Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

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Ecological Indicators
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind

Geospatial mapping of groundwater potential zones using multi-criteria

decision-making AHP approach in a hardrock basaltic terrain in India
Arjun B. Doke a, Rajendra B. Zolekar b, *, Hemlata Patel c, Sumit Das c
a
Department of Geography, Baburaoji Gholap College, Pune, Maharashtra, India
b
Department of Geography, K.V.N. Naik Shikshan Prasarak Sanstha’s Arts, Commerce and Science College, Nashik 422002, India
c
Department of Geography, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune 411007, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Among all other natural resources, groundwater is one of the most essential for environmental, biological, and
Groundwater potential socioeconomic activities. Several factors such as geology, distance from the river, geomorphology, slope, land-
GIS use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, and rainfall influence groundwater recharge and its availability.
Multi-Criteria Decision Making
In this study, an integrated approach of Geographical Information System (GIS) based Multi-Criteria Decision
AHP
Ulhas
Making (MCDM), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), and remote sensing were used for geospatial mapping of
India groundwater. For the determination of influencing factors, an extensive literature review was considered to form
a pairwise comparison matrix (PCM) and calculate the weight of each factor. The scores of the sub-parameters
were also assigned based on published literature, and after that, the weighted overlay analysis (WOA) tool in
ArcGIS10.1 was used to produce the final groundwater potential map. About 14% (684 km2) of the study area is
recognized as ‘high groundwater potential zone’, 34% (1591 km2) in ‘moderate groundwater potential zone’,
27% (1291 km2) in ‘low groundwater potential zone’ and the remaining 24% (1141 km2) in ‘poor groundwater
potential zone’. In the accuracy assessment, the groundwater potential zones i.e. high, moderate, and poor in
suitability map is precisely estimated contrasting to the zone ‘low’ in the producer’s point of view, but high and
poor groundwater zones detected more precisely compared to others in user’s point of view. The methodology,
techniques, and results of the current investigation may be useful to evaluate the groundwater potential zone in
similar drought-prone regions around the world.

1. Introduction lithology, geological structures, soil, lineament features, geo­

morphology, land use/land cover (LULC), rainfall, distance from the
Groundwater is the second most important reservoir for freshwater river, etc. (Das et al., 2017; Das and Mukhopadhyay, 2018; Parameswari
and the best alternative for human and economic activities compared to and Padmini, 2018; Das and Pal, 2019; Maity and Mandal, 2019; Pande
surface water (Melloul and Collin, 2001; Das and Pardeshi, 2018a; et al., 2019). Natural streams and groundwater have a relationship in
Andualem and Demeke, 2019; Arabameri et al., 2019). Hence, which the environmental flow affect groundwater occurrence as well as
groundwater estimation and management are very momentous to avoid river runoff (Kuriqi et al., 2020a). Groundwater availability greatly
severe water shortage in the drought-prone semi-arid regions (Desh­ varies during different seasons and river runoff substantially influence
mukh and Aher, 2016). The hydrological setting and groundwater the recharge mechanism (Kuriqi et al., 2020b). The stream flow also
occurrence of a region are generally governed by geological and affects groundwater quality (Orlova and Branfireun, 2014).
geomorphic setup (Doke et al., 2018; Das, 2019; Adimalla, 2020); where Geographical Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS)
as, the rate of runoff, infiltration, percolation, etc. are controlled by the techniques have opened a new avenue in assessing a large amount of
physiographic elements. Several researchers have accounted that po­ geospatial data and precisely map different natural resources. The
tential zones of groundwater are generally determined by landscape, availability of various satellite data made it easier to study the baseline
climatic, and environmental parameters i.e. relief, slope, drainage information concerning groundwater effectively and efficiently

* Corresponding author at: K.V. N. Naik Shikshan Prasarak Sanstha’s Arts, Commerce and Science College Nashik, Canada Corner, Nashik 422002, Maharashtra,
India.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.B. Zolekar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107685
Received 30 September 2020; Received in revised form 14 March 2021; Accepted 18 March 2021
Available online 3 May 2021
1470-160X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 1. Location map of the Ulhas catchment. (a) India and Maharashtra; (b) Maharashtra and Ulhas catchment; (c) Ulhas catchment and major locations within the
study area.

