ASNT

Level III
Study Guide
Radiographi
Testing Meth
second edition
by Timothy Kinsella

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

 ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic
Testing Method second edition
Text Corrections

The following text corrections apply to the second printing of ASNT Level 11/ 5111dy Guide: Radiographic Tes/ing Method
second e(I;lioll, Subsequent printings of the document will incorporate the corrections into the published text.

Page 6:
II '2
Q uestion 1.2 answer b. should read:
D: :::::
D12

Question 1.9 should read:

The reduction in the energy of pholOns when they Me scallered by fre6 electrons which thereby gain energy is called:

Page 12:
Question 2.5 a nswer b. should be changed to: 10,2 em.
Question 2.6 answers should be changed as indicated:
a. 34 600 mA • min per week
b. 7850 rnA • min per week
c. 17850 rnA • min per week
d. 2550 mA • min per day
c. 7 [ 400 rnA • min per month

Page 13:
The first sentence in the second paragraph should read:
To acqu ire the energies necessary for industrial radiography, the electrons must experience an accelerating voltage from
about 30 kV to 30 MU.

Page 17:
In the left-hand column. under the heading Chemical Form.lhe following edits should be made:
T he radioactive material is in the form of metal peliets or waifer~ whenever fl8ssible. This is particularly true for cobalt
and iridium ....
Each pellet produces about 185 GBq (5 Ci) aftcr ncutron bombardment. Iridium is irradiated in I mm (0 .04 in.) thick
~ ~ 2 or 3 mm (or 0.08 of 0.12 in.) in diameter ....

Page 18:
Question 3.5 answer d. should read: Ra-226.

Page 36:
The second paragraph under Unshmpness of a Radiograph should be changed to read :
Simple gcometry shows the ratio of the target size F to the unsharpncss Ug is equal to the ratio of the
target to specimen distance till to that of the object-to-film distance f)_d.

Catalog #2259R
Book published July 2009
Text corrections published Augusl2009

I of I
ASNT
Level III
Study Guide
Radiographi
Testing Meth
second edition
by Timothy Kinsella

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

 Copyright © 2004 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the
authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the
opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or
recommendation of ASNT.
IRRSp, Lew/Ill Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Hmldbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The NDT
Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructi ve Testing, Inc. ACCp, ASNT,
Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trade marks of The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing. Inc.
ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane
PO Box 28518
Columbus, O H 43228-0518
www.asnt.org

ISBN: 1-57117-114-2
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-114-6

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kinsella, Timothy J.
ASNT level lIT study guide radiographic testing method I by Timothy Kinsella.-- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-57 117-114-2
1. Radiography, Industrial. 2. Non-destructive testing. I. Title.
TA417.25.K562004
620.1 '1272--dc22 2004001826

Acknowledgments
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Rndiographic Testhrg Met/rod was originally published in 1988. This second edition
started with that document and was updated, revised and extensive information was add(...,j by Timothy Kinsell<1,
DaSS<1uit Falcon Jet.
A special thank you goes to the following technical reviewers who assisted w ith this publication:
Paul Acres, Lockheed Martin Jim Parsch, NSWC Crane Division
Bryce Boe, Raytheon N ick Roussel, USAF Reserve
Dick Bossi, Boeing Wcs Timmerman, Raytheon
David Craig, Pratt & Whitney Canada Rusty Waldrop, USCG
Bradley S. Kienlen, Entergy Operations, Inc.
The Publications Review Committee includes:
Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company
Sharon 1. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute
B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University

Cynthia M. Leeman
Editor

Errata
Errata if available for this printing may be obtained from ASNT's Web site, www.asnt.org. or as hard copy by
mail from ASNT, free on request addressed to the Educational Materials Supervisor at the address above.

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.

Printed in the United States of America.

first printing 09/04

se:ond printing. with revision 01/(y:}

ii
 Table of Contents

Fo reword ... .... •.......••.... ..••.... ...•.. .. ...•..... ..••... ... •.... . .. . .viii

References ............. . . . ....................•....... • . . . . . . . • •....... . .... ix

Chapter 1 Basic Physics of Radiography . ... ..• • .. . ....•......... . .... . . . ... ....1
Elementilry Particles ........... ....... ..........• . ... • . ........ •. ...• . • ..•.....•.. . . . ... 1
The Electron .......... . ...............• . . . . •. . . .... . .•....•. , . . . . . . . . • . . . ... 1
The Proton .. . . . . . . . . .•....••.. . •....••...•....•.... • •. ..••....•... . •.... ... 1
The Neutron ........... .. . ..• • ....•.. . ••...• • ... . ....• •. ..• •. ... •. ... • ....... . .... 1
Atomic Structure ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . • . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . •. . . . • . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . .1
Atomic Number .... . .. •• . . . .. ....• . ..••... ••. . ..•. .. .. .. . . • . . .. • . .... . . . .. . ....... 1
Mass Number ......... . . . . . ... . . . • . . .•.. .. . • . . ..•. .. . . . .. . • . . .. • . . . .. . . . .. . ....... 1
Atomic " 'eight .......... . .. .. • . .. . . . .. . • . .. . • . ... • . .. ... . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .......... l
Isotope ................. • ... . •... . . . .. . •... . • . .. . • . .. . • . ...• . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... ....... 1
Ek'ctroffia gnetic Radiation ....•... . • . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . •..... . ...•...... 2
The Photon .............•... . . . .. . . . .. . • . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .......... 2
X-rays ................. . .... . . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . . .. . . . . .... . .... . .......... 2
Gamma Rays ......... .. . .. . . . .. . .... .. . . . .. . .•. . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .... . ..... .. ... 2
r~adioactivity ............ . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . •..... . .... . . .... • .... • ...•.. . , .. . . .. 2
Alpha Particles , ...... . .. . • . ...• . .... . .. . . . ... •• . ... . ...• . . . . • . . . . •• . . . ••.......... 2
Beta Particles ................. . • . . . .• . .. . • . .. . •• . . . •. . . . • . .. . •• ... •• . . . •• .... ,., ... 2
Radioactive Decay ............. .. ...• . .. . . . .. ... ... .. .. ... .. . .. . .. . .... .. .... . . ... 2
Activity .......................• •...• . .. . •. .. .• •... . . . . . • . .. . ••...• •. . . • • ...... , .. ,3
Radiation Interaction with Matter ..... . • ... •• .. . •• ... • •... .. . . . . .... . • . .. . • . .. .•. . . ... , . . .3
loni 7.ation ..................... .• ... • . ...••... .• . . . . • . . . . ... . . • . . . .• . . . . . . ..... . .3
Photoelectric Effect . . . . . •. . . . •. . •. •. . . .•. . . . .3
Compton Effect ........... .. .. .. . ....•. ........ . ... 3
Pair Production ........... . •.. . . • .. ..• .. •.• . ....... . .. .4
R<1y leigh Scattering. ........ •. .. .... .. •. ..... . .. .4
Attenuation ............ .. . . . . • ......... . .. . • . . . . .. .4
In verse Square La\v ......... ........... ..................... . ... .5
Chapter 1 Review Questions. . . . . . . .............. . . .... . ...• . . ..• . ...•........ 6

Chapter 2 Shielding and Facility Design .. . ... .. .. • . .. ..... • . .....••............ 9

Radiation Attenuation ....... . ............ • . . •• • ..••...• . . ..• •. ... •. ..• •. . . .. .......9
H alf-Value and Tenth-Value Layers.... . ..... ... . •. . . . •... . . . . . .•. .. . •.. . . • . .. . ...... .. 9
Attenu ation Equation and the Buildup Factor .......• • ... . .... . . .. , • •... . •....•. . .. . . . . .. .. 9
Facility Design Considerations ......... ... ......... • ... . •. . . . •... . .... . .... . . . . . . ...... . 10
Workload ................................... •. .. . •. . , .• ... .• ... . . . .. . . . . .. ...... .10
Occupancy and Use Factors ... ....•....•....•... . • ... . • ... . . . , . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Equipment Considerations ........ . . ....•..•. • . . .. . ....•....•...•• . •... . • . ........10
Determination of Shield Thickness ... . ... . . ... .. ... .. .... ... . ......... . ...... . .... 11
Genera l Guidelines for Laboratories ......... . . . .. . ....... ... . ....... . . ... . . .. . .. . . ....... 11
Sa fety Monitoring ............... . ..... ...••...••. . .• . ...••...• •• . . • •. . . . • ... . • . . . . •11
Chapter 2 Review Q uestions ........... .. .. . .. . . . .....•.... . .. . . . . ...•....•....•.. . . • . . .. 12

iii
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 3 Radiation So urces ................ . . . . . ..... . ....... .. . • •.. . . . .. .. .13

X-ray Generators............................................... .. . . . . .. 13
X-ray Tubes ................................................... ... . . .. 13
Electronic Radiation Sources ....................... . .... . .... . ... .. . ..... 14
X-ray Sources (Electron Accelerators) ....................... ...... .14
Betatron .......................................... . ... . . ... . . ... . ....... . .. 14
Van de Graaff Generators........................... . ............. . ........ 14
linear Accelerator ....... .....................•.... • ....•....•......... • ...... 15
High Voltage and Low Voltage Generators ....... • ....•......... . ......... . ...... 15
Target Materials and Characterist ics ................. . . . ....... . .......... 16
Characteris tic X- ray Spectra ................... 16
R<ldioisotope Sources..... ... ..... . ................................................ 16
Neutron Activation .......... ..... ... .................. . ... . . .'16
Fi f>f> ion Fragmen ts.... .... ..... .... ....... ........... ....... . . . . . ."1 7
Fabrication and Design of Sources . .... . .... ...... . ........ ...... . . . . .... . ..... .. .1 7
Chemi cal Form ..... .. .......... .......................... .. ... . .... . .... . ....... .17
Encapsu lation ................ . ...... .. . ............. .....•....•....•.......... . .. 17
Exposure Devices .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . •. . . . •. . . . •. . . . . . . . . ..... 17
Chapter 3 Rev iew Questions ........ ... ....................................... ........ ... 18

Chapter 4 Personnel Safe ty and Radiation Protection .... . •... . ...•....... • . . . . .21
Radiation Measurement Units . . . ............. . ..................... .... ... 21
Activity ............. . .............. . . . ......... . .... . .. . .... .. .2 1
Exposure ......... .. . . .. . . ............. . . . .. . ....... . .... . ... .... ... 2.1
Dose ................ .... . ............................ ..............21
Biologica l Effects of Radiation .. .............. . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
Natural and Manufactured Background Rad iation Exposure . . ............... . . ...... ... 2.2.
Human O rgan Radiosensitivity ..... . .............................. . . . .. . . . .. . ..... 22
Symptoms of Radiation Injury .. . .... .... . .................. . . . .. • . .. . • ......22
R<ldiation Damage. Repair Concepts . .. . ....... . .... ........ .. ...... . ... . . . . •...... 23
Acute Rad iation Exposure . . . .......... . .. . • . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . .• . . . . .... ... 24
Permissible or Allowable Personnel Dose . ..... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .2.4
C rR Part 20 - Basic Radiation Safety .... . .. .. .. .. ... .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 24
Dose Linlits ............ . . . . . . . . . ... . .. ....... . .... . ..... . . . .... . .. . .... 25
ALARA .. . . . ........ ........... .. ......... . ... .. .25
Radi<ltion Detectors and Personnel Monitoring ......... . .. . .. . ......... 25
Gas Filled Rad iation Detectors - General . ..... ... ... . ....... . .... .25
Ionization Chamber Devices ... .. .. .. .. . ... .... .. . .... . . . ... 25
Geiger-mueller Tube Devices .............. . ... 26
Scintillation Detectors .......... . .26
Semi conductor Detectors ...... .. . .. .. . . ...... 27
Thermoluminescent Detectors ..... .27
Film Badges ........ . .. . . ........ . .. 28
Selection of Survey Ins trumentation . .. 28
Area Monitors and Alarm Systems ........ .......... ........... . .. .. 29
Calibration and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. 29
Exposure Control Techniques ............... .......................... . .. 30
Contamination Sou rces and Control . . .. . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Rad iography Operating and Emergency Instructions ................ .31
Rad iation Regulatory Standards .31
Chapter 4 Review Questions ..................................... .33

iv
 Table of Contents

Chapter 5 The Film Radiographic Process .... .• .. .. ..... .. . ....... . ... ...... ...35
Radiographic Image Quality ..... .... .. ... . . .... . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . ........... 35
~~. . ... ............. .. . .. . ... ~
Subject Contrast . .... . .... . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .... . .... . .... . ........ .35
Film Contrast ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . ... . . . . • . . ..•.... • .......... 36
Film Speed ...................... . ... . . . . •. ... •• . . . . . . . . •. . . . • •...••... •• .........36
Unsharpness of a Radiograph ........ . .. ........ .. . . . .. . . . . . ... .. . .. . .... . . . ........36
Film Processing ............... .......• ....•....•... • •....•... . .... .•. .. . . . .. . . . .... ... .38
Viewing of Fi lm Radiographs .......... . . . ....... . ... .. . .. . .... . .... . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . ..... .38
Illuminator Requirements .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .38
Background Ligh ting . . ................. . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. ... . ... ... 39
Vie\ving Aids ......... ...... . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . ... 39
Interpretation Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 39
Ju dging Radiographic Quality . . .. . . ..• .. . . . .. ... . ... ... .... .... . ... . .... ..... . .. .39
Film Densi ty .......... . ....... .. ... . ........ .. ... .. ... .. . . . .. ... .. ..... ... ... 39
Film Defini tion ....................... . • . . .... ... . . .......... ,., .... , . .... . . . . ... 39
Artifacts ............................. .•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Image Quality Indicators ............... .•.... .. . . . . ..... .. ... .. ... .. .......... . .40
Equ ivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity ..... . . .... .. ... . .... . ...... . ............ . ...... 040
Exposurt" Calculations ....................... . . . .. . . . ....... . . . .. . • . .. . . . .. . . . . .. ...... AD
Selection of Energy ..................... . • . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . .... AD
X-ray Exposure Charts ............ .. . . . _. . . .. . . . . _. .... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . _. . . . . . ...... .41
Radioisotope Exposure Charts ........ . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .... . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .... . .42
Cha pter 5 Revie\v Questions ........... . ... . . .. . . . .. ... . .. . .. . . . . .. . . .... . . . .... .. ...... 043

