The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body.

Each bone is a
complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The
skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that
make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for
muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red
bone marrow inside of our bones. Bones act as the body’s warehouse for calcium, iron,
and energy in the form of fat. Finally, the skeleton grows throughout childhood and
provides a framework for the rest of the body to grow along with it.

The skeletal system in an adult body is made up of 206 individual bones. These bones
are arranged into two major divisions: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton runs along the body’s midline axis and is made up of 80 bones in the
following regions:
 Skull
 Hyoid
 Auditory ossicles
 Ribs
 Sternum
 Vertebral column
The appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones in the folowing regions:

 Upper limbs
 Lower limbs
 Pelvic girdle
 Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
Skull
The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible.
These 21 fused bones are separate in children to allow the skull and brain to grow, but
fuse to give added strength and protection as an adult. The mandible remains as a
movable jaw bone and forms the only movable joint in the skull with the temporal
bone.
The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the
brain from damage. The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are
known as facial bones and support the eyes, nose, and mouth.

Hyoid and Auditory Ossicles

The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the mandible. The hyoid is
the only bone in the body that does not form a joint with any other bone—it is a
floating bone. The hyoid’s function is to help hold the trachea open and to form a bony
connection for the tongue muscles.
 The malleus, incus, and stapes—known collectively as the auditory ossicles—are the
smallest bones in the body. Found in a small cavity inside of the temporal bone, they
serve to transmit and amplify sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.
Vertebrae
Twenty-six vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body. They are named
by region:
 Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae
 Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae
 Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae
 Sacrum - 1 vertebra
 Coccyx (tailbone) - 1 vertebra
With the exception of the singular sacrum and coccyx, each vertebra is named for the
first letter of its region and its position along the superior-inferior axis. For example, the
most superior thoracic vertebra is called T1 and the most inferior is called T12.

Ribs and Sternum

The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of
the anterior side of the thoracic region of the skeleton. The sternum connects to the
ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the costal cartilage.
There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the ribcage of the
thoracic region. The first seven ribs are known as “true ribs” because they connect the
thoracic vertebrae directly to the sternum through their own band of costal cartilage.
Ribs 8, 9, and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage that is connected to the
cartilage of the seventh rib, so we consider these to be “false ribs.” Ribs 11 and 12 are
also false ribs, but are also considered to be “floating ribs” because they do not have
any cartilage attachment to the sternum at all.

Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton and
consists of the left and right clavicles and left and right scapulae.
The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. It forms the ball and socket joint of the
shoulder with the scapula and forms the elbow joint with the lower arm bones. The
radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. The ulna is on the medial side of the
forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The radius allows the
forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint.
The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals, a group of eight small bones
that give added flexibility to the wrist. The carpals are connected to the five
metacarpals that form the bones of the hand and connect to each of the fingers. Each
finger has three bones known as phalanges, except for the thumb, which only has two
phalanges.
 Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Formed by the left and right hip bones, the pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg)
bones to the axial skeleton.
The femur is the largest bone in the body and the only bone of the thigh (femoral)
region. The femur forms the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone and forms
theknee joint with the tibia and patella. Commonly called the kneecap, the patella is
special because it is one of the few bones that are not present at birth. The patella
forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling.
The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. The tibia is much larger than the
fibula and bears almost all of the body’s weight. The fibula is mainly a muscle
attachment point and is used to help maintain balance. The tibia and fibula form the
ankle joint with the talus, one of the seven tarsal bones in the foot.
The tarsals are a group of seven small bones that form the posterior end of the foot and
heel. The tarsals form joints with the five long metatarsals of the foot. Then each of the
metatarsals forms a joint with one of the set of phalanges in the toes. Each toe has
three phalanges, except for the big toe, which only has two phalanges.

Microscopic Structure of Bones

The skeleton makes up about 30-40% of an adult’s body mass. The skeleton’s mass is
made up of nonliving bone matrix and many tiny bone cells. Roughly half of the bone
matrix’s mass is water, while the other half is collagen protein and solid crystals of
calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. 