(Shekhar and Pandey, 2014). The conventional data (hydrogeological environmental management, agricultural suitability, etc. The main
surveys) are costly while compared to the RS data especially in hilly advantage of these techniques is that GIS-based methods provide quite
semi-arid areas (Jha et al., 2010). GIS is an excellent and robust tool to precise results-and take less computation time for identifying the GPZ
handle huge amounts of spatial data for sustainable natural resource compared to the traditional field methods (Zolekar and Bhagat, 2014).
management (Chowdhury et al., 2009) Thus, since the past few decades, Ulhas basin in Western Maharashtra shows a typical semi-arid con­
geospatial techniques have become a useful tool for groundwater map­ dition where rainfall occurs only during the monsoon season. Therefore,
ping (Murthy, 2000). a serious water scarcity situation is observed during non-monsoon sea­
Several researchers have used an integrated approach of GIS and RS sons. A precise groundwater potential map for this region is earnestly
with multi-criteria decision-making analysis (MCDMA) for the detection required because agriculture is the primary activity in this area. More­
of potential zones for groundwater (Adimalla and Taloor, 2020). GIS- over, due to the unpredictable monsoon behavior and freshwater scar­
based MCDM (Singh et al., 2018), Analytic hierarchy process (Agarwal city during the summer season, watershed development is essential in
et al., 2013), Fuzzy logic (Mohamed and Elmahdy, 2017), WOA this region. Previously Doke (2019) did some preliminary analysis of
(Nagarajan and Singh, 2009), Influencing factors (Magesh et al., 2012; groundwater availability in Ulhas catchment through the simple
Das et al., 2017; Das and Pardeshi, 2018b), etc. techniques were suc­ weighted overlay method; however, due to the over generalization of
cessfully used for detection of groundwater potential zone (GPZ), parameter’s weight, the previous study did not indicate good precision.

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 2. Methodology flow diagram of the present study.

Therefore, our aim of this study was to prepare a precise groundwater municipal corporations such as Navi Mumbai, Badlapur and Kalyan
potential map by utilizing a systematic and scientific GIS-based Dombivali use this river’s water for drinking along with groundwater.
analytical hierarchy process approach and make an efficient validation The study area show three major geomorphic divisions i.e. (i) steep
for Ulhas basin, India. escarpment [eastern site] (ii) the pediment [central part] (iii) the coastal
low land area [western part].
2. Study area The study area shows heavy rainfall during the monsoon season.
About 3000 mm rainfall occurs in the Ulhas catchment annually during
Ulhas basin is located in Western Maharashtra, India, comprising an the monsoon season. The average minimum and maximum tempera­
area of about 4700 km2 (Fig. 1). It partially covers three districts i.e. tures during winter and summer are about 15 ◦ C and 35 ◦ C, respectively.
Pune, Raigad, and Thane. The major river in the study area, namely Deccan basaltis the main rock type in the study area which formed
Ulhas is known as one of the most important west-flowing rivers in during the late Cretaceous period nearly 65 Ma ago. Alluvium is
Western Maharashtra. Ulhas river is originating from the northern valley observed in the eastern and western parts of the basin in small patches.
of the Rajmachi hill in the Raigad, Maharashtra (India) and flowing Marine sediments are deposited on the western side of the basin near the
about 122 km before falling into the Arabian sea. Kalu and Bhasta are sea coast.
two major tributaries of the Ulhas river. The major township and

Table 1
Pairwise comparisons matrix for AHP.
Criteria Geology Distance from river Geomorphology Slope Land-use Drainage density Lineament density Soil Rainfall Weights

Geology 1.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 9.00 9.00 0.28
Distance from river 0.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 6.00 7.00 9.00 9.00 0.23
Geomorphology 0.50 0.50 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 8.00 0.16
Slope 0.33 0.33 0.5 1.00 2.00 3.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 0.12
Land-use 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.5 1.00 3.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 0.10
Drainage Density 0.16 0.16 0.25 0.33 0.33 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 0.04
Lineament density 0.12 0.14 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.03
Soil 0.11 0.11 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.5 1.00 1.00 2.00 0.03
Rainfall 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.33 0.33 0.5 1.00 0.01

Maximum Eigen value (λ max) = 9.7818.

n = 9.
Consistency index (CI) = (λ max - n)/(n − 1) = 0.0977.
Random index (RI) = 1.45
Consistency ratio (CR) = CI/RI = 0.0674.

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 3. Geology of the Ulhas basin.