Chapter 6 Radioscopy ................••......••.... ...•.... ...• .. . . ... ... .. .45

Principit's .45
Light Conve rsion ... ....... . ..... 45
Fluorescent Scrt>ens ...... . .... .... ..... . ... 45
Special Scr("Cns .......... . ........ . ...46
Neutron Sensitive Screens .......... . .46
High Energy Screens .. . .... ........................ .46
Scintillator Plates . . . . . . •. . . ... .46
Image Quality .................. . ........ .47
Contrast . . . ... .47
Control of Scatter .. 47
Definition ...47
Radialion Sources and Energy ...47
Imaging Systems ..................... . .. .48
Image Intensifier Tubes ......... . . . .48
Channel Electron Multiplier ............... . . ..48
Calneras ................................ ........ .. . .49
Charge Coupled Dev ices .................... . . ..... ... ..... 49
Image Tubes........ . ................... . ............. .49
Chapter 6 Review Questions. . . . ... ..... . . ............... . ...... .51

Chapter 7 Fundamentals of Digital Images ..... • . .. .. ... .. ... ..• • . ... ..•.. .. , .. 53
Resolution . . . .................... .......... . . .... . . . . .. ... ........ .53
Signal-to-Noise Ratio .......... .......... ....... . .55
Display ......... ... ............................... . . .. . ... . ...... . ..... .55
Pixel Mapping ........... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .55
Gray Sca le Mapping ........ . ... ... ....... . . .55
Archiving and Data Compression ...... . . . ....... . . .55
Chapter 7 Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

v
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 8 Film Digitization ............. ........................ . ........... .59

Charge Coupled Device Film Digitization Systems . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .59
Laser Film Digitization Systems ........ ....... ..... .. . •. .. . •. . . . •. . . . •. •. . •. . .. 60
Chapter 8 Review Questions .................... .. . •. . . . •. . . . •. .. . •. •. . . . . . .. 61

Chapter 9 Digital Radiographic Imaging ....................................... 63

Thin Film Transistors (Amorphous Silicon Detectors) .. ... . .... . . . ... .. 63
Charge Coupled Devices .......... ... ... ... ..... . .... . ......... . . . .. ............... 63
Storage Phosphors .............. ..... .......................... . .............. . ........ 64
Linea r Arrays .............. .. . . . .65
Scanned Bea m ... . ......... ......... . .......... 65
Detection Efficiency ........ ....... . . . .66
Chapter 9 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. . . ... .. . ... . . .. 67

Chapter 10 Radiographic Techniques . ...... . . ... . ...... . . ... . . . ... ..... . ...... 69
Reduction of Sca tter ............ . ... . .... . .......... 69
Masks . . .. . .... ..... . ... . . . ..................... 70
Dia phragnls . . . . . . . . .. . ......... .. . .... . .... . .... . .... . .......... 70
Screens ....... . .. . .. . .... . . .... . . . . ..... 71
Filters ....... ........................ . ... . .... . .... . .. . . . ......... .71
Control of Diffraction Scatter Effects ........ . .... . .. . . . .... . .... • ......... .71
Multifilm Techniques ......... ... .............. . .... . .... . ......... • .... • ............... 72
Enla rgement and Projection ............................................. . ........ 72
Stereo Radiogra phy . . . .... .... . ................... . ......... .. .. . •. ......... 72
Parallax Methods .......... . .... ..... ... . ...... .....•. ... . .... . .... • ....•.......... 73
Rigid formula ............. . ......... . .... . ............. ....... 74
Single Marker Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............•............... 74
Double Marker Formula ....... .................. . ................ . .... .... . .75
Flash Radiography .... .. .. . ......... • ........... . ................ . . .. . . . ... .76
Filnl Recording ............. . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .76
Tn Motion Radiography... ............... ......... .... . . . . . . . . . .76
Electron Radiog raphy .... ..... .................... . .. . . ... .. ......... . ..... . ...... 78
Panoramic Exposures .................................. . .............. . . ................79
Rad iation Attenuation Caging Techniques . . ........ . .... . ..... ... . . . • .. . . • . .. ........... .80
Chapter 10 Review Questions ...... ................ . .... . .... . . ............ . . .... . .......83

Chapter 11 Computed Tomography .... .... ... ...... .. . . .. .. .. ....... . ..... ...85
Basic Principles .......... ..... ............ . . . .... . . . . . .. . . . . . .... . . . .. . . . . .... . . . .. . . .85
Resolution ......... . . . . . . . . . .. .............. . . ... .. . . . . .. . . . .. . .... . . .. . . . .86
Contrast .. . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
System Configurations ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Rotate and Tra nsl ate Tomography .. . . . .. . .... . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Rotate Only Tomography . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .... . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . .87
Volume Computed Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 88
Limi ted Angle Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .... . . . . ... . . . ... 88
Mechanical Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... . .... .... .88
System Design .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Reference Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Resolution . .. . .... . ..... . . . ... . ... . . . . . .... . . . . . . .... .91
Contrast Sensi tivity .......... . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Material Density .. ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Other Functions of Reference Standards . . . . . . . . .. _.. ............ . .. .. . . .. . _. . . . .92
Chapter 11 Review Questions ........ . .. .. .. . .... . . . . . ... _. ..... . . .... .. . ...... 93

vi
 Table of Contents

Chapter 12 Neutron Radiography ...... . ...••. . . .. .••.. . . . ... . ................ 95

Basic Principles ................................. . . .... . ..•.... . ......... . .........95
Disadvantages.... .......... ............ ... .... . .... . ..... .... . .... . . . .95
Neutron Energies and Sources .............. . .... . .... . .... . .... . ....... . .95
Neutron lmaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Dynamic Neutron Radiography ................... ....... . . . . .96
Subthermal Neutron Radiography ........ . ...... . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . . . . . . .97
Epithermal and Fast Neutron Radiography . . ...... . . . . . . . . .. ........ . .97
Neutron Computed Tomography ......... . ........ ................ . ..97
Neutron Gaging ........................ . ................ • ............ . .. . ..97
Ch apter 12 Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 98

Chapter 13 Backscatter Imaging ...... . . .. . • . . .. ...• • . . .... .•. . . . . ..•.......... 99

Physical Principles ..... .......... . . . . . . . . . ...•. . ..• . ... . . . .... .99
Dackscattcr Imaging Techniques . . . ... . ..... . . . .. . . . .. . . . • . . . . • .. .. . .... . .. .... 100
Pinhole ........... .......... . ... . . . . . . . . .• . . . . .... . ...... 100
Moving Slits ........... . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...... 100
Flying Spot ......................... .......... . .......... . ........ . ....... 100
Applications of Backscatter Imaging... . . • . . . . • . . . . .•....•... . •....•.• . ....... 1m
Ordnancc ............... . ... . . . . . .... . .. . .... . . . .... . .......101
Aircraft Corrosion . . . •. . . . . • . . . . . . ...... 101
Chapter 13 Review Questions ... .. . .... . ... . ........ . .. . .. .. . . . . . .......102

Chapter 14 Radiographic Interpretation ........ .. . . . ... . ........ . . ..... . .... .103

Image Object Relationships ....... .. . . . . . . . ...... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ...... .103
Material Considcmtions ........ . . ....... . . . . .. . .. . . .... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .... . .......103
Welding ....... . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .... .103
Casting .................. . . . . . . . . ...... . .. . . . . . . . . .... . .... . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . ...... 103
Composites ......... ......•. . . . • • ... • . . . .• • . . .• • . . .• . . . . .. . .. ... . . . . . .. . . . ... . .. 104
Expected Discontinuities ......... . .. . . . .... . . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. ... • . .. . . . .. . . . ... . . .104
Weld ing Discontinuities ............ . ... .. .. .. .. . .. ... .. ... . . . . . • . .... . . . .. . ...... 104
Casting Discontinuities ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. ......... . ... 104
Com posite Di scontinuities .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .105
Rad iograp hi c Appearance of Discontinui ties . .. . . . . . .. . ... . . . . ... 1OS
Welding Discontinui ties... . . . ... ...... . ... . ....... . .. . . . . . .105
Casting Discontin uit ies .. ... ..... . . . •. . . . . . . •. . . . • •. . . . ..... 105
Composite Discontinuities .... . .. .... ... . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. .105
Image Analysis Techniques........ . ... . . . . . . . .. . . .... . .. . . . . .. . .... . ........105
Codes, St.mdards, Specifications and Procedures ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . • . • . ......106
Chapter 14 Review Questions .. . . . ........ . ...... . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . .... . . . ... . . ....... :107

Appendix 1 Answers to Review Questions . . .. .........•.. . . . . . .......... . . . . .109

vii
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Foreword
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc. (ASNT) has prepared a series of Level 111 Study
Guides which are intended to present the major areas in each nondestructive testing method. They can be
used to prepare for taking ASNT NOT Level III tests or an employer's inhouse Level III tests. The
LevellJ1 candidate should use this Study Guide as a preparation tool, even though it does not contain all
of the information an ASNT NOT Level III is expected to know.
Since the last printing of this Study Guide, there have been Significant advances in radiography. These
advances are found primarily in the area of digital method s that are experiencing increasing widespread
usage. The same depth of understanding is required for these processes as for the corresponding film
processes induding image acquisition (either latent or direct), disp lay of the image (corresponding to
iillll development), and viewing and interpreting images and image quality.
The material in this Study Guide provides a review o f the body of knowledge fo r the radiographic
testir1g method. Because this gu ide provides only an overview of the subject matter, the Level 1Il
candidate should use it as one of several preparation tools. To be most effective this Study Guide should
be coordinated with the Level III Topical Outline for the Radiographic Testing Method in the most recent
edition of Recommellded Practice No. SNT-TC-l A or ANSI/ASNT CP-1OS: ASNT Stamlard Topinli Olltlim:s for
Qualificatioll of NOlldestrllctive Testing Personllel (2006). It should also be used in combin ation with
NOlldestrllctive Testillg Halldbook, third edition; Volume 4, Radiographic Testillg, Slipplemellt to Recommended
PmctiCt, No. SNT-TC-l A (Q&A Book); Radiographic Testillg Method and the other references lis ted on
page ix.
Because the preparation of this Study Guide was not coordinated with the actual exams, it should be
noted that there may be questions on the exams that cover mate rial not included in this publication, and
there Illuy be mate rial in this guide that does not appear on the exams.
In using this Stlldy Guide, specific references are cited where detailed in formation can be obtained.
The source documen ts used in this Stlldy Gllide are listed in Referellces on page ix. Typical Level III
questions ut the end of each section serve as a benchmark for determining a candidate's comprehension
of the material.
A typica l use of this Stlldy Guide might include the following s teps:
1. Review the questions at the end of each section to assess your comprehension of the radiographic
tes ting method.
2. If the questions in a certain section are found to be difficult, carefully s tudy the information
presented in that section as well as the cited reference material. This review of the information in the
Stlldy Gllide will refresh you r memory of theory and facts long fo rgotten.

