roller is
placed on the slip gauges of height H and sin bar is set at an angle θ.
H
• Then sin θ = L where L is the distance between rollers.

• Thus knowing θ, H can be found out and any work can be set at this angle as
thee top face of sine bar is inclined at angle θ to the surface plate.

2. Checking of unknown angles of small components

• When an angle of a component to be checked is unknown. It is necessary to
first find the angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor. I the
angle is θ , then the sine bar is set at an angle plate

• A dial indicator is set at one end of the work and moved to the other end and
the deviation is noted
• If deviation noted down by the dial indicator is ( Δ H ) over the length L1of work,
L
then height of slip gauges by which it should be adjusted is equal to ( Δ H )
L1

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3. Checking of unknown angles of heavy component.

• When components are heavy and can’t be mounted on the sine bar, then sine
bar is mounted on the component as shown in figure

• The height of the rollers can be measured by a Vernier height gauge using
dial gauge mounted on the anvil of the height gauge with fiducial indicator
to ensure constant measuring pressure

• Figure shows the use of height gauge for obtaining two readings over the
two rollers of the sine bar

• The difference in the two readings of height gauge divided by the centre
distance of sine bar gives sine angle

Limitation of sine bars

1) The accuracy of sine bars is limited by the measurement of cnetre distance
of two precision rollers.
2) The geometrical condition involved in measuring the exact, effective centre
distance between the two rollers of a sine bar to a fraction of a micro metre
is an infinitely complex problem.
3) Limitation in the use of sine bar as a primary standard of angle.
4) Measurements using sine principle are fairly reliable at angles less than 15
degree, but becomes increasingly inaccurate as the angle increases.

The sine bars inherently become impractical and inaccurate as the angle exceeds
45 degree because of following reason:

 The sine bar is physically clumsy to hold in position.

 The body of the sine bar obstructs the gauge block stack, even if relieved.
 Slight errors of the sine bar cause large angular errors.
 Long gauge stacks are not nearly as accurate as shorter gauge blocks.
 A difference in deformation occurs at the point of roller contact supporting
the surface and to the gauge blocks, because at higher angles, the load is
shifted more toward the fulcrum roller.

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Sine centre
Sine centres as shown in figure 6 are used for mounting conical work pieces, which
cannot be held on a conventional sine bar. Sine centre consists of a self-contained
sine bar, hinged at one roller and mounted on its own datum surface. The top
surface of the bar is provided with a pair of clamps and centres for holding the
work as shown in figure.

Figure 5: Sine Centre

To measure semi cone angle(α), initially the small end diameter(d), large end
diameter(D) and the axial length(l) of the conical workpiece are measured using
vernier callipers. Then the semi cone angle ‘α’ is calculated by using the formula
D−d
α =tan−1 .
2l

The conical workpiece is mounted between the centres of the sine centre. Then to
make the top conical surface horizontal, the sine centre has to be tilted through an
angle ‘θ’ by building the slip gauge stack of height ‘H’. This slip gauge height ‘H’
can be found by the following sine formula
H
sin θ=
L

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Where, L is the distance between the sine centre rollers

H=L . sin θ

Finally, the plunger of the dial gauge is moved along the top conical surface. If any
deviation is indicated by the dial gauge, then slip gauge height can be suitably
adjusted to get zero deviation. Then the accurate semi cone angle of the workpiece
can be found by using the formula.
H
α =θ=sin−1
L

Angle Gauge
These are developed by Dr. Tomlinson in 1939. They are hardened steel blocks of
approximately 75mm long and 16mm wide which has two lapped flat working
faces lying at a very precise angle to each other as shown in figure 7 the engraved
symbol ‘˂’ indicates the direction of the included angle. They are supplied in 13
pieces set and can be wrung together to build the desired angles. Figure 8 shows a
typical set of angle gauges.

Figure 6: Angle gauge

These gauge together with a square block, enable any angle between 0˚ and 360˚ to
be constructed to within 1.5 seconds of the nominal value by a suitable
combination of gauge. The required angle is built by wringing suitable
combination of angle gauges in the similar way to that of slip gauges.

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Figure 7: Gauge block set

Each angle is wedge, thus two gauges with their narrow end together provide an
angle which is the sum of the angles of the individual gauges. The engravings “˂”
in addition are all in the same direction as shown in the figure 9.

Figure 8: Combination of Angle gauge

MEASUREMENT OF INCLINES
Inclination of a surface generally represents its deviation from the horizontal
or vertical planes. Gravitational principle can be used in construction of
measurements of such inclinations. Spirit levels and clinometer are the instruments
of this category. We will discuss these instruments in brief in the following sub-
sections.

Spirit Level

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Spirit level is one of the most commonly used instruments for inspecting the
horizontal position of surfaces and for evaluating the direction and magnitude of
minor deviation from that nominal condition. It essentially consists of a close glass
tube of accurate form. It is called as the vial. It is filled almost entirely with a
liquid, leaving a small space for the formation of an air or gas bubble. Generally,
low viscosity fluids, such as ether, alcohol or benzol, are preferred for filling the
vial. The liquid due to its greater specific weight tends to fill the lower portion of
the closed space. Upper side of the vial is graduated in linear units. Inclination of a
surface can be known from the deviation of the bubble from its position when the
spirit level is kept in a horizontal plane. Temperature variations in the ambient
condition cause both liquid and vial to expand or contract. Therefore, selection of
proper liquid and material for the spirit level is very important for accurate result.
To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made of a
relatively stable casting and are equipped with thermally insulated handles.
Figure10 shows a schematic diagram of a spirit level.

Figure 9: Spirit level

Sensitivity of the vial used in spirit level is commonly expressed in the following
two ways.

Each graduation line representing a specific slope is defined by a tangent

relationship, e.g. 0.01 cm per meter.
An angular value is assigned to the vial length covered by the distance of two
adjacent graduation lines, i.e. the distance moved by the bubble from the zero will
correspond the angle directly.

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Clinometer
A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level for measuring, in
the vertical plane, the incline of a surface in relation to the basic horizontal plane,
over an extended range. The main functional element of a clinometer is the
sensitive vial mounted on a rotatable disc, which carries a graduated ring with its
horizontal axis supported in the housing of the instrument. The bubble of the vial is
in its centre position, when the clinometer is placed on a horizontal surface and the
scale of the rotatable disc is at zero position. If the clinometer is placed on an
incline surface, the bubble deviates from the centre. It can be brought to the centre
by rotating the disc. The rotation of the disc can be read on the scale. It represents
the deviation of the surface over which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal
plane. Figure 6.6 shows a diagram of a clinometer.
A number of commercially available clinometers with various designs are
available. They differ in their sensitivity and measuring accuracy. Sensitivity and
measuring accuracy of modern clinometers can be compared with any other high
precision measuring instruments. For shop uses, clinometers with 10 graduations
are available

Figure 10: Clinometer

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