3. Material and methodology 3.2. Thematic maps

In the present study, nine criteria were selected for the geospatial The methodology is framed in the present investigation based on
mapping of groundwater after assessing a large number of published multi-criterion like geology, distance from the river, geomorphology,
literatures. MCDM approach i.e. AHP used for groundwater delineation slope, land-use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, and rainfall.
in this study can be framed into eight steps (Fig. 2): (i) selection of Thematic maps were prepared in the ArcGIS environment for under­
criterion; (ii) preparation of thematic layers; (iii) Pairwise Comparison standing baseline information of different parameters related to
Matrix (PCM) based on AHP; (iv) weight calculation; (v) score deter­ groundwater. The map of Geology in the Ulhas basin is derived from the
mination to sub-criteria; (vi) weighted overlay analysis; (vii) GPZ map; Geological Survey of India (GSI). Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
and (viii) accuracy assessment. (SRTM) of 90 m spatial resolution DEM data was used to mark the
boundary of the study region (www.cgiar.csi.org). SRTM DEM is
frequently used for the detection of GPZ in many previous studies.
3.1. Criterion Therefore, the slope map is prepared from DEM using spatial analyst
tools in ArcGIS10.1. After generating streams using hydrology tools in
Physiographic elements have a close relationship with groundwater ArcGIS 10.1, utilizing the line density tool, the drainage density map has
recharge (Zolekar, 2018). The level of groundwater varies according to been produced. The published map of soil texture is procured from the
elements such as geology, drainage density, lineament, rainfall, land- National Bureau of Soil Survey Department (NBSS). Long-term (1950 to
use, etc., (Choudhari et al., 2018). Most of the scientific studies have 2013) grid-based (0.25 * 0.25◦ ) rainfall data were obtained from the
frequently used criteria like lithology, geomorphology, geology, Indian Metrology Department, Pune (IMD), and rainfall distribution
drainage density, soils, lineament, rainfall, land-use, distance from the map was prepared using the IWD interpolation technique in ArcGIS
river, etc. for delineation of groundwater zone (Prasad et al., 2008; Das 10.1. This technique predicts the values of unknown locations based on
and Pal, 2019; Maity and Mandal, 2019). The combined effect of these known locations with the help of a statistically spatial correlation of
criteria has detected the potential zone for groundwater (Yeh et al., variables (Singh et al., 2013). The drainage map is prepared using hy­
2016). The effect of these factors shows a change in groundwater level. drology tools. Previous studies have shown that the shaded relief map
Therefore, the criterion i.e. geology, distance from the river, geo­ created by Cartosat DEM (30 m) provides effective information
morphology, slope, land-use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, compared to SRTM and ASTER DEM (Das and Pardeshi 2018c). There­
and rainfall were selected for GPZ applying weighted overlay analysis fore, using Cartosat DEM, shaded relief maps of different azimuth angles
(WOA).

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 4. Distance from river.

were created and carefully lineaments were extracted (Das and Pardeshi contribute notably to detect potential zone for groundwater. PCM was
2018c). For geospatial analysis and uniformity of the database, all the made by using a 1 to 9 point scale (Table 1). AHP calculated the weight
thematic layers converted into raster format using UTM Projection, Zone of parameters using PCM according to relative importance and influ­
43, Datum WGS 84 with resampled 30 m spatial resolution. ence. Weights decide the situation or significance level of parameters in
the form of hierarchy. Hence, the weights of parameters based on
judgment were calculated in PCM and after that normalized this matrix.
3.3. Analytical hierarchy process (AHP) Normalized pairwise comparison matrix (NPCM) has been formed by
the quotients obtained by the division of the total and each judgmental
AHP is an MCDM method that was proposed by Saaty (1980, 1997). value in the same columns. After that, the quotient values in each of the
It helps decision-makers to solve the spatial complex problem for envi­ rows were summed and the value obtained was divided by the number of
ronmental issues (Zolekar and Bhagat, 2015). Multi-parameters have parameters in the PCM (Table 1). The final value reflects the weight of
been considered to detect potential zone for groundwater. The weights each parameter. The weight calculated in NPCM for each parameter is
of each parameter were calculated according to their level of relative between the range 0–1 (Table 1). The sum of all the weights is always 1
importance in the decision-making process to find groundwater regions. (one) (Malczewski, 1999).
The hierarchical formulation, cost-effective and less time-consuming
and precise results, etc are important features of AHP (Das, 2019). In
such circumstances, the AHP method is successfully used for water 3.4. Consistency ratio (CR)
resource management worldwide. The quantitative and qualitative
approach is a major strength of AHP (Forman, 1993). The main A certain level of inconsistency may arise at the time of the pairwise
advantage of AHP is its feasibility towards the expert-based ranking of judgment of parameters in the AHP. Hence, it should be necessary to
the factor and flexibility of re-arrangement of the ranking in case of check the level of the logical consistency of pairwise judgment. CR is
lower accuracy. AHP calculates the weight of each parameter using the used to measure the level of consistency of the weight of the parameters
pairwise comparison matrix (PCM) basis of judgment formation. and it is introduced by Saaty (1980). It compared ratio between the
Therefore, in the present study, a mathematical-based AHP method has consistency index (CI) and random consistency index (RI) (Eq. (1)). The
been used to calculate the weights of parameters and assigned a score to CR is calculated to prove accuracy of weights obtained in NPCM. If the
sub-parameters. To avoid biases in ranking the parameters, an extensive CR is below 0.10 (10%), it is considered to be more precise, but other­
literature review was carried out. The chosen parameters jointly wise, judgments need to be revised if the CR is more than 0.10 (Saaty,

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 5. Geomorphology of Ulhas river basin.