ASNT is un Interntional System of Units (S1) publisher. Units of measure throughout this book are
provided in 51 units followed by cgs units in parentheses. A typical conversion would be 5 cm (2 in. ). To
accomodate equations in this Stlldy Gllide, some conversions have been made with differing significant
figures. For example, 5 cm may be converted to 1.97 in. and 16.65 cm may be converted to 6.56 in.

viii
 References
Bossi, Richard H" Frank A. Iddings, George 14. Natiollal Bureall of Standards Hllndbook 114,
C. Wheeler, technical eds; Patrick O. Moore, "General Safety Standards for Installations
ed. Nond!'s/ruethlt' Tt'stillg Halldll()()k, third Using X-ray and Sealed Gamma-ray Sources,
edi tion: Volume 4, Radiogmphic Testillg. Energies up to 10 MeV." Gaithersburg, MD:
Columbus, 01-1. The American Society for U.S. Department of Commerce/ National
NondcstnlCtive Testing. 2002. Burea u of Standards. 1975.
, Richardson, I-larry. Indllstrial Radiography
MIH1I11T/. Wilmington, DE: E. !. dl! Pont de Additional References
NCnlQlHS and Company. 1981. Halm sha w, R. Plrysics of IlIdllstrial Radiology. New
3. Halrnshnw, R. Industrial Radiology Tecillliqlles. York, NY: Elsevier. 1966.
New York, NY: Wykeham Publications Sellsitometric Propertit's of X-ray Film s. Rochester,
(London Ltd.); Springcr~Vcrlag. 1971. NY: Eastman Kodak Company. 1968.
~. McMaster, Robert c., ed. Nondestructive Taylor, J.L. Basic Metallllrgy for Non tlcstmctive
-n·stillK Ila"dbook. Columbus, 01-1: The Testillg. British Institute of Nondestructive
AmcriCilll Society for Nondl."Structive Testing. Testing. Essex, United Kingdom: W.H.
1959. Houldcrshaw Ltd. 1988.
5. Price, William. Nuclear Radialia" Detectioll, Johns, Harold, John H. Cunningham. The Physics
second edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hili of Radiology, fourth C'dition. Springfield, IL:
Publishing Compnny. 1964. Charles C. Thomas Publishers Ltd. 1983.
6. Knoll. C. Rmliation Dctcetioll and Measurement. Materials alld Processes for NDT Teclrllology.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1999. Columbus, OH: The American Society for
J. Workinx Safdy ill Radiography. Columbus, OH. Nondestructive Testing. 1981.
Thl.' American Society for Nondestructive NOT Termillology. Wilmington, DE: E.!. duPont de
TI.'sting.2004. Nemours and Company. 1981.
S. Quinn, Robert. Radiography ill Modem Radiographic Testillg Classroom Training Book,
Industry, fourth edition. Rochester, NY: CT-6-6. General Dy namics Convair Division,
Eastman Kodak Com pany. 1980. Columbus, OH: The American Society for
9. AIIIIIIIII Book of ASTM Stalldards. Volume 3.03. Nondestructive Testing. 1967.
Phil<1dclphi<1, PA: The Americ<1n Society for Thielsch, Helmut. Defects alld Failllres ill Pressllre
Tes ting <1nd Makrials. 2003. Vessels anri Piping. New York, NY: Robert E.
10. Thielsdl, Hdmut. Tllc SCllse alld Nonsense of Krieger Publishing Co. 1977.
We/(I Defects. Morton Grove, lL: Monticello
~ooks. 1982.
11. Ml'IlI/s Hamllwk, Voilime 17, Nondestructive
EV(I/llIItioll and QllUlity COll trol, Metals Park,
OH: The American Society for Metals. 1989.
12. Halmshaw, R. I"dll strial Radiology: Theory and
Practice. Nom'ell, MA: Kluwer Academic
Publis hers. 1995
l3. Is..,acs, Alan, cd. A Dictionary of Physics, third
edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
1996.

ix
 Chapter 1
Basic Physics of Radiography

have. These shells are identified by the letters K.

Elementary Particles L M N 0 P and Q with K being the closest to
the ~ucieu~. Each shell can hold only a certilin
The Electron maximum number of electrons; the K shell C;;ln
The electrOIl is an elementary particle thai is hold no more than 2, the L shell no more th;;ln 8,
prescnt in all atoms in groupings called shells shell M no more than 18, shell N no more than 32,
arou nd tht! nucleus. When they detach from the she1l a no more than 50, shell P no more than 72
nucleus they are called free electrDrls. The and she1l Q no more than 98.
antiparticle of the electron is the positron. An
,Jlltipartick is a subatomic particle that has the Atomic Number
""" me mass number as another particle and equal The atomic 1/Imrber is the number of protons in
bu t opposite values of some other property or the nucleus o f an atom. The atomic number is
properties. For example, the antiparticle of the equal to the number of electrons orbiting the .
electron is tht.! positron, which has a positive nucleus in a neutral atom. The symbol for atomrc
charge equal in magnitude to the electron's number is Z.
negative charge.
Mass Number
The Proton The mass /llImber is the sum of the protons
The proton is an elementary particle that is and neutrons in an atom. Although all atom s of
stable and bears a positive charge equal in an element have the same number of protons,
magt1ilude 1'0 that of the electron. The proton they may have different numbers of neutrons.
occurs in .111 atomic nuclei (the hyd rogen atom Atoms that have the same number of protons but
contains a single proton). different numbers of neutrons arc called is%pI'S.

The Neutron Atomic Weight

The m:lllro/l is a neutral particle that is stable The atomic weight is the weight of an atom
in the atomic nucleus but decays into a proton expressed in atomic mass ulJits (<lmu). One atomic
,,,,d electror" i.1nd an antineutrino with a mea n mass unit equ<lls 1 /12 the weight of an atom of
lifc of 12 minutes outside the nucleus. Neutrons C-12. For most atoms the weight in atomic m<lss
occur in all atomic nuclei except normal units is extremely close to the mass number.
hydrogen.
Isotope
Atomic Structure An isotope is an atom with a specific atomic
An atom is the smallest part of an element number and mass number. Each atomic number
that can exist and consists of a sma ll dense element may exist with different mass number
nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by and these are iso topes. For example, h ydrogen
moving electrons. The number of electrons equals (1 proton, no neutrons), deuterium (1 proton,
the number of protons so the overall charge is O. 1 neutron), and tritium (1 proton, 2 neutrons) are
Electron!> may be thought of as moving in circular isotopes of hyd rogen. Some isotopes are st<lble
or elliptical orbits or, more accurately, in regions while others are unstabl e and change state by
of space around the nucleus. Electrons are rad ioactive decay.
arranged in shells at va rious distances from the
nucleus accord ing to how much energy they

1
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

give off radiation that consists of alpha or beta

Electromagnetic Radiation particles o r gamma rays. The type of radiation
given off depends on the way the nucleus
The Photon changes. Gamma rays are given off if only the
Electromaglletic radiatioll occurs in the form of arra ngement of the protons and neutrons
individual packets of energy called photons. When changes. Alpha and beta particles may also be
photons travel through space, they appear as given off if the number of protons and neutrons
continuous electromagnetic waves. However, changes.
w hen photons of radiation strike a s ubstance,
they behave as if they were separate particles of Alpha Particles
energy instead of a continuous wave. Each An alpha particle is a He-4 nucleus emitted by
photon has a certain amount of energy that is a larger nucleus during the type of radioactive
proportional to its frequency. decay known as alpha decay. Because a He-4
nucleus cons ists of two p rotons and two neutrons
X-rays bound together as a stable e nti ty, the loss of an
X-rays are produced whenever high energy alpha particle from a larger nucleus involves the
electrons suddenly give up energy. This can be decrease in nucleon (protons and neutrons) of 4
done either by accelerating electrons to a high and a decrease of 2 in the atomic number. For
speed and then stopping them suddenly, or by example, a U-238 nucleus dec"lYS into a Th-234
these high speed electrons striking others and nucleus.
knocking them out of their normal positions.
When these dislodged electrons fall back into Beta Particles
place, they give off X-rays. The position of X-rays Beta particles are the electrons or positrons
in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in emitted during beta decay, in whi ch an umtable
Figure 1.1. nucleus changes into a nucleus of the same mass
number, but different prOlan number. The ch'lOge
Gamma Rays involves the conversion o f a neutron into il
Gammfl rays are similar to X-rays except that proton with the emission of an electron and an
they have a much shorter wavelength and differ antineutrino (n --+ p + e- + vel or of a proton into
in their origin. Gamma rays are emitted from the a neutron w ith the emission of a positron a nd a
nucleus itself during the process of radioactivity. neutrino (n --+ p + e+ + vel. An example is the
The position of gamma rays in the decay of C-14.
electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 1. 1.
Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity This is the spontaneous transformati on of one
In some atoms, the nucleus changes naturally. radioactive material into another wi th the
The change may be only in the arrangement o f emission of one or more particles o r photons. The
the protons and neutrons, or the actual number of resulting material mayor may not be rad ioactive.
protons and neutrons may change. These changes The time required fo r half the original material to

Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic spectrum.

Radiation wavelength (nm)
,,.
,
, X-fays •
"' Infrared h
,- __ Ullraooet--o
,
I-Gamma r a y s - -
- Cosmic rays

,.... 1~ ur-2 ,0' ,03

Photon energy (MeV)

Reprinted Irom Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

2
 Chapter 1: Basic PhYSics of Radiography

decay is called the I1flIJ life. For example half of a

given quantity of Co-60 is converted to stable Figure 1.2: Ionization by an alpha particle that
Ni-60 in 5.26 years. In another half life ejects an orbital electron from the atom . Specific
(5.26 years), one quarter of the original Co-60 ionization is the number of ion pairs generated by
particle per unit path . Total ionization designates
remains and three quarters of the original the number of ion pairs produced by a particle
quantity is now Ni-60. This can be described along its entire path .
mathematically as fo llows:
b
N, = Noe-
Equation 1
where:
- E,
Nt = quantity at time I,
No = original quantity,
~ = decay constant,
= decay time.
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
Because the decay constant is equal to
0.693/T when the qua ntity has decreased to 1 / 2
the origi nal amount, the half life of a radioactive
isotope is defined as: Figure 1.3: Photoelectric interaction of an
incident photon with an orbital electron.
_ 0.693
T.112 - A.

The decay i:.'q uation may then be written as:

N1 -- Noe-(l.@3, I T
Equation 2
Legend
Other half lives of particular interest to ~ • entIfQY binding electron to alom
radiography are 74 days for Ir-192 and 30.1 years C o • origirlal eneJgY Q1 photon

for Cs-1 37.

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
Activity edi tion: Volume 4, Rediogrephic Testing.
Activily is the number of atoms of a
radioactive substanc(! that disintegrate per unit
time, the spE'cific ilctivity of the activity per un it in a col lision with another pa rticle or quantum of
mass of a pure radioisotope. The becquerel (Bq), radiation. See Figure 1.2.
the Sl unit of ilctivi ty, represents one spontaneous
transition per second. Photoelectric Effect
Thus 1 I3q = t 5- 1. The forme r unit, the curie The plrotoelectric effect is the liberation of
(Ci), is equal 10 3.7 x 10 10 Bg. electrons from a substance exposed to
electromagnetic radiation. The number of
Radiation Interaction with Matter electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the
radiation . The kinetic energy of the electrons
emitted depends on the frequency of the
Ionization radiation. The photoelectric efIect usually occurs
An fall is an atom that has either lost one or at photon energies below about 0.3 MeV. See
more electrons, making it positively charged, or Figure 1.3.
gained one or more electrons, making it
nega tively charged. In the context of rad iography,
iOllizatiOIl occurs when an atom or molecule loses Compton Effect
one or marc electrons as a result of energy gained Comptoll scallerillg is a process in wh ich
moderate energy photons (about 0.3 to 3.0 MeV)
lose part of their energy to an electron. This

3
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Figure 1.4: Compton scattering. Incident photon

Rayleigh Scattering
ejects an electron and ejects a lower energy In this type of scattering incident photons are
scattered photon. deflected by the atoms and molecules without
any change of energy. This rayleigh, or coherent,
scattering is important fo r low energy radiation.
Coherent scatter may remove as much as 20% of
the incident photons from a beam.