Living bone cells are found on the edges of bones and in small cavities inside of the
bone matrix. Although these cells make up very little of the total bone mass, they have
several very important roles in the functions of the skeletal system. The bone cells
allow bones to:
 Grow and develop
 Be repaired following an injury or daily wear
 Be broken down to release their stored minerals
Types of Bones
All of the bones of the body can be broken down into five types: long, short, flat,
irregular, and sesamoid.
 Long.  Long bones are longer than they are wide and are the major bones of the
limbs. Long bones grow more than the other classes of bone throughout childhood
and so are responsible for the bulk of our height as adults. A hollow medullary cavity
is found in the center of long bones and serves as a storage area for bone marrow.
Examples of long bones include the femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, and phalanges.
 
 Short. Short bones are about as long as they are wide and are often cubed or
round in shape. The carpal bones of the wrist and the tarsal bones of the foot are
 examples of short bones.
 
 Flat.  Flat bones vary greatly in size and shape, but have the common feature of
being very thin in one direction. Because they are thin, flat bones do not have a
medullary cavity like the long bones. The frontal, parietal, and occipital bones of the
cranium—along with the ribs and hip bones—are all examples of flat bones.
 
 Irregular. Irregular bones have a shape that does not fit the pattern of the long,
short, or flat bones. The vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx of the spine—as well as the
sphenoid, ethmoid, and zygomatic bones of the skull—are all irregular bones.
 
 Sesamoid. The sesamoid bones are formed after birth inside of tendons that run
across joints. Sesamoid bones grow to protect the tendon from stresses and strains at
the joint and can help to give a mechanical advantage to muscles pulling on the
tendon. The patella and the pisiform bone of the carpals are the only sesamoid
bones that are counted as part of the 206 bones of the body. Other sesamoid bones
can form in the joints of the hands and feet, but are not present in all people.
Parts of Bones
The long bones of the body contain many distinct regions due to the way in which they
develop. At birth, each long bone is made of three individual bones separated by
hyaline cartilage. Each end bone is called an epiphysis (epi = on; physis = to grow)
while the middle bone is called a diaphysis (dia = passing through). The epiphyses and
diaphysis grow towards one another and eventually fuse into one bone. The region of
growth and eventual fusion in between the epiphysis and diaphysis is called the
metaphysis (meta = after). Once the long bone parts have fused together, the only
hyaline cartilage left in the bone is found as articular cartilage on the ends of the bone
that form joints with other bones. The articular cartilage acts as a shock absorber
and gliding surface between the bones to facilitate movement at the joint.
Looking at a bone in cross section, there are several distinct layered regions that make
up a bone. The outside of a bone is covered in a thin layer of dense irregular connective
tissue called the periosteum. The periosteum contains many strong collagen fibers that
are used to firmly anchor tendons and muscles to the bone for movement. Stem cells
and osteoblast cells in the periosteum are involved in the growth and repair of the
outside of the bone due to stress and injury. Blood vessels present in the periosteum
provide energy to the cells on the surface of the bone and penetrate into the bone itself
to nourish the cells inside of the bone. The periosteum also contains nervous tissue and
many nerve endings to give bone its sensitivity to pain when injured.

Deep to the periosteum is the compact bone that makes up the hard, mineralized
portion of the bone. Compact bone is made of a matrix of hard mineral salts reinforced
with tough collagen fibers. Many tiny cells called osteocytes live in small spaces in the
matrix and help to maintain the strength and integrity of the compact bone.
Deep to the compact bone layer is a region of spongy bone where the bone tissue
grows in thin columns called trabeculae with spaces for red bone marrow in between.
The trabeculae grow in a specific pattern to resist outside stresses with the least
amount of mass possible, keeping bones light but strong. Long bones have a spongy
bone on their ends but have a hollow medullary cavity in the middle of the diaphysis.
The medullary cavity contains red bone marrow during childhood, eventually turning
into yellow bone marrow after puberty.