1997). The judgmental values reached by the researcher are 0.06 and raster layer according to NPCM. Finally, the weighted values of each
therefore, it can be stated that the PCM formed and calculated weights raster layer are multiplied by the cell score of each input raster (Eq. (2)).
are acceptable. The output raster layer was produced into four classes of the same range
basis on FAO classification (1976).
Consistency ratio(CR) = CI/CR (1)
∑n
S= i=1
(wi.xi) (2)
3.5. Score determination
where S is total GPZ score, wi denotes weight of GPZ criteria,
A scale from 1 to 10 is used for assigning the score to sub-criteria
based on favourable conditions and their importance for the detection xi Indicates sub-criteria score of i GPZ criteria, and n represents total
of the groundwater zone. The maximum score (10) was given to the most number of GPZ criteria.
suitable sub-criterion, the minimum score (1) given to the least suitable
sub-parameters, and the intermediate score were assigned to moderately 3.7. Accuracy assessment:
suitable sub-parameters of the criterion for identification of GPZ. The
score for chosen parameters i.e. geology, distance from the river, geo­ Error matrix is commonly used for accuracy assessment (Congalton,
morphology, slope, land-use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, 1991). In the present investigation, this matrix is not only used for ac­
and rainfall was given, accordingly. curacy assessment but also helps to enhance the accuracy of the output
map. The well yield data were procured from Rajiv Gandhi National
3.6. Weighted overlay analysis (WOA) Drinking Water Mission Atlas for ground reference. The reference data
and classified data were compared for the validation of GPZ. We also
The WOA is a technique for users to solve spatial complex issues in compared the resultant groundwater potential map with water yield
site suitability based on common measurements of different and varied data of the published report by Central Ground Water Development
inputs. Therefore, the WOA tool was used for the detection of GPZ. The (CGWB), Govt. of India.
evaluation scale i.e. 1 to 10 is selected in WOA for assigning a score of
sub-parameters as per discussed previous point. All reclassified raster 3.8. Limitations
maps of selected parameters were over laid in the WOA tool. The cell
values for each input raster in the evaluation were given a score from the Although this study follows a careful systematic scientific analysis of
evaluation scale. The calculated weights were allotted to concern the multiple environmental factors, several limitations cannot be ignored.

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Table 2
Weights and scores of criteria and their sub-criteria.
Criteria Weight Influence (%) Sub-criterion (with ranges) Area (km2) Area (%) Score

Geology 0.28 28 Basalt 4026 86 02

Weathered Basalt 148 3 06
Marine sediment 340 7 08
Alluvium 194 4 10
Distance from river (meter) 0.23 23 >500 1059 22 01
500–1000 885 19 02
1000–2000 1444 31 04
2000–3000 885 19 08
3000–4000 435 9 10
Geomorphology 0.16 16 Lava plateau 309 07 01
Slope facets 246 02 01
Rocky benches 1487 32 03
Ridge/Hills 2537 54 04
Coastal plain 129 03 10
Slope (degree) 0.12 12 Extra steep (20–70) 302 6 01
Very steep (16–20) 177 4 02
Steep (12–16) 256 5 04
Moderate steep (8–12) 378 8 06
Gentle (4–8) 716 15 08
Very gentle (1–4) 2879 61 10
Land-use 0.10 10 Built-up 1366 29 01
Barren land 750 16 04
Scrub forest 1223 26 05
Agricultural land 880 18 08
Natural vegetation 415 9 09
Water body 74 2 10
Drainage density (km/km2) 0.04 4 0.01–0.58 336 7 01
0.58–0.83 507 11 01
0.83–1.02 825 18 04
1.02–1.16 1837 39 06
1.16–1.49 1203 26 10
Lineament density (km/km2) 0.03 3 >0.14 1961 42 01
0.14–0.36 1181 25 04
0.36–0.59 1084 23 08
0.59–0.96 482 10 10
Soil 0.03 3 Clay soil 1192 24 06
Loamy soil 3515 76 10
Rainfall (mm) 0.01 1 >1754 417 9 02
1754–2245 289 6 04
2245–2736 1013 22 06
2736–3227 1550 33 08
3227–3718 1081 23 09
<3718 358 8 10

The major limitations are described below: basin. A detailed account regarding all these factors are discussed below:

(i) Most of the qualitative data of this study are based on published
maps, provided by different authorities. However, most of these 4.1. The criterion for groundwater potential mapping
maps are highly generalized in nature. A great variation in all
factors may be found at the local scale. Therefore, due to this 4.1.1. Geology
problem, the generated groundwater potential map may not be Lithology directly influences the porosity and permeability of aquifer
very accurate at a very local scale. rocks, therefore, the origin and condition of the groundwater can be
(ii) AHP is a heuristic method where the ranking of criteria is done easily understood through assessing lithology carefully. The Ulhas basin
based on expertise. Although, this study shows good accuracy, a falls under four major groups of geological formation, are (i) alluvium;
more precise map may be predicted using the same method by (ii) basalt; (iii) marine sediment; and (iv) weathered basalt (Fig. 3).
rearranging the ranks. About 86% of the total geographical area (TGA) have primary rock i.e.
(iii) This study is entirely focused on remote sensing and GIS and gives basalt rock of the late Cretaceous period of Ulhas basin. It means an
a generalized prediction of groundwater potential. However, for extensive area shows hard rock lithology that is probably not suitable for
extreme precise assessment, field-based geophysical methods are higher porosity and permeability rate to groundwater recharge. Only
highly useful. However, groundwater potential zonation through 14% of land i.e. alluvium (4%), marine sediment (7%) and weathered
field-based geophysical methods are not only expensive but also basalts (3%) are more suitable for groundwater recharge compared to
extremely time-consuming. basalt rock. The alluvium lithology is observed in the eastern and
western parts of the basin in small patches. The marine sediment is
4. Results and discussion deposited near the sea-coast.

Nine criteria that are related to groundwater occurrence of an area 4.1.2. Distance from the river
such as geology, distance from the river, geomorphology, slope, land- Distance from the river substantially affects groundwater levels. This
use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, and rainfall are care­ effect appears to be positive, especially in flat areas (Pham et al., 2020).
fully assessed to map different groundwater potential area of the Ulhas The groundwater level is higher near the river compared to areas far
away from it. The distance from water bodies concerning groundwater

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Fig. 6. Distribution of slope.

vulnerability can be subjective. Therefore, all the locations within 500 m runoff and a lower slope recharges more water. Hence, the slope is
distance from the drainage line are classified as very high potential for negatively associated with the percolation and infiltration rate of surface
groundwater recharge, while areas within a distance of 500, 1000, 2000, water but positively associated with surface runoff (Das, 2019). Water
3000, and > 3000 m from the river are judged to have very high, high, can allow percolating into the soil in a gently dipping area for a longer
moderate, low, and very low potential to groundwater recharge, period and helps it to increases the groundwater level.
respectively (Fig. 4). About 2897 km2 (61%) of TGA have a very gentle slope (1◦ –4◦ ) in the
Ulhas basin (Fig. 6). Since gentle slopes favour groundwater occurrence,
4.1.3. Geomorphology a high score was assigned to these gently sloping areas. Slightly less
Geomorphology of the region is an essential parameter for evaluating suitable land for groundwater is characterized by the gentle slope
the prospect and potential zone of groundwater because it controls the (4◦ –8◦ ) with moderate deep soils occupies about 15% of TGA. Since the
movement of groundwater in the subsurface (Andualem and Demeke, percolation rate of groundwater is less on the gentle slope than very
2019). The coastal plain, lava plateau, ridges/hills, rocky beaches, and gentle slope, so we assigned a slightly lower score contrasting to the
slope facets are major geomorphic features in the study area (Fig. 5). regions lying on very gentle slope. Moderately potential land is about
Only 3% of lands in Ulhas have coastal plain, which acts as recharge land 8% for groundwater due to moderate slopes (8◦ –12◦ ) with moderate
rising potential of groundwater in the region. About 32% of the land runoff therefore the intermediate score was assigned to them. About
distributed in the centre has moderate potential for groundwater char­ 15% TGA is not suitable for groundwater recharge due to steep to extra
acterized by rocky benches. Lava plateau and steep slope facets are steep slopes. An area having a slope of more than 16◦ (steep to extra
common in the eastern section. Areas having rocky beaches, ridges/hills, steep slope) was considered not a suitable zone for groundwater
lava plateau, and high slope facets were characterized as low ground­ occurrence due to very high-runoff and less infiltration rate so the
water recharge areas, therefore, it’s assigned moderate to low score for minimum score was assigned.
evaluation (Table 2).
4.1.5. Land use
4.1.4. Slope Reliable and precise information is provided by land-use for sus­
Slope is a crucial criterion that directly influences infiltration rate, tainable water resource management. Land use pattern controls the
percolation rate, and surface runoff in a particular area (Das, 2021). An infiltration and permeability process. The major land-use practices in
area having a steep slope generates less water recharge due to high the Ulhas basin are scrubland (26%), barren land (16%), built-up area

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 7. Land-use of the Ulhas river basin.