Attenuation
The processes listed above, as well as a few
Leslond others of gent.'ralless importance, produce
Ee " lower lloorgy of scattered photon
Eo = orig inal energy of photon attenuation of the radiation. The allenualion of
beta particles, neutrons, X-ray photons and
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third gamma photons can be described by similar
edition: Volume 4 , Radiographic Testing. mathematical expressions of the form:

Figure 1.6: Schematic diagram illustrating the

Figure 1.5: Pair production of an electron and a inverse square law.
positron from an incident photon .
A

B
" _
~
0

Ll gend
c • speed of 19ht
E "energy of incident photoo

=-
E+ = energy of positron
~"energy of negatille electron c,
m • olectron mass

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third

edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
/ I I \ .. \

process results in an ejected electron and a lower

!o
energy photon as shown in Figure 1.4. The
photon may leave the atom in any direction
relative to its incident direction, hence the term
scatter. The lower energy photon leaving the
compton interaction may experience another c,
com pton o r photoelectric interaction, depending
on its energy.

Pair Production
Pair production is the creation of an electron Legend
and a positron resulting from the interaction of a A " radiation source
B " focal point
high energy photon (greater than 1.02 MeV) and C 1 .. first film plal'le
a nucleus as shown in Figure 1.5. The creation of Co" second film plane
D = source-Io-film distance
the two particles requires 1.02 MeV, which is then
the threshold energy for the conversion. Any
energy above th is amount is shared by the two Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, th ird
particles as kinetic energy. edition : Volume 4 , Radiographic Testing.

4
 Chapter 1: Basic Physics of Radiography

I -Ie- kd where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to different

- 0
points along a line radiating from the source.
Equation 3 Because of this inherent characteristic of
radiation, if the radiation has a certain intensity at
1 m from the source, it will have four times that
Inverse Square Law intensity at 0.5 m, but only one quarter that
The inverse square law describes the reduction intensity at 2 m and only one ninth that intensity
in radiation intensity with d istance, when no at3 m .
absorber is present and the source of radiation
approximates a point. In such a case, the
radiation intensity decreases as the square of the
distance from the source; i.e., inversely with the
square of the distance. This principle is illustrated
in Figure 1.6. The inverse square law is expressed
mathematically as

Equation 4

5
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 1 Review Questions

1.1 In the 51 system, the distinction behveen 15 The number of protons in the nucleus is
upper and lower case letters is meaningful called the:
and should be observed. For example, the
meanings of the prefix m (milli) and the a. atomic mass.
prefix M (mega) differ by how many orders b. atomic weight.
of magnitude? Co atomic number.
d. relative atomic mass.
a. 3
b. 6 1.6 What particle is identical to the electron in
c. 9 rest mass and rest energy, with a positive
d. 12 charge numerically equal to the electron's
negative charge?
1.2 Which of the following formu las describes
the inverse square law? a. positron
b. neutrino
,I /2 c. quark
a. d. lepton
d = D2
II 12 1.7 Emission of an alpha particle decreases the
b. mass of the nucleus by __ and the atomic
D", =: D2
2 number by __.
I~ I;
c. - " =-"- a. 4,4
b. 4,2
c. 2,2
d. (I'D')'=( /'D' )' d. 2,4
e. 2,1
1.3 If one eighth of a sample of radioisotope
remains after 24 years, what is the half life 1.8 After 4 half lives, what percentage of a
of the radioisotope? radioisotope's life remains?

a. 3 years a. 25%
b. 4 years b. 12.5%
c. 6 years c. 6.25%
d. 8 years d. 3.12%
c. 12 yea rs
1.9 The reduction in the energy of photons
1.4 A positively charged particle with a mass when they are scattered by free electrons
equal to the electron is the: which thereby gain energy is called:

a. proton. a. the photoelectric effect.

b. positron. b. compton scattering.
c. meson. c. pair production.
d. deuteron. d. None of the above.

6
 Chapter 1: Basic Physics of Radiograph}

1.10 Beta particles are identica l to high s peed 1.16 Emission of a beta particle changes the mass
electrons with the followi ng exception thaI: of the nucleus by _ and the atomic
numberby _.
a. they may be either positively or
negatively charged. a. 0, 1
b. they have twice the rest mass. b. + 1, 1
e. they have opposite spin and magnetic c. -1,1
moment. d. -1,0
d. they have twice the compton
wavelength. 1.17 A particle w ith no rest mass, no charge and
no magnetic moment is a:
1.11 \rhieh of the follow ing is not one of the
three major photon attenuation processes? a. photon.
b. deuteron.
a. compton scattering c. neutrino.
b. photoelectric effect d. meson.
c. pair production
d. electron capture 1.1 8 ANSI, ASNT, ASTM, IEEE, ISO and N IST all
support the replacemen t o f the older
1.12 In the SI system, the unit of energy is the: English units of rad iation meas urement
w ith SI units. The new units that replace the
a. jou le. curie, roentgen, rad and rem arc:
b. pascal.
e. newton. a. joule, newtons per kilogram, gray and
d. watt. sievert.
b. becquerel, newton-meter, coulomb and
1.13 An alpha particle is: sievert.
c. joule, becquerel, cou lomb and sievert.
,1 .one particle in the class of particles d. becquerel, coulomb pcr kilogram, gray
called leptons. and sievert.
b. identical to a helium nucleus.
c. a type of quark. 1.19 What is meant by the dual natu re of the
d . very s mall compared to o ther particles. photon?

1.U A semilogarithmi c plot of the percent of a. It has both charge and mass.
radioilcti ve material remaining versus time b. It behaves as both a pa rticle and a wave.
results in: c. It has both s pi n and charge.
d. It can produce both ionization and
a. an elli pse. decay.
b. a hyperbolic curve.
c. a quad ratic curve. 1.20 The atomic mass is:
d. a straight li ne.
a. the number o f protons and neutrons in
1.1 5 The creation of a positron and an electron the n ucleus.
from the interaction of a photon with an b. the cumulati ve weight of nucleons and
energy of at least 1.02 MeV, and a strong electrons in an atom .
electric field such as that su rrounding an c. the rest ma ss of all particles that an
atomic nucleus, is called: atom consists of.
d. None of the above.
a. the photoelectric effect.
b. compton sca ttering.
c. pair p roduction .
d. None of the above.

7
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

1.21 The liberation of elect rons from a substance 1.22 Which of the following is not one of the five
exposed to electromagnetic radiation is primary modes by wh ich atoms
called: disintegrate?

a. the photoelectric effect. a. emission of an alpha particle

b. compton scattering. b. emission of a beta particle
c. pair production. c. quantum scintillat ion
d. None of the above. d. spontaneous fission

8
 Chapter 2
Shielding and Facility Design

Most national regu lations on radiological

protection have a number of safety req uirements. Half-Value and Tenth-Value
The' m<lin poi nts are summari z.ed below, but it is Layers
emphasized that for full details of the necessary A convenient practical measure of radiation
procedures, particularly the certifications attenuation is the half-value layer (HVL). The
required, the formal lega l d ocuments and codes half-value layer of any specific material is that
for each location o r country must be studied . thickness that w ill reduce the radiation intensity
to one half its initial value. Half-value layer is
Radiation Attenuation related to the linear absorption coefficient by
The attenuation o f alpha and beta radiation HVL = In 2 = 0.693
of iI..'Ss than 2 to 5 MeV is relatively
s traightforward a nd is treated extensively in the J1 II
references. Th is discu ssion of radiation Equation 5
f'ltten uation vii ll be directe d to wa rd penetrating
photon radiation.
The absorption of X-radiation and gamma Si milarly, a tenth-value layer (TV L) is that
radiation is the consequence of a series of single thickness of mate rial that will reduce the
events. During each such event a photon is rad ia tion intensity to one tenth its initial value.
removed from the beam after undergOing an Hal f-va lue layer and tenth-value layer are related
interaction with an atomic nucleus or an orbital as follows:
electron. The primary interactions that occur are 3.33 HVL = 1 TV L
photoelectric absorption, compton scattering and Equ ation 6
pail' production. The probabili ty for absorption or
scattering for any particular radiation type and
energy with a specific element is referred to as Therefore if the half-value layer for a
the cross sect iOIl . particular material were 5.00 cm (1.97 in.) the
Although there are three forms in which corresponding tenth-va lue layer would be
16.65 cm (6.56 in.).
attenuation coeffici ents are expressed, atomic
attenuation coeffici ent, mass attenuation Tables of half-value and tenth-va lue layer
coefficient and linear attenuation coeffi cient, only th icknesses for common materials and radiation
the last is used extensively in pr<lctical shielding sources such as cobalt, iridium and X-rays of
calculations. The lincar allcnualiol/ coefficient is the various energies are available in references L 2
probability per unit pillh length that a photon and 3.
will be removed from the beam. The linear
attenuation coe(ficienl is usually exp ressed in Attenuation Equation and the
reciprocal centimetel's (cm-I) and in equations Buildup Factor
represented by the symbol ~. The linear The attenuation of penetrating photon
attenuation coefficient can be determined from radiation is exponential and the intensity I
the mass attenuation coefficient by multiplying transmitted through an absorber (shield ) can be
by the density of the material. expressed as

Equation 7

9
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

where: radioisotope devices. Examples of workload

determination are as follows.
10 == the initia l intensity,
~= the linear absorption coefficient, and Exam p le A:
t = the absorber thickness. • Estimated 400 exposures per week at 300 kYo

A useful manipulation of the attenuation • Average 50 rnA-min per exposure.

equation that will allow straightforward Therefore the projected workload is
calculation of the absorber thickness, is 20000 mA ·m in per week.

/ Exampl e 8:
In ..J!.=JI1 • Estimated 400 exposures per week with
/
Ir-192.
Equation 8
• Average 48.15 GBq·min (4 Ci·min) per
exposure.
This attenuation equation is based on narrow
beam measurements, which assume that the only Therefore the projected workload is
f<ldiation reaching the detector has been scattered 19260 GBq·min (1600 Ci·min) per week.
through an nnglc of less than 0.01 steradian. In
actual practice, broad beam conditions exist and, Occupancy and Use Factors
as a result, much mOTC scatter reaches the Esti mated usc and occupancy factors should
detector. be supplied to the faci li ty designer by the
To correct the attenuation equation for broad Level III. The lise factor is that percentage of the
beam conditions, a simple multiplicative time that the direct or scatter beam will be
correction factor is used. This correction is directed toward any particular wall, ceiling or
referred to as the buildup factor B and the noor of the radiography exposu re cell.
result ing equalion is expressed as If the radiation producing equipment is
installed in such a manner that the direct bc;:ml is
physically restricted from impinging on that wall,
then that wall may be classified as a scalier wall,
Equation 9
which will greatly reduce the amount of required
shielding.
The buildup factors for specific materials and If the exposure cell is to be used for
photon energies may be found in the literature panoramic exposures or if complete freedom to
and can be approximated by direct the beam at any wall is desired, then all
walls should be considered as direct beam walls.
B= 1+111 This choice, although offering the ultimate in
facility versatility, could easily cause the shield
Equation 10
cost to increase by 400% to 500%.
Typica l use factors vary from 1 / 5 to 1,
The buildup factor is dependent on the depending on the intended portion of the
atomic number Z of the absorber and the energy workload to be directed toward a parlicular
of the initial photon. shield.
Occupancy factors are equally important
Facility Design Considerations because they cause the shield thickness to be
Reference 1 has radiation transmission tables greatly increased or reduced. If an area adjacent
and graphs for various commonly used X-ray to the exposure cell is a normal work station, then
energies, radioisotopes and speci fic shielding the occupancy factor would probably be
materials such as lead, concrete and steel. considered as 1, whereas an unattended parking
lot would be classed as 1 / 4 and a sidewa lk as
Workload 1/ 16.
Radiography facility workload is defined as
the number of milliampere minutes per week for Equipment Considerations
X-ray devices and the number of becquerel Knowledge of radiation producing
minutes (curie minutes) per week for equipment, including its mechanical and