Articulations
An articulation, or joint, is a point of contact between bones, between a bone and
cartilage, or between a bone and a tooth. Synovial joints are the most common type of
articulation and feature a small gap between the bones. This gap allows a free range of
motion and space for synovial fluid to lubricate the joint. Fibrous joints exist where
bones are very tightly joined and offer little to no movement between the bones.
Fibrous joints also hold teeth in their bony sockets. Finally, cartilaginous joints are
formed where bone meets cartilage or where there is a layer of cartilage between two
bones. These joints provide a small amount of flexibility in the joint due to the gel-like
consistency of cartilage.
Support and Protection
The skeletal system’s primary function is to form a solid framework that supports and
protects the body's organs and anchors the skeletal muscles. The bones of the axial
skeleton act as a hard shell to protect the internal organs—such as the brain and
theheart—from damage caused by external forces. The bones of the appendicular
skeleton provide support and flexibility at the joints and anchor the muscles that move
the limbs.
Movement
The bones of the skeletal system act as attachment points for the skeletal muscles of
the body. Almost every skeletal muscle works by pulling two or more bones either
closer together or further apart. Joints act as pivot points for the movement of the
bones. The regions of each bone where muscles attach to the bone grow larger and
stronger to support the additional force of the muscle. In addition, the overall mass and
thickness of a bone increase when it is under a lot of stress from lifting weights or
supporting body weight.
Hematopoiesis
Red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells in a process known as
hematopoiesis. Red bone marrow is found in the hollow space inside of bones known as
the medullary cavity. Children tend to have more red bone marrow compared to their
body size than adults do, due to their body’s constant growth and development. The
amount of red bone marrow drops off at the end of puberty, replaced by yellow bone
marrow.
Storage
The skeletal system stores many different types of essential substances to facilitate
growth and repair of the body. The skeletal system’s cell matrix acts as our calcium
bank by storing and releasing calcium ions into the blood as needed. Proper levels of
calcium ions in the blood are essential to the proper function of the nervous and
muscular systems. Bone cells also release osteocalcin, a hormone that helps regulate
blood sugar and fat deposition. The yellow bone marrow inside of our hollow long bones
is used to store energy in the form of lipids. Finally, red bone marrow stores some iron
in the form of the molecule ferritin and uses this iron to form hemoglobin in red blood
cells.
Growth and Development
The skeleton begins to form early in fetal development as a flexible skeleton made of
hyaline cartilage and dense irregular fibrous connective tissue. These tissues act as a
soft, growing framework and placeholder for the bony skeleton that will replace them.
As development progresses, blood vessels begin to grow into the soft fetal skeleton,
bringing stem cells and nutrients for bone growth. Osseous tissue slowly replaces the
cartilage and fibrous tissue in a process called calcification. The calcified areas spread
out from their blood vessels replacing the old tissues until they reach the border of
another bony area. At birth, the skeleton of a newborn has more than 300 bones; as a
person ages, these bones grow together and fuse into larger bones, leaving adults with
only 206 bones.
Flat bones follow the process of intramembranous ossification where the young bones
grow from a primary ossification center in fibrous membranes and leave a small region
of fibrous tissue in between each other. In the skull these soft spots are known as
fontanels, and give the skull flexibility and room for the bones to grow. Bone slowly
replaces the fontanels until the individual bones of the skull fuse together to form a
rigid adult skull.

Long bones follow the process of endochondral ossification where the diaphysis grows
inside of cartilage from a primary ossification center until it forms most of the bone.
The epiphyses then grow from secondary ossification centers on the ends of the bone. A
small band of hyaline cartilage remains in between the bones as a growth plate. As we
grow through childhood, the growth plates grow under the influence of growth and sex
hormones, slowly separating the bones. At the same time the bones grow larger by
growing back into the growth plates. This process continues until the end of puberty,
when the growth plate stops growing and the bones fuse permanently into a single
bone. The vast difference in height and limb length between birth and adulthood are
mainly the result of endochondral ossification in the long bones.

Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor

 
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Skull is the skeleton of the head consisting of the cranium and mandible. It encloses the brain
and supports the face. Total number of bones in the skull is 22, as is discussed in detail below.
Cranial part of the skull is composed of several separate bones united at immobile joints called
sutures, which are held by sutural ligaments. Contrary to this, the mandible is united to the
cranium by a mobile synovial joint called the temporomandibular joint.

Structure of skull bones:

Skull bones are made up of external and internal tables of compact bone separated by a layer
of spongy bone called the diploe. The internal table of compact bone is thinner and more brittle
than the external table. The bones are covered on the outer and inner surfaces with periosteum.

Divisions:
Bones of skull can be divided into two groups: Bones of cranium, Bones of Face. The vault of
skull is the upper most part of the cranium and the base of skull is the lower most part.

Bones of cranium:
The cranium consists of the following bones (Frontal bone,Parietal bones,Occipital
bone,Temporal bones,Sphenoid bone,Ethmoid bone

Frontal bone:
Frontal bone forms the forehead, thus called the bone of the forehead. It curves downwards and
ends by making the upper margins of the orbits. Medially, it articulates with the frontal
processes of the maxillae and the nasal bones. Laterally, it articulates with the zygomatic bone.
Superciliary arches and the supraorbital notches or foramina are the prominent features of the
anterior view of frontal bone.
Frontal bone also contains the frontal air sinuses: the hollow spaces lined with mucous
membrane. These spaces communicate with the nose and serve as voice resonators.

Mandible:
Mandible, commonly called the lower jaw, consists of a horizontal body and two vertical rami.

Clavicle | Collar bone:

Clavicle is a modified long bone having two curves. The medial 2/3 of the bone has a convex
curve and the lateral 1/3 has a concave curve as seen from front. It is the only long bone of
human body that lies horizontally in its natural position. Like all long bones, it has two ends. The
lateral end articulates with the acromion process of scapula and the medial end articulates with
the sternum and first costal cartilage. Towards the medial side, the shaft of the bone is rounded
while towards the lateral side, it is flattened and forms a superior and inferior surface. The
clavicle is subcutaneous throughout its length and can easily be seen in all subjects. Clavicle
has two borders and two surfaces. The borders are anterior and posterior and the surfaces are
superior and inferior.
Functions of clavicle:
Clavicle acts as a strut to hold the upper limb laterally away from the body. It also bears a part
of the weight of upper limb (the remaining is borne by the scapula). By being laterally away from
the body, the functional efficiency of upper limb increases greatly.
Scapula | Shoulder Blade:
It is a flat triangular bone present on the posterior aspect of thoracic framework (ribcage) from
2nd to 7th vertebra.
Borders:
It has three borders; Vertebral (medial) border, Superior border, and Axillary (lateral) border
Angles:
It has three angles; Medial angle, Lateral angle and Inferior angle
Glenoid fossa: 
It is a pear shaped fossa that articulates with humerus to form shoulder joint.
Body of scapula:
It has two surfaces; Costal surface and Dorsal surface.
Dorsal Surface: Contains the spine of scapula. Divided by the spine into suraspinous and
infraspinous fossae.
Costal Surface: Forms the subscapular fossa.
Acromion:
A triangular of oblong shaped process that is the continuation of spine of scapula
Coracoid Process:
A hook shaped process that along with acromion protest the shoulder joint.
Nutrient Foramina:
Most commonly found in the infraspinous fossa about an inch below the greater scapula notch.
Ossification:
Begins in a cartilaginous model at the end of 2nd month of fetal life. There are 7 or more centers
of ossification.
Humerus is a typical long bone present in the arm that articulates proximally with the scapula
and distally with the bones of the forearm, namely, radius and ulna. Its proximal end consists of
the head, greater tubercle and lesser tubercle. Its body, which is longer than any of the other
bones of the upper limb, is cylindrical proximally and somewhat flattened distally. At the distal
end, which is expanded to form the epicondyles on either side, it supports the trochlear and
capitular articular surfaces for the ulna and radius respectively. The humerus has three main
parts;
 The proximal end
 The shaft
 The distal end