cover (29%), agricultural land (18%), natural vegetation (9%), and 2019). It is the ratio of the length of all streams and aggregate area of
water bodies (2%) (Fig. 7). the drainage basin (Avtar et al., 2011a). The groundwater recharge rate
In Ulhas catchment, the reservoirs hold a large amount of water in is varied by drainage density in a particular area.
nearly all seasons. Therefore, waterbodies were selected for the High drainage density areas generally have a low potential for
maximum score because it was expected, these reservoirs would influ­ groundwater recharge due to the high runoff rate. Areas with lower
ence recharge and higher the groundwater level at the proximal loca­ drainage density generally have higher groundwater potential due to a
tions. In the forests, the roots of the trees go deepen as a result, the soil higher probability of groundwater recharge (Prasad et al., 2008; Thomas
becomes loose and the rocks are cracked. It is favourable for water and Duraisamy, 2017; Andualem and Demeke, 2019). Therefore, a
percolation and helps to enhance the groundwater level. Natural vege­ higher score was assigned to lower drainage density areas and lower
tation and scrub forests are commonly seen in Ulhas and comprise a scores were assigned to densely drainage areas (Table 2). The drainage
reasonable area. The water holding capacity and the capacity of density is varying from 0 to 1.49 km/km2 in and it was classified into
augment of the recharge process are higher in dense forest therefore five classes for the study area. (Fig. 8).
higher score was assigned to forest and vegetation cover. Scrublands are
characterized by thin and very shallow soils that are marginally suitable 4.1.7. Lineament density
for groundwater recharge. Therefore, a moderate score was assigned to Lineament is another important hydrological parameter that helps to
scrublands. The surface runoff rate is more on the barren land due to thin understand the potential zone of groundwater (Kumanan and Ram­
soil, hence, a lower score is assigned to it. The agricultural land is more asamy, 2003). Lineament features i.e. faults, cracks, and joints deter­
favourable than barren, rocky, and built-up area for groundwater mine the groundwater prospect zone (Das and Pardeshi, 2018c).
recharge. The maximum score was given to the agricultural land since The movement and occurrence of groundwater depend on the infil­
loose soils influence water to infiltrate to the subsurface. The built-up tration by lineaments features. More the lineament density, the higher
land is constructed of concrete, consequently, surface runoff is high would be groundwater recharge and lower the lineament density, the
with less infiltration rate. Therefore, a very low score was assigned to lower is the probability of potential groundwater region (Das et al.,
built-up land (Table 2). 2017). Magowe and Carr (1999) have reported that higher lineaments
feature densities correlated positively with potential groundwater zone
4.1.6. Drainage density and vice-versa. Therefore, considering this theory, scores were assigned
Drainage density is a key indicator of hydrological landscapes which to lineaments. The high potential zone of groundwater is near dense
determines the infiltration and underlying lithology (Murmu et al., lineaments and the maximum score assigned to it (Table 2). The

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 8. Drainage density of Ulhas river basin.

lineament density map observed that the centre part of the study region 4.1.9. Rainfall
shows highly suitable for good groundwater due to dense lineaments. Groundwater is a dynamic natural resource that is recharged by
The western and eastern site has less potential for groundwater recharge rainfall. Rainfall directly controls the infiltration of surface water to
based on lineaments density because of its density decreases from the increase groundwater recharge (Maity and Mandal, 2019). Several re­
centre towards eastern and the western direction (Fig. 9). searchers reported that there is a strong positive relationship between
rainfall and groundwater (Das, 2019). Considering this theory, we
4.1.8. Soil texture carefully assigned scores to the rainfall (Table 2). Even so, topographical
Soil properties i.e. soil type, soil texture, etc. show to have a main elements i.e. slope is affected groundwater recharge with rainfall. Ulhas
role in the spatial variation of groundwater recharge (Mehra et al., basin falls within the sub-humid morphogenetic region. Average annual
2016). Soil texture can be described in the ratio of sand, silt, and clay rainfall is about 3000 mm in the study region. Although the annual
applying texture triangles which determine soil infiltration and water average rainfall is high, the erratic behaviour of monsoon, dry pre and
holding capacity. Groundwater recharge depends on runoff, water post-monsoon seasons and the geological formations create water scar­
holding capacity, soil thickness, soil porosity, etc. Zomlota et al. (2015) city conditions. Fig. 11 represents the rainfall distribution map of the
have studied the behaviour of eight different soil textures with Ulhas catchment. Rainfall in this are a occurs from June to September
groundwater recharge and reported that loamy soils have a high positive due to monsoon winds. From January-May, the entire study area re­
association with groundwater recharge while clay soils were negatively mains dry.
associated with groundwater recharge. The porosity and permeability
rate is more in loamy soils compare to clay soils, therefore, the higher
4.2. Assessment of groundwater potential zones
priority is assigned to loamy soils and the lesser score assigned to clay
soils (Das and Pal, 2019). Loam and Clay are major soil textures in the
By using the GIS-based MCDM approach, nine criteria were inte­
Ulhas basin. Loamy soil is dominated in the study region, which covers
grated to identify GPZ in the Ulhas basin, Maharashtra. The impact of
from the centre toward eastern, western, and northern parts, whereas
these criteria was evaluated using PCM and after that generated geo­
clay soils are observed in small patches over the eastern, western, and
spatial mapping of groundwater potential throughout the WOA based on
central parts of the southern (Fig. 10).
MCDM and AHP. Finally, the output raster map was generated and