10
 Chapter 2: Shielding and Facility Design

electrical operating characteristics, is required to shield thickness may be used to determine the
select and p rovide proper facilit ies. A knowledge required thickness.
of appropriate source·to·fiJm d istances, needs for
fixturing of radiog raphic s ubjects, and
determinations of the types of radiographic
General Guidelines for
techniques that wiU probably be used is also Laboratories
needed. In addi tion, to ensure safety, establish If any door of a radiographic enclosure can
operating instructions and obtain regulatory be opened, means must be provided so that the
approval, provisions must be made for beam equipment is automatically sw itched off and
collimation, shutter mechanisms, high radiation calmot be switched on while the door is open.
interlocks and alarm systems. In a large radiographic enclosure there
The leakage rad iation characteristics of X-ray should be an emergency exit and it is mandatory
tube housings and gamma ray exposure devices to provide an emergency switch inside the
need to be known to ensure adequate protection enclosure to switch off the equipment.
of personnel when the SOUfce is shielded. Leakage Audible warnings or visible lights are
radiation is defined as all radiation, except the required to give warning that equipment is about
useful or direct beam that emanates from the tube to be energiz.ed or a source exposed.
or source hOUSing. There should be a separate warning light to
Whenever feas ible, the direct beam should be show when the source is emitting radiation. It is
collimated to as small an afea as possible. good practice to duplicate this light in all places
Collimation achieves two objectives. It reduces where workers may have access around the
the haz.ard of pcrsolUlcl exposure to radiation enclosure.
and greatly red uces the amount of scatter Suitable warning notices of ionizing
radiation reaching the film being exposed. radiation, such as signs o r barriers, are also
required.
Determination of Shield Thickness
Faci lity s hielding estimates can be performed Safety Monitoring
by direct calcu lations using the attenuation On any radiation enclosure, however detailed
equation or an equation developed for the the design, a radiation survey must be
transmission tab!t.'S of reference 14. undertaken before use or after any alterations.
The following equation may be used for both This should be done w ith the source operating at
gamma and X-ray shielding: its maximum output and pointing in all
directions in which it is likely to be used.
With very high energy (megavol tage)
8 =0. 1 Pd' equipment, short life radioactivity can be induced
WUT in some materials. After long exposure at such
energies it is desi rable to monitor the level of any
EquatIon 11 activity before handling the specimens. For
example, the thresholds for inducing
where: radioactivity are 5.0 MeV for iron, 6.1 MeV for
aluminum, 11 MeV for copper and 1.8 MeV for
P = the permissible average weekly exposure phosphorous.
for design purposes - normally High energy X-ray equipment, particularly in
25.8 pC/kg (0.1 R) for controlled areas the megavolt range, produces side lobes of
and 2.58 ~C /kg (0.01 R) for environs or radiation outside the main direct beam. Because
uncontrolled areas, this radiation has significant penetrating power, it
d = the dis tance from the source to the can travel large d istances in air. In some machines
position in question in meters (feet), this unwanted radiation is absorbed close to the
T = the occupancy factor, target, but in many machines it can travel
U = the use factor, upward and outward, and can spread outside if
B = the permissible transmission of gamma the laboratory has a relatively thin roof. It is
radiation, and usually not feasible to build a roof of the same
w= the workload (CBq per week). thickness as the walls, so the radiation extending
into the air above and scattered back to areas at
Once B is determined, the specific semilog ground level must be taken into account.
plot of trans mission versus specific material

11
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 2 Review Questions

2.1 The probability of absorption of any 2.5 If the intensity of a radiation sou rce was
particular radiation type and energy by a initially 25.8 mC / kg per hour (100 R per
speci fic element is referred to as the: hour) and it was desired to redu ce this
intensity to 2.58 )lC / kg per hour
a. attenuation. (10 mR per hour), wha t thickness of shield
b . bu ildup factor. would be required? Assume that the linear
e. cross section. attenuation coeffi cient for the specific
d. atomic coefficient. energy is 0.90 em· ].
e. probability index.
,. 9.6 em
2.2 Which of the following is not a form for b. 0.2 em
expressing attenuation coefficients? c. 2.5Scm
d. 8.28 cm
a. atomic e. 2.22 crn
b. rayleigh
c. linear 2.6 What would be the facility workluad fur a
d. mass busy exposure cell with the follu w ing
average techniques: 110 exposuI(:'S pf.:r week
2.3 A material with a 9.83 in. tenth-value layer at 10 rnA-min; 500 exposures per week at
has a half-value layer of: 22 rnA-min; 1150 exposures per week at
SmA-min .
a. 2.50 em (0.983 in.)
b. 7.49 em (2.95 in.) a. 34.600 rnA-min per week
c. 12.48 em (4.92 in.) b. 7.850 rnA-min per week
d. 8.23 em (3.24 in.) c. 17.850 rnA-min per week
e. 4.06 em (l.60 in.) d. 2.550 rnA-min per day
e. 71.400 rnA-min per munth
Because Review Questions 2.4 and 2.5 are not
linear conversions, the attenuation coefficients 2.7 An occupancy factor commonly used for
will not include both egs and SI units. design purposes of uncontrolled s idewalk
areas is:
2.4 If a specific material had a linear
attenuation coefficient of 0.20 cm-] what ,. 1 / 4.
would the half-value layer be in that b. 1 / 5.
material? c. 1 / 16.
d. 1.
,. 1.42 cm c. 1/ 10.
b. 3.45 cm
c. 3.66 cm
d. 8.76 cm
e. 6.73 cm

12
 Chapter 3
Radiation Sources

X-ray Generators copper anode has a copper extension through the

X-rays are produced whenever electrons arc envelope of the X-ray tube and various
c;uddenly brought to rest by colliding with matter. arrangements are used to dissipate the heat
It is necessary therefore to have the following: generated.
The face of the target facing the filament is at
I. a means of producing and s ustaining a an angle to the ax is of the lube. By this means the
stream of electrons, energy of the electron beam is d issipated over a
2. a means of accelerating the electrons to a high considerable area of the target, but seen from the
velocity, central axis of the X-ray beam, the effective size
3. a target for the electrons to strike. of the target (the focal spot size) is much smaller
than the real size of the target as shown in
To acquire the energies necessary for Figure 3.1. By this means a h igh output of X-rays
industrial mdiography, the electrons must can be obtained from a compara ti vely small focal
expl..:riencc an accelerating voltage from about spot, without danger of melting the target
30 kV to 30 MV There arc two main methods for material.
ach ieving this. X-ray tubes are designed to cafry the
maximum current possible without melting the
1. By direct application of a potentia l behveen target. Consequently, the cooling system and its
the source of electrons (ca thode) and the efficiency are of paramount importance. The
target (anode». This method is used in X-ray
tubes and may be used to generate up to
Figure 3. 1: Schematic diagram 01 effective (or
2 MeV. projected) focal spot of X-ray tube.
2. By application of a relatively sm all
uccelcrating potential to the electron and
True focal spot
arranging for this to be repeatedly applied
unti l the electrons have acquired the desired 20 degrees
energy, when they are diverted on to the
target. These are known as accelerators.

X-ray Tubes
A medium voltage X-ray tube usually
consists of an insul<lting. vacuum-tight envelope
(genera ll y of glass) containing the cathode and
anode. The cathode will consist of a tungsten Etle-ctlve focal spot
fi lament, usually wound spirally, surrou nded by
a focusing cup that is shaped like a metal
electrode. This cup acts as an electrostatic lens
and controls the shape of the electron beam
Normal X-ray axis
emitted by the filament. The size of the focal spot
depends on the dimensions and location of this
cup in relation to the cathode assembly. The Reprinted Irom Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third
anode consists of a metal electrode of high edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
thermal conductiVity containing the target. The

13
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

maximum operating voltage of an X- ray tube Van de Graaff Generators

depends on the possibility of sparking between The van de graaff X-ray generator is unlike
either cathode and anode, or surface sparking on conventional X-ray machines that obtain
the glass. This has driven the development of kilovoltages from a transformer. The high tension
ceramic tubes and various groundi.ng schemes. generator in a van de graaff system operates on
Tubes with specially shaped anodes have electrostatic principles. The van de graaff X-ray
been developed that provide a panoramic beam system consists of two major componen ts - the
to aid the inspection of pipes. There are two generator and the acceleration tube.
general types. In one the anode is conical and the The electrodes in the generator are insu lated
electron beam strikes the curved surface of the by a nonconductive gas and comprise a system of
cone so that a panoramic 360 degree beam of a certain capacitance. The system is charged by a
X-rays is emitted. In the other type, a flat faced belt of insulating material traveling typically at
anode is used that again gives a panoramic beam 1500 m l min (5000 ft / min). The electrode
of X-rays, but it is thrown in front of the tube. contacting the bottom of the belt is earth ground,
It is possible to use a special electron focusing whereas the high tension (voltage) electrode is
system between the filament and anode to reduce mounted on a series of insulating plates.
the effective focal spot size to a few micrometers; The belt is charged negatively at the bottom
these are microfocus tubes. The pu rpose of these of the belt, with the negative charge removed
tubes is twofold. through an array of needle points at the top of
the belt, accumulating the charge on the high
1. Magnified images can be obtained without voltage terminal. The charge Q on the belt is
loss of image sharpness. given by the formula:
2. Very short source~to~ film distances can be
used.

Owing to the dangers o f pitting from heating Equation 12

on the target face, provision is made either to where:
move the anode to provide a new target area, or
to deflect the electron beam to a new area of the C = capacita nce, and
anode. Because of cooling limitations on the V = voltage.
target, the X-ray output of microfocus tubes is
necessarily very small and varies with the focal The charge carried by the belt increases with
spot size. the va lue of the capacitance but the voltage
between electrodes on the belt remains constant.
Electronic Radiation Sources This negative charge carried by the belt
discharges through the comb (needle points) at
X-ray Sources (Electron Accelerators) the top of the belt. The smaller the capacitance of
the system of needle points and belt, the greater
Betatron the voltage between the high voltage terminal
The beta trOll is basically a combination of an and the belt. In fact, if Q is constant, the valu e of
electromagnet and a transformer designed to V will be inversely proportional to that of C.
guide and accelerate electrons in a circular orbit The components that make up the accelerator
to very high energies. tube arc the accelerating tube (with resistors
The toroidal type of hot cathode high between accelerating plates), electron gun and
vacuum X-ray tube commonly used in a betatron anode.
is capable of injecting and energizing electrons to The accelerator tube contains a flat, small
many millions of volts before striking the target (0.075 mm 2 or 0.0001 in.2) tungsten ca thode that is
to produce X-rays. connected to the high tension electrode. The
Betatrons of this type have been constructed cathode emits electrons and, in the vacuum of the
to generate X-rays at energies ranging from 15 to accelerator tube, these electrons are accelerated to
100 MeV. The average beam current is on the a high speed because of the difference in
order of 1 to 3 11A. The focal spot o f the target is potential between the cathode (at a high negative
usually less than 1 mm (0.04 in.) in diameter. potential) and the anode, which is ground . The
Commercially available betatrons are capable sudden deceleration of electrons upon striking
of radiographing steel (or equivalent) in the the anode produces the X-radiation.
range of 5 to 41 cm (2 to 16 in.).

14
 Chapter 3: Radiation Sources

The van de graaff system is designed to High Voltage and Low Voltage Generators
radiograph up to about 30 cm (12 in.) of steel or Line voltages in the 100 to 250 V range are
equivalent at energy levels up to 3.5 MeV. The used to produce X-rays from 5 to 420 kV using
intensity of the electron beam varies from a few high tension rectifying power supplies.
microamperes to several hundred microamperes. The conventional X-ray generator consists of
three major components: the X-ray tube, the high
Linear Accelerator voltage source and the control unit.
The linear accelerator is an apparatus for The delicate interior components of the X-ray
generating energies to 30 MeV. The high radiation tube are maintained under a vacuum by a glass
outputs of industrial linear accelerators have or metal ceramic enclosure. The vacuum
made it possible to radiograph up to about 66 cm improves efficiency by allowing more electrons to
(26 in.) of s teel. reach the target. The enclosure is then protected
The major components of a linear accelerator from physical damage by an outer hOUSing,
are: usually of sturdy metal construction. The major
interior components are the focusing cup,
1. filament, filament (cathode), target mounting structure and
2. transmission target, the target (anode).
3. focus coils, The filament, which is heated by resistance,
4. pulse modulator, provides the electrons to be accelerated : the
5. waveguide, current in the filament circuit is normally in the
6. magnetron or klystron. range of 1 to 10 A. Filament current should not be
confused with tube current, which is the electron
The acceleration of the electrons in a linear flow between the cathode and the anode. The
accelerator occurs in a straight tube called the tube current can vary from several hundred
waveguide. The electrons are carried along the microamperes up to 20 mA for conventional
tube by electromagnetic waves generated by the X-ray units.
magnetron or klystron. These high frequency The focusing cup is a recess in the cathode in
waves of energy are in the S-band frequency which the filament is housed. Its purpose is to
spectrum (about 3 GHz) for magnetrons and the surround the emerging beam of electrons with a
L-band for klystrons (about 13 GHz). negative field that repels the electrons from the
The velocity of this high frequency wave cup wall and tends to focus them, allowing for
along the waveguide is controlled by the spacing better control of how the electrons will impinge
of the coaxia l irises. Pulses of electrons are on the target.
injected at one end of the waveguide in correct The target, or anode, is usually composed of
phase with the electromagnetic wave: at the other a large heat sink in which the target is intimately
end of the waveguide the electrons strike a target bonded. The anode is the positively charged
(usually less than 2 mm 2 or 0.003 in.2 ) and electrode that attracts the electrons from the
generate X-radiation. Typical waveguides are filament and also dissipates the heat generated
0_9 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) long. during the production of X-rays. The actua l target
In the first section of the guide (the bunclier is small in relation to the overall anode and is
sectioll), the electrons are bunched into pulses and made of tungsten (high melting point) or other
the electron velocity increases from 0.4 c to suitable high-Z material.
almost c (the velocity of light). The circuit of an X-ray generator can be
Further transfer of energy to the electron can designed to produce X- rays of varying intensity
occur by relativistic increase in mass along the and energy (quality). Obviously, the higher the
second section of the waveguide. The groups, or output energy and intensity, the more costly and
bunches, of electrons in linear accelerators vice versa.
produce pulses of X-rays, usually at pulse Most portable units use self rectified, half
frequencies between 100 and 500 pps (pulses per wave circuits and are used to produce X-rays in
second), with pulse lengths of 1 to 2 Ils. the 50 to 200 kV peak range, with tube currents
Industrial linear accelerators cover a wide from 2 to 8 rnA. These circuits fit into three major
range of electron energies from 2 to 30 MeV and, categories: cathode grounded, cen ter grounded
as they can produce large beam currents, high and anode grounded, each with its own
X-ray outputs are obtained - typically 20 times advantages and disadvantages. For tube outputs
to 100 times the output of a betatron at the same exceeding 200 kV peak and reaching 420 kV peak
energy level. or greater, the following three circuit types, or a

15
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

variation of them, have been used: villard circuit,

graetz circu it and greinacher circuit. Radioisotope Sources
These have now largely been replaced by
more modern electronics using multipliers, Neutron Activation
inverters, etc. In many cases, high frequency is Elements such as cobalt and iridium may be
used (12 kHz). Such circuits are better at exposed to neutron bombardment in nuclear
maintaining a stable output from a changing reactors to produce useful radioisotopes for
input voltage and are physically smaller. rad iography. Nuclea r reactors (research or isotope
production reactors, not those used for electrical
Target Materials and Characteristics power) are sources of the large number of
Target material in currently available X-ray neutrons necessary to produce radiographic
generating equipment is tungsten. Tungsten is quality radioisotopes. Other neutron sources
extremely well suited for use as a target because generally cannot compete for the production of
of its high melting poin t (3410 °C or 6170 OF) and radiographic sources.
high atomic, or 2, number (74). It is essential to The neutron reaction used involves the
lISC a material with a high melting point because absorption of a thcrmal ncutron in the nucleus of
of the amount of heat generated w hen X-rays are the target atom with the loss of a gamma ph oton.
produced. The thermal ncutron is a neutron that has been
Heat generated during the production of slowed down to a kinetic energy of about
X-rays is high in comparison to the amount of 0.026 eV. At this low energy, the probability of
X-rays produced, for example: absorption in the atom's nucleus is high (this
probability is called cross sectioll). The reactions
• 99.9% heat, 0.1% X-rays at 50 keY, may be represented as:
• 97% heat, 3.0% X-rays at 300 keY,
• 60% heat, 40.0% X-rays at 40 MeV. Co-59 + n - ) Co-60 + y

High atomic number is important because the

higher the atomic number, the higher the
conversion of the electron's kinetic energy to Ir-1 91 + n -+ Ir-192 + y
X-rays. The grea ter the number of electrons
striking the anode, the greater the number of The target materials, Co-59 and (r-191, exist
X-rays generated. in na ture. Normally, the metallic forms of these
The efficiency of the target material in the elements are made into small pellets that are
production of X-rays is d irectly proportional to its placed into a nuclear reactor for activation.
atomic number and the accelerating voltage.
Platinum and gold have been used for selected
applications as target material, but s pecial heat
Figure 3.2: Typical X-ray spectrum .
removal method s are required. Copper, iron and
cobalt have been u sed in some units to take
advan tage o f characteris tic X-rays generated. Characleristic peaks

Characteristic X-ray Spectra

In any discussion of the X-ray spectrum, it is
necessa ry to identi fy both o f the key portions of
electromagnetic radiation spectra encountered,
continuous and characteristic X-rays. In addition
to the bremsstrahlun g, there are intensity peaks
characteristic of the target material. These peaks,
or s pikes, are caused by interaction behveen the
imping ing s tream of high speed electrons and the 0.' 0.2 0.3 0.'
electrons that are bound tightly to the nuclei of
Wavelength (pm)
the target material.
A typical X-ray spectrum illustrating the
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
continuous radiation and the cha racteristic peaks edition: Volume 4. Radiographic Testing.
is show n in Figu re 3.2.

16
 Chapter 3: Radiation Sources

Fission Fragments d oubly encapsulated, although many

Some radiographic sources are obtained from manufacturers only single encapsulate. The outer
the fragments of the uran ium (U-235) atom after stainless steel cylinder is attached (before source
fission, when the U-235 spl its into two slightly fabrication) to a flexible cable haVing a coupling
unequal sized smaller atoms. Two of the fi ssion on the opposite end . The coupli ng allows a long
fra gments that have been used for radiography cable to be attached to the sou rce so that it may
are Cs-137 and Tm-170. The fi ssion fragments are be manipulated remotely.
separated by dissolving the used nuclear fuel
from a nuclear reactor in acids and perfonning Exposure Devices
extractions, precipitations and other chemical Exposure devices permit remote operation of
processing to isolate the desired materials. the radioactive sou rce to reduce rad iation
exposure to the radiographer. One type has the
source capsule installed in the edge of a cylinder
Fabrication and Design of of shielding material that rotates ins ide a larger
Sources cyli nder of shielding material. Rotation of the
small cylinder to expose the source can be done
Chemical Form remotely. A second type of exposure device
The radioactive material is in the form of allows long flexible cables to be attached to the
metal peUets whenever possible. This is sou rce while it is stored in the center o f a shield .
pp.rlicularly true for cobalt and iridium. The When the cable is moved by turning a crank,
metallic form of these elements is relati vely stable the source moves out of the sh ield through a
in air, easy to obtain and machinable. Cobalt guide tube to a position where the radiographic
metal is often formed into pellets about 2 mm exposure is made. Collimators may be attached to
(O.08 in.) in diameter and thickness. the cnd of the guide tube to p rovide radiation
Each pellet produ ces about 185 GBq (5 Ci) exposure in a limited area. Collimators <lfe made
after neutron bombardment. Iridium is irradiated of either tungsten or depleted uranium (uranium
in '] mm (0.04 in.) thi ck pellets 2 or 3 mm (0.08 or with most of the U-235 removed). A third type
0.12 in.) in diameter, which produce about moves the source into the exposed position
925 and 1850 CBq (25 and 50 0), respectively, w ithin the exposure device by means of a
after neutron bombardment. Cesium is usua lly vacuum.
incorporated into either glass o r ceramic material Depleted uranium is most often used for the
becausc th£' meta l is chemically active and the shield ing of radiographic sources. Lead shielding
oxide and salts are powders that are difficult to is still in use but does not provide the structural
h;'Illdle. Thulium is most often handled as a durability and fire resistance of uranium and
cera mic pellet or as thulium oxide. requires more mass to provide the same shielding
as the lighter uranium. Depleted uranium is itself
Encapsulation radioactive. Therefore, modern exposure devices
To prevent the loss of radioactive material to exhibit very low levels of radiation even when no
the working environment, the radioactive radiographic source is present.
material is encapsulated. The radioactive source Tungsten is also used as shield ing material
is placed into a cavity in a stainless steel cylinder for exposure devices and collimators. Tungsten
and covered with a sta inless stecllid that is ca n be precisely machined, is very durable and is
wddl'CI in place. not radioactive. It is a d esi rable shielding material
Cesium sources are usually doubly bu t is very expensive.
encapsulated, sealed inside a stainless steel Excellent treatment of rad iation sources can
ca psule, that is sealed inside another stainless be found in reference 1, Sections 2, 3 and 6 and
slttl capsule. Iridium and cobalt may also be reference 3.

17
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 3 Review Questions

3.1 X-rays may be produced when high speed 3.6 Which of the following p rod uces the most
_~_ _ are stopped by a high atomic penetrating gamma rays?
number target.
a. Co-60
a. electrons b. Cs-137
b. p rotons c. lr-192
c. hydrogen ions d. Tm-170
d . helium ions e. U-235
c. All of the tlbove.
3.7 Radiographic sources are encapsulated to
3.2 What naturally occurring radioisotope has
been used for radiography? a. im prove the gamma ray o utpu t.
b. harden the rad iation beam.
a. Co-60 c. increase the cost of the sources.
b. Cs-137 d. prevent loss of the radioactive material.
c. Ir-"I92 e. collimate the gamma ray beam .
d . Ra-226
e. A ll of the above. 3.8 An accep table modem radiograph ic
exposu re device may be:
3.3 Neu tron activation prod uces radioisotopes
by, a. a rad iographic sou rce s us pended from a
pole by a string.
a. excitation of the nuclei of the target b. a radiographic source 011 a cyl inder of
atoms by neu trons. shielding materia l rota ting in a larger
b. loss of electrons, caused by neutron cylinder of shield ing material.
bombardment, from the target atoms. c. a radiographic source on a flex ible cab le
c. capture of a neutron by the target that may be driven o ut of a sh ield
atoms. through a gu ide tube to a remote
d. loss of a neutron by the target atoms. location.
e. rapid acceleration of the neutron to d. a rad iograph ic sou rce that may be
release gamma rays. removed from a shield by long tongs or
p liers so that it can be placed fo r
3.4 Which o f the followi ng may be produced by exposure.
neutron activation? e. band conly.

a. Co-60 3.9 An acceptable modern rad iographic

b. Cs-137 exposure device uses as the
c. Ir-192 shielding material.
d. a and b above
e. a and c above a. lead
b. depleted uraniu m
3.5 Which of the following may be produced as c. steel
a prod uct of fission? d. tungsten
e. aluminu m
a. Co-60
b. Cs-137
c. Ir-192
d. Ra-116
e. band d above

18
 Chapter 3: Radiation Sources

3.10 In the doughnut shaped tube of a betatron, 3.13 The efficiency of target material in the
electrons are accelerated to high speed s by: production of X-rays is to its
atomic number.
d. RF power phaSing.
b. uniform voltage distribution. a. equal
c. magnetic induction. b. proportional
d . an insulated charging belt. c. indirectly proportional
d. conversely equal
3.11 Electrostatic generators (van de graaf£) for
radiography operate in the r,mge of:

a. 1 to 2 MeV.
b . :; to 10 MeV.
c. lO to15 MeV.
d. 15 to 2.') MeV.

3.1 2 The high frequ ency wi,"lves of energy

generated by the nli.1gnetron in a linear
accelera tor are in which band of the
frequent:), s pectrum?

a. l-band
b. M-band
c. K-band
d. S-band

19
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

20
 Chapter 4
Personnel Safety and Radiation
Protection

biological effects of the different radiations. Dose

Radiation Measurement Units equivalent is a quantity used for r.. dialion
protection purposes. Not all radiation has the
Activity same biological effect, even for the same amount
Acfivity is the rate of decay (disintegrations of absorbed dose. The amount of energy required
per unit time) o f a given amount of radioactive to produce an ion pair in animal tissue differs
material. The unit of activity is the becq/lere1 (wrie from the energy needed to produce an ion pair in
m the cgs system) lind is defined as one air. Dose equivalent is defined as the product of
d i:.intl!grution per second. Specific activity is the the absorbed dose (D) and the qlli/lily factor (QF) .
total activity of .. given radioactive isotope per The quality factor corrects for the dependence of
unit mass or volumt-:. The units are becquerels per biologica l factor on the energy a nd type of
gram. A h igh s pecific activity indicates that a radiation. For practical purpose.. the conservativ('
"Ource of a given s trength will be of s maller q uality factors in Table 4.2 can be used.
physical size. (Table 4.1) For example, consider an absorbed dose of
1 mGy (0.1 rad) from 2 MeV neutrons. The dose
Exposure equivalent is as follows:
EXl'osu J"P is the measure of X-radiation or
\tamma rad iation based on the ioni za tion
OE = O(QF)
produced in air by the X-rays or gamma rays.
COl/lomb I'cr kilugram is used for measuring SV = Gy( QF)
e"\posure. In the cgs system, the unit of exposure
j, the rot·lI/gI'Il. It is the quantity of X-radiation or
DE = 1 mGy X 10 = 10 mS v
ga,mm,1 radiation that will produce one or
electrostatic unit (esu ) of charge in 1 cm) of dry
air a t standard temperature and pressure (0 °C (OE = O. I rad x lO= 1 rem)
and 760 mill Hg). Equation 13