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 9. Lineament density of Ulhas river basin.

calculated score averagely divided into four groups i.e. 9, 7, 5, and 2. for groundwater but it requires proper surface and groundwater man­
Lastly, these groups were reclassified into four groundwater potential agement. There is a need for plantation and proper economic activities.
zone i.e. high groundwater potential zone (HGPZ), moderate ground­ In contrast, LGPZ covering an area of 1291 km2 is observed over the
water potential zone (MGPZ), low groundwater potential zone (LGPZ), steep to an extra steep slope with thin soil, high runoff, low groundwater
and poor groundwater potential zone (PGPZ) (Fig. 12). recharge, and very away from river and lineaments (Table 3). These
HGPZ generally does not have any limitations whatsoever so far as its areas show very deep groundwater levels with a shallow weathered
sustained applications are concerned. However, they may have minor zone. Sloping land with thin soils, built-up area, rocky lands, low density
limitations which do not affect productivity or benefits in any way. The of lineament, etc. are classified into the category, ‘PGPZ’. It is observed
area with a gentle slope, the surface is plane and mountainous conse­ mostly in the hilly regions and includes an area of 1141 km2 (Table 3).
quent into slow runoff and rainwater long period to percolate and, The purpose of groundwater potential map is to delineate the areas
hence, considered as an HGPZ. MGPZ has got certain limitations that are that may have a higher potential of groundwater development within
not so significant however they affect productivity or benefits moder­ any geographic location (Diaz-Alcaide and Martinez-Santos, 2019). The
ately. The area with a moderate slope resulting in more runoff and less final groundwater map is generally presented in a simplistic way so that
time percolation compared to HGPZ and hence considered as MGPZ. it can easily be interpreted by any common person who do not need any
LGPZ does have limitations that affect productivity or benefits for a advanced scientific background, however, developing of such precise
given use. The area with a steep slope resulting in high runoff and short potential maps require intense knowledge of geology, hydrogeology and
time percolation hence considered as LGPZ. remote sensing (Bagyaraj et al., 2012). Several researchers have carried
About 14% of TGA was obtained into the class HGPZ (Table 3). It is out a similar investigation and parallel observations that groundwater
present in the downstream part of the agricultural land of the Ulhas development activities can be performed in such HGPZ and MGPZ of the
basin. The characteristics of these lands have a very gentle slope with landscape for enhancing the yield of supplementary irrigation and do­
loam soil, paddy lands with an excellent infiltration ability, heavy mestic purpose (Shekhar and Pandey, 2014; Das et al., 2017; Rajaveni
rainfall, low runoff, high groundwater recharge, higher water holding et al., 2017; Murmu et al., 2019; Andualem and Demeke, 2019).
capacity of soils, etc. Therefore, it is a highly potential land for Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) technique is found to be the most
groundwater, and here is more possible intensive groundwater man­ popular for delineating groundwater potential maps in the Indian
agement. Moderately potential land for groundwater was calculated to continent (e.g. Agarwal et al., 2013; Razandi et al., 2015; Shahid et al.,
be about 34% of TGA (Table 3). 2000). Previously, this technique has been widely applied in similar
These lands have a gentle slope, vegetation land, moderate linea­ landscape and environment of our study area as well (e.g. Arulbalaji
ment density, ridge/hills, and rocky benches. It is moderately potential et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2020; Saranya and Saravanan, 2020). Similar

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 10. Soil texture of Ulhas river basin.