Dose The sievert (relll or roelltgl'll equivnlent mall in

Dose is the measure of energy deposited by the cgs system ) is the unit of absorbed radiation
radia tion in a makrinl, or of the relative dose in biological matter (dose equivalent). Dose
biological dumag!.! produced by that amount of rate is the quantity of radiation occurring per unit
.. nerg)' given tht· nature of the rad iation. Absorbed
1MI!' is the mean energy • _ _ _ _ _ _'-"_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _......
lmparted to matter by Table 4.1: Radiation measurement units.
ionizing radialion per unit
mass of irradiated material. SI System cgs System
The unit of absorbed dose is Activity becquerel (8q) curie (Ci)
the gray (md or rad iation Specific Activity becquerel per gram (8q/gm) curie per gram (Ci/gm)
absorbed dose in the egs Exposure coulomb per kilogram (Clkg) roentgen (R)
~ys tem). One gray equa ls Absorbed Dose gray (Gy) <ad
100 fad. The gray or rad can
Dose Equivalent sievert (Sv) ,em
be used for any radiation,
but do not describe the Dose Rate sievert per hour (Svlh) remlh

21
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

of time. Dose rate is commonly expressed in manufactured exposure at 0.003 mSv per year
sieverts per minute (rem per hour), (0.3 mrem per yea r).
Total natural and manufactured background
Table 4.2: Quality factors of radiation . radiation exposure is estimated at 1.793 mSv per
year (179.3 mrem per year), typically rounded up
Quality Factor
to about 2 mSv per year (200 mrem per year).
Radiation Type
X-rays, gamma rays, Human Organ Radiosensitivity
electrons and bela Tissues and organs of the body differ in their
Neutrons, energy < 10 keV 3 response to radiation exposure. This response is
called ratliosensitivity.
Neutrons, energy> 10 keV 10 The radiosensitivity of an organ or tissue is
Protons 10 proportional to the reproductive capacity of the
cells that compose that particular organ or tissue
Alpha particles 20 type. Generally those cells that are most active in
Fission fragments, recoil nuclei 20 rep roducing themselves and cells that are not
fully mature are most sensitive 10 radi<ltion. It can
be easily seen that certain organs will receive
more damage than others, and that children will
Biological Effects of Radiation generally receive greater injury than adults for
the same exposure.
Natural and Manufactured Lymphocytes, white blood cells formed by
Background Radiation Exposure the spleen and lymph nodes, are the most
Humans arc constantly being irradiated by sensitive to radiation exposure. Granulocytes,
natural and manufactured radiation occurring in wh ite blood cells formed in the bone marrow, aT(>
the environment. All types of radiation sources also highly radiosensitive.
make up this background level of exposure. Basal cells, so named because they are the
Alpha and beta radiation, as well as gamma rays, o rig inators for the mor£" complex specialized cells
are emitted from radioisotopes that are in OUf of the gonads, bone marrow, skin and alimentary
food or found in items we handle daily. Cosmic canal, rank very high in their degree of
rays and high energy neutrons constantly radiosensitivity.
bombard us from sources outside the earth's Alveolar ceUs, lung cells that absorb oxygen
atmosphere. from the air, arc fairl y radiosensitive.
I{adium, potassium, thorium and uranium Bile cells, which line the digestive system
make up the bulk of natural background walls, have intermediate radiosensitivity. A very
exposure. These elements occur in nature all over large exposure is required before enough bile
the world and many building materials, such as cells are damaged that the digestive system will
sa nd, stone, bri ck, concrete, etc., contain fa il to fun cti on properly.
measurable quantities. Other radioactive Kidney tubule cells are affected rather
elements commonly found in nature are C-14 and quickly by radiation exposure; at high levels, this
H-3 (tritium). The National Committee on can cause severe symptoms in the expo::;cd
Radiation Protection estimates total per capita indi vidual.
natural exposure to be about 0.83 mSv per year Endotheli<:ll cells, which line the closed
(83 mrem per year). cavities of the body, such as the heart and blood
In addition to naturally occurring sources of vessels, are only moderately radiosensitive.
radiation, people are also exposed to Connective tissue cells, which support
manufactured sources that contribute to the organs, are fairly resistant to radiation exposu re.
background exposure. Included are medical and The muscle tissue cells rank very high in their
denial X-rays (about 0.9 mSv per year or 90 mrem radiation resistance, whereas bone and nerve cells
per year), fallout from nuclear weapons have the highest resistance and are referred to as
(0.05 mSv per yea r or 5 mrem per year), and being the least radiosensitive.
exposure from consumer products such as color
television X-radiation (0.01 mSv per year or Symptoms of Radiation Injury
1 mrem per yea r). The National Committee on If proper sa fety precautions are maintained,
Radiation Protection estimates per capi ta personnel working in radiography should never
experience the effects of radiation injury.

22
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

Radiation injury falls into two general Table 4.3 is a summary of the possible effects
categories: prompt effects and delayed effects. As for various exposure levels.
the term s uggests, prompt effrcts are those that will
be experienced a short time after receiving the Radiation Damage, Repair Concepts
radiation exposure. Radiation exposure primarily causes injury to
Listed below arc some of the prompt living tissue through ionization. Ionization
symptoms associated with overexposure to involves changing the molecular s tructure and
radiation. producing positive and negative ions. The
charged atoms that make up complex molecules
1. Experiencing a heated feeling or tingling may cause the molecule to s plit or break into
s imilar to thai fclt when you r hand goes to parts, some of which will be charged. The
s leep. There is a poss ibility thai you may charged components may react with adjacent
have received a high exposure if you have atoms and molecules, producing new substances
these sensations " fler your dosimeter goes or compounds.
off scale or if YOll s uspect that you may have Because living cells are mostly water,
come in close contact with a radiography radiation passing through such a cell has a good
source. possibility of s triking water molecules (H 20).
2. Normally, if an ncute exposure has occurred, When this occurs, the hydrogen and oxygen
the area exposed will blis ter w ithin a matter atoms may release their bonds in the water
of days. molecule and become ions. These ions may
3. If the exposure is very high the exposed area recombine as H02 (hydrogen dioxide) and H 20 2
may become very red and chafed. This is (hydrogen peroxide). Both of these compounds
known as an erythemu dose when reddening are powerful oxidizing agents and will easily
occurs. An exposure of greater than break down the highly complex protein
258 me / kg (HXXl R) is required to cause molecules in body cells. When a cell is attacked
reddening. by these and other chemical agents, various
effects can occur, including:
If a high exposure is received to the whole
body. vomitillg nlay result, followed by severe 1. abnormal cell growth,
di.1rrhea. Medical attention should be obtained 2. alteration of DNA cells,
immediately if any of these symptoms is noted. 3. cell death, and
The potential d£'luyed effects of radiation 4. cell failure to reproduce.
exposure include genetic defects in offspring of
exposed persons and incrc . lsed risk to certai n In general, radiation damage to humans
ty pes oCcilnccr. Unless Significantly la rge occu rs on a cellular level and is chemical in
exposures are received, these risks are no greater nature.
and, in fact, are much less than other risks I~ad i ation from background sources
experienced in our personal an d business lives. constantly irradiates the human body and a small

Ta ble 4.3: Summary of possible effects from various exposure levels.

Radiation Exposure Effects on Pe rs onnel

()"0.25 Sv (0-25 rem) No obvious injury.
0.25,1 Sv (25·100 rem) Possible minor blood count effects, usually temporary in nature.
1-2 Sv (100-200 rem) Noticeabte physical effects and potential permanent injury; possible transient nausea
and vomiting; noticeable blood count change.
2·4 Sv (2oo-4oo rem) Injury and possible permanent disability; severe blood count changes; gastrointestinal
damage in upper dose range. producing diarrhea and vomiting.
4 Sv (400 rem) Fatal to 50% 01 the individuals exposed il no treatment is received ; severe blood
changes; severe gastrointestinal damage and related symptoms.
8 Sv (800 rem) Fatal to 95% 01 the individuals so exposed il no treatment is received.
10 Sv (1000 rem) Fatal to 100% 01 the individuals so exposed; neurological damage and quick shock
symptoms overcome the patient; death certain within days.

23
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

number of cells are continua lly being destroyed pain and swelling will occur within hours, and
or mutilated. As long as the number remains the area will become red and produce blistering
small, the body can, through its natural repair w ithin the same time interval.
mechanisms, discard the damaged cell and
replace it with a new cell . This repair mechanism Permissible or Allowable Personnel
allows us to receive a limited amount of radiation
Dose
exposure without noticeable effects. Our repair
Personnel mon itoring techniques are used to
mechanis m for radiation exposure is s imilar to
measure the accumulated exposure dose of
the way the body repili rs cuts, burns, bru ises or
personnel working w ith ionizing radiation. For
fract u res. If the cut is too large or the bum area
practical purposes, the assum ption is made that
too extensive, there may be permanent damage or
radiation exposure has a threshold value beluw
even death. The same hold s true for body injury
which no particular effect is experie nced . The
caused by radiation.
National Council on l{adiation Protection defines
permissible radiation dose as "the dose of
Acute Radiation Exposure ionizing radiation, that in the light of present
Living organisms usually begin repair knowledge is not expected to C<'Hl se appreciab1t.~
processes as soon as some damage has been bodily injury to <l person at any time during his
d etected by living cells. Up to a point, the body lifetime." The National Cowlcil on Radiation
can keep up with the damage and continue Protection defines the maximum permi:;sible dose
repairing, even on a continuous basis. For this equivalent man values for personnel exposure in
reason, an individual can be exposed to Table 4.4.
considerable amounts of radiation exposure over
a relatively long period of time without
noticeable effects. However, if the same total Table 4.4: Maximum permissible dose values.
<lmount of exposure were given in a very short
time (minutes to hours), severe symptoms would Ma ximum
be produced . Therefore, the rate of exposure is a Yearly Dose
major factor in determining if acute exposure has
Controlled areas Siellerts (rem)"
occurred.
An acute exposure will give traumatic results
in a relatively s hort period of time. A whole body Whole body, gonads, 0 .05 (5)
exposu re is more harmful than localized exposure Lens of eye 0 .15 (15)
of an extremity because all areas are irradiated Skin (other than hands and
and the repair mechanisms of the body have forearms) 0.50 (50)
limitations. Radiation injury and effects for the Hands 0.50 (50)
same dose vary significantly among individuals. Forearms 0.50 (50)
ACllte and I or prompt effects can be expected
Other organs 0.50 (50)
from whole body exposures experienced over a
short period of time. Although the potential Noncontrolled areas 0.001 (0.1)
whole body acute effects are grave, significant
carelessness wou ld be necessary to bring about a The numerical value 01 the dose equivalent In rem may be
such an exposure. assumed to be equal to the numerical value of the
exposure in roentgen lor the purpose 01 this report .
Acute exposures to body extremities, fingers,
hands, and arms are a greater possibility, owing
to the potential fo r physically contacting the CFR Pari 20 - Basic Radiation Safety
sealed radiography source when connecting and Part 20, Standards for Protection Agains t
disconnecting sou rce assemblies if those Radiation, sets down the basic terms and rules for
p rocedures are improperly performed. radiation safety, including radiation dose limits.
Localized exposures of 6 Sv (600 rem) may Following are only those requirements in Part 20
cause reddening a nd a burning sensation similar that are not covered in more detail in Part 34.
to that of a first degree burn in the contact area.
At exposures of 10 Sv (1000 rem), serious tissue 1. Radiation Dose Limits [Section 20.1201 and
damage ca n occur, and reddening immediately Section 20.102]
and blis tering of the area within one to three The Nuclea r Regulatory Comm ission has
weeks can be expected . At exposures of annual (ca lendar yea r) radiation dose limits.
20 to 30 Sv (2000 to 3000 rem) to a localized area,