to the present study, Arulbalaji et al. (2019) prepared a highly accurate 5. Conclusion
groundwater potential map in Southern Western Ghat and validated
through water yield data. Das (2019) compared frequency ratio, AHP Geospatial mapping of groundwater potential zones in the Ulhas
and influencing factor technique for groundwater potential mapping in a basin, Maharashtra is carried out by GIS-based AHP approach. Nine
Western Ghat catchment and showed great performance of AHP through criteria i.e geology, distance from the river, geomorphology, slope, land-
AUC based validation technique. use, drainage density, lineament density, soil, and rainfall were inte­
The present study is much helpful for water resources management grated into ArcGIS environment to estimate the groundwater potential
by demonstrating the potential zones for development, and this meth­ of different regions within the study area. About 14% of the study area is
odology can be useful in other similar areas that probably faced the same recognized as ‘HGPZ, 34% as ‘MGPZ”, 27% as ‘LGPZ’ and remained 24%
problem. Further studies can be done on the groundwater suitability for as ‘PGPZ. HGPZ have no significant limitations for intensive ground­
different purposes, and also on the groundwater recharge amount and its water management. The regions that are identified as MPGZ are
relation to rainfall amount. required proper management planning regarding agriculture, plantation
and suitable economic activities for sustainable surface and ground­
water management. The PGPZ regions are found having a large part
4.3. Accuracy assessment covered by areas under built-up, steep to extra steep slopes, barren land,
and thin soils with rocky land, therefore, these regions are needed extra
The HPGZ and PGPZ have estimated about 97% and 92% correctness care and planning for water resources extraction and utilization. The
for users and about 94% and 91% for producers, respectively. MPGZ and three big Municipal Corporation such as Badlapur, Navi Mumbai, and
LGPZ illustrate low accuracy compared to HPGZ and PGPZ (Table 4). Kalyan Dombivali are located in the Ulhas river basin. Therefore, the
The producer’s and user’s average (overall) accuracy is calculated at groundwater potential map generated through a robust AHP method of
about 91% for the classified final map of groundwater potential zone. this study may be considered as a great database for planning and
Therefore, the result of the present study establishes the validation of the management for groundwater not only in these three major municipal
technique for GPZ and can be applied to other regions having similar locations but also, for agricultural regions as well. Moreover, this study
geological settings. We also validated the groundwater potential map has great potential in improving the irrigation facilities and improving
using CGWB (2013) published report where it is found that in central agricultural productivity since agricultural practice is extensively done
Ulhas catchment the yield of water varies from 0.5 to 13.5 l s− 1 and in the study area. The methodology applied in this study showed great
groundwater yield generally decreases (<0.5 l s− 1) towards the east.

12
A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 11. Rainfall distribution of the Ulhas river basin.

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Fig. 12. Groundwater potential zones of Ulhas river basin.

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A.B. Doke et al. Ecological Indicators 127 (2021) 107685

Table 3
Groundwater potential zones.
Groundwater potential zones Area Land characteristics/qualities Remarks
2
(km ) %

High groundwater potential zone (HGPZ) 684.1 14.52 Alluvium and basalt; Highly potential land for groundwater. Intensive groundwater
Very gentle slope with deep soils; management is possible.
Loam soil texture;
Water bodies, agriculture, and dense
forest;
Heavy to moderate rainfall;
Maximum area detected near the river;
Lower drainage density;
Higher lineaments density;
Ridge/hills and rocky benches
Moderate groundwater potential zone 1591.3 33.80 Gentle slope; Moderately potential for groundwater under proper surface and
(MGPZ) Loam soil texture; groundwater
Slightly away from river; management but there is need to plantation and proper economic
Agriculture and vegetation; activities.
Moderate rainfall;
Slightly moderate drainage density;
Moderate lineaments density;
Ridge/hills and rocky benches
Low groundwater potential zone (LGPZ) 1291.4 27.42 Basalt; Marginally potential for groundwater if careful management of
Moderate slope with thin and shallow surplus water.
soils;
Scrub forest;
Clay and loam soil;
Ridge/hills and rocky benches;
far away from river;
Marginally lineaments density
Poor groundwater potential zone (PGPZ) 1141.2 24.24 Built-up land, rocky land, barren land; These lands are not potential for groundwater. Areas under built-up,
Lava plateau, slope facets; steep to
Steep to extra steep slope (Slopping extra steep slopes, barren land, thin soils with rocky land are not
land); considered
Basalt, rocky benches and weathered for groundwater
basalt;
Low to high rainfall;
Clay and loam soils;
Very far away from the flow path
Total 4708 100

Table 4
Error matrix: accuracy assessment.
Reference class

Classified classes HGPZ MGPZ LGPZ PGPZ Total well User’s accuracy (%)
HGPZ 33 01 00 00 34 97.05
MGPZ 01 19 01 01 22 86.36
LGPZ 01 00 17 01 19 89.47
PGPZ 00 00 02 22 24 91.66
Total sample 35 20 20 24 99
Producer’s accuracy (%) 94.28 95.00 85.00 91.66 91.13

efficiency and precision, therefore, this methodology may be considered Acknowledgements

for performing groundwater exploration in different regions having
similar geologic, climatic and environmental behaviour. The corresponding author would like to thank the Department of
Geography, K.T.H.M. College Nashik (Maharashtra, India) for permit­
CRediT authorship contribution statement ting to use the Geo-informatics laboratory for this research. AD and RBZ
thank the Principal and Management of Baburaoji Gholap College San­
Arjun B. Doke: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. gavi, Pune, and K.V.N. Naik Shikshan Prasarak Sanstha’s Arts, Com­
Rajendra B. Zolekar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - orig­ merce, and Science College Nashik for encouraging to complete this
inal draft. Hemlata Patel: Data curation, Software, Visualization. Sumit research. Critical and constructive comments from two anonymous re­
Das: Data curation, Writing - review & editing. viewers improved the final manuscript significantly. Dr. J.C. Marques
(editor in chief) and Dr. H. Hämäläinen (associate editor) are sincerely
Declaration of Competing Interest acknowledged for efficient editorial handling of this paper.

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial References
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