24
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

Note: This book is concerned only with body and do not contribute to the whole body
radioactive sources located outside the body. dose. The radioactive materials in radiography
There are separate NRC limits for such sources emit beta particles, but the beta particles
intakes of radioactive materials. Those limits d o not penetrate the steel capsule containing the
are nol cons idered here because radiography radioactive material.
sources are sealed inside s teel capsules that
rarely allow particles of radioactive material ALARA
to be released into the air. The following are ALARA is the acronym for As Low As
the Nuclear Regu latory Commission limits Reasollably Achievable and is the p rinciple that
for adults in areas where access is restricted radiation doses shou ld be kept as low as
for the purpose of radiation protection: reasonably achievable, taking into account
economic and social factors.
Dose Limits
1. An annU<lllimit which is the more limiting
of:
Radiation Detectors and
a. The total effective dose equivalent being Personnel Monitoring
equal to 0.05 Sv (5 rem ), or The various types of nonimaging radiation
b. The sum of the deep dose equivalent and detectors have one common characteristic. In one
the committed dose equ ivalent to any form or another, they depend on detection of the
individual organ tissue other than the ionization produced when radiation interacts
lens of the eye being equal 10 0.5 Sv with matter. Among the detector types commonly
(SO rem ). used in radiography are gas filled rad iation
2. The annua l limits to the lens of the eye, to the detectors, scintillation detecto rs, semiconductor
skin and to the extremities w hich are: detectors, thermoluminescent detectors and film
n. A lens dose equivalent of 0.15 Sv badges.
(15 rem), and
b. A s hallow dose equivalent of 0.50 Sv Gas Filled Radiation Detectors
(SO rem) to the skin or to any extremity. General
Gas filled detectors fall into three types:
The whole body dose is a measure of the ionization chambers, geiger-mueller tubes and
amount of rildiiltion that has been received by a proportional counter chambers. Each of these
large portion of the body, particularly the parts methods u ses a gas filled chamber and a central
important from a radiation protection point of electrode insulated from the chamber walls. A
view. These part s are the bone marrow where voltage is typically applied between the wall and
leukem ia would originate or the gonads where the central electrode. The principle for all three
genetic d amage to offspring would origina te. with regard to detection is the same, radiation
Usually the dose rc,lding on the film badge or ionizes the gas. The number of ion pairs
thermol u mincsccnt d osimeter is considered to be produ ced per unit of path length is referred to as
the whole body dose. Whole body for external the s"ecific iOllization. The energy of the rad iation
exposure is heild, trunk (including male gonads), to be detected and the type of gas used in the
ilrms above the elbow or legs above the knee. detector will affect the specifi c ionization. To
The annual occupational dose limi ts for create an ion pair in most gases requires about
minors are 10% of the annual dose limits 34 ev' A single 1 MeV photon has the potential of
specified for adults [Section 20.1201]. Note, creating 30 000 ion pairs in the process of
however, that Department of Labor regulations dissipating its energy. The critical difference
prohibit individuals under the age of 18 from between the detectors is the applied voltage.
working in occupations involvi ng exposure to
radiation [29 erR Section 570.120 and Section
Ionization Chamber Devices
570.57]. Minors are not allowed to work as
Direct reading pocket chambers o r
radiographers. dosimeters arc required safety equipment for
There is a special limit on radiation dose to
personnel working in industrial radiography.
the skin from rad iation that does not penetrate
These chambers are s mall, 13 mm (0.5 in. )
beyond the skin. This limit for the skin is rarely
diameter by 100 mm (4 in.) length. They are
of interest to radiographers. Skin dose generally convenient to use as integrating dosimeters
comes from beta particles, which usually do not
capable of being read during field use.
have enough energy to reach deeply into the

25
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

A Iypical ionization chamber consists of a chamber. The production of only one ion pair
cylindrical form with a central conductor located within the tube will produce a discharge and,
on the cylinder's axis and insulated from the therefore, a pu lse, if the discriminator of the
outer walls. Photons, or charged particles, ionize meas uring device is set low enough. Because of
the air. The negative ions are attracted to the thiS characteris tic, the geiger-mueller device is
positively charged center electrode and produce a more sensitive and is capable of measuring lower
minute current path between the outer wall and radiation levels than the typical ionization
the center electrode. When this type chamber is ch amber.
operated in the ion saturation region, the current The geiger-mueller tube consists of an
prod uced is an accurate measurement of the rate envelope of metal or glass (the c<l thode), a center
at which ion pairs are formed within the gas. electrode (anode), usually tungstcn wire 0.08
Measu rement of this curren t is the principle to 0.10 mm (0.003 to 0.004 in.) in diameter, and a
behind the DC ion ch amber. fill gas. Noble gases, particularly argon, helium
Chamber wall materials are important design and neon, are commonly used for fill gases, with
consid erations because the radiation to be the addition of small amounts of gases such as
delt:cled must penetrate the wall to ionize the alcohol, bromine or chl orine for quench ing
gas. The wnll material will affect the energy purposes.
reSpOt1Se at energies typically below 100 keY; When an ion pair initiates it discharge in the
therefore th is should be a particu lar consideration geiger-mueller voltage region, an avalanche of
in low energy radiographic applications. An positive ions is created along the en tire anode
energy rt'Sponsc curve should be reviewed for wire through gas amplifica tion. Once a given ion
each type of ion chamber as a standa rd p ractice ampli fication reaches a predetermined density of
before specifying its use for routine rad iographic charge, a d ischarge occurs, produdng an output
applications to ensure it is adequate. pulse. Each discharge, regardless of the number
These instruments typically use an aluminum of original ion pairs, is terminated after
or s teel outer shell that protects the delicate developing the same total charge. Therefore, <Ill
internal components but is thin enough to avoid output pulses are about the s.,mc size. Usually
significant attenuation in the walls and enhance these pulses are 0.25 to 10 V and therefore do not
electronic equilibrium. The pocket chamber is require sophisticated electronic amplification
initially cha rgcd using an external dosi meter circu itry. These factors allow geiger-mueller
charger. The resulting drop in chamber voltage inslruments to be s mall, less costly, rugged and
when exposed to radiation is used as the measure generally dependable.
of total integrated ion ization charge. Geiger-m uelle r tubes are manufactured in
The d irect reading pocket dosimeter has an many shapes to accomplish specific detection
internal quart"L fibe r elect roscope, which can be tasks. Those geiger-mueller tubes used in
rea d on an internal scale by hOlding it up to a radiography survey instruments are typically
light source and viewing the scale through the cy lind rica l and most are o f the miniahtre variety.
magnifier lens. Pocket dosimeters capable of Typical sizes are 19 to 38 mm (0.75 to 1.5 in. ) in
reading up to 2 mSv (200 mrem) of exposure are length and 6.4 to 12.7 (0.25 to 0.50 in .) in
required for personnel working in ind ustrial diameter. Geiger-mueller tubes me energy
radiography. compensation filte rs.
Because of the fragility of the device, it is
easy to df..'Stroy the electroscope by dropping the Scintillation Detectors
dosimeter; therefore consistent methods for O ne of the oldest known methods for
securing pocket dosimeters are required. In detection of ionizing rad iation is light
addition, if the charging electrode is not covered scintillation. Certain materials emit visible light
w ith a cap duri ng use, moisture and humidity photons after ionizing radiation inte racts with
can provide a leakage path and discharge the them; these materials are said to scifltillate.
dosimeter, causing the hairline to go off scale. Scintillators may be in the solid or liquid s tate.
For applications in radiography, solid organic or
Geiger-mueller Tube Devices inorganic scintilla tors are used. The use of a solid
Sealed, gas filled detector tubes operating in detection med ium has a great advantage.
the geiger-mueller voltage region above 1000 V In the measurement of h igh energy photons,
are referred to as geiger-mueller detcctors. This detector dimensions can be kept much s maller
type o f detector ca n be used to detect any than an equ iva lent gas filled detector because
radiation that will produce ionization within the solids are SO much more dense than most gases.

26
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

Scintillators are used in highly sensitive survey supply for the photomultiplier tube is in the
mstruments and also as the detecting medium for neighborhOOd of 1000 V.
the radiographic process. Scintillation detectors
are widely used in real time radiography and Semiconductor Detectors
computerized tomography. For use in detecting The advantages of us ing solid medium
gamma photons, scintilla tors have detection detectors were discussed briefly in the section on
efficiencies 1()9 times greater tha n typical gas scintillation detectors. Scintillation detectors have
ionization chambers. several limitations; the major one is their
Commonly used inorganic solid scintillators relatively poor energy resolution. In addition, the
and their activator impurities include: number of events that must occur to convert the
incident radiation to light and then eventually to
1. gadolinium an electrical signa l involves many inefficient
2. sodium iodi de: Nal(Ti), steps. Semiconductor detectors offer the
3. lithium iodide: Ul(Eu), advantage of the solid detecting medium and
4. ce~i um iod ide: Cs [(Na), enhance the energy resolution o f the system .
5. zi nc sulfide: ZnS{Ag). Spectroscopic applications, from an energy
resolution standpoint, are great ly improved with
Another commonly used scin tillator is the the use of semiconductor detectors. Photodiodes
plastic scintillator. These materials have several are used in lieu of scintillation detectors in some
advantnses, the principal one of which is they are real time and tomography equipment designs.
commonly nvailable in the form of rods, cylinders The most widely used semiconductors (or
and flat sheets. 111 addition, they are relatively radiation detection are the diffused P-II jun ction,
mexpensive. surface barrier, lithium drifted s ilicon or
For a ~ intiU ato r to be used as a radiation german ium and intrinsic germanium detectors.
detector, it has to be coupled to a device that will
count or integrnte the light pulses from the Thermoluminescent Detectors
scintill .. tor. This is commoilly accomplished by Another category of inorganic crystals,
using photomliitiplier tubes. The photomultiplier known as t/rermO/llmillescellt materials, can be used
tube is composed of a photosensitive layer, the to detect ionizing radiation. Thermoluminescence
photocathode, coupled to .. n electron multiplier
is the emission of light from materials when the
o;tructure. The photocathode converts incident
materials are heated. If the material has been
lIght photons from the scintillator into low energy exposed to ionizing radiation above a certain
electrons via the photoelectric effect. minimum threshold, a measurable amount of
Because the number of photoelectrons light will be emi tted from the material when it is
involved in a Single pulse frolll the scintillator
heated to the appropria te temperature in a
may be too 1'1111 .. 11 to produce a Significant charge,
controlled manner.
the signa l requires amplification. The dynode The .. mount of light emi tted is proportional
!ltructurc o f the photomultiplier tube to the amount of radiation to which the
<lccomplishes this by IIV(I/rmching; that is, thermoluminescent material was subjected. This
m ultiplying the number of electrons. After such light em ission typically will not occur at room
<lmplification through a photomultiplier tube, a temperature for most thermoluminescent
typical pulse from the scintillator will produce materials, and herein lies the advantage of these
107 to 10 10 electrons . This amplification produces materials as radiation detectors. Crystals of
a charge al the anode large enough to be easily thermoluminescent material function as
counted electronically. integrating radiation detectors and will release
The output pulses from photomultiplier tubes the exposure information only when heated. The
can simply be counted or the output pulse can be most common use of thermoluminescent material
amplified and the pulse height analyzed. The
is as a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD ) for
charge amplification from a photomultiplier tube personnel monitoring.
is very linear; therefore the outpu t pulse is
The ma te rials most often used as
p roportional to the original number of
thermoluminescent dosimeters are calcium
photoelectrons or the energy deposited within the
sulfate activa ted with manganese and lithium
scintillator. This fact allows the output to be
fluoride. Of the two, lithium fluoride is probably
calibrated against a photon source of known
the best suited for reusable personnel monitoring
energy. Electronic discrimination of unwanted
devices. Lithium fluoride does not require an
low energy signal s is possible. The high vol tage
activator and is popular because it has almost

27
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

negligible fading at room temperature and has a The filters cover only portions of the film,
low average atomic number, bringing it close to allowing windows or openings through which
air and tissue. Because of its close approximation the various qualities of radiation may pass. Most
to tissue's atomic number, the energy deposited is badge designs provide an open window to admit
very closely correlated with the gamma / X-ray low energy photons or beta radiation.
exposure, or dose equivalent for humans over a Thermal neutron exposure may also be
wide range of energies. measured using film techniques. Cadmium and
Thermoluminescent dosimeters can be read brass filters are used and usually a special
at w ill if the heating / recording instrument called sensitivity neutron film. The cadmium and brass
a reader is available. The thermoluminescent filters are designed so that they both attenuate
dosimeter reader is a precision instrument with photon radiation by the same amount But
closely controlled heating and timing circuits to because cadmium exposed to thermal neutrons
properly liberate the light from the will undergo an (11,-y) reaction, the film density
thermoluminescent dosimeter. The heating produced behind the cadmium will be greater
chamber is coupled to a photomultiplier tube in a than that behind the brass. The differential in
light tight enclosure. The photomultiplier tube denSity between the two measurements can be
detects the light photons emitted, amplifies the calibrated to show the thermal neutron exposure.
signal and produces current pulses of sufficient The sensitivity of available emulsions is
size to be counted and integrated electronically. sufficien t to detect as little as 0.1 mSv (10 mrem)
The major disadvantage of thermoluminescent of gamma radiation at 1.33 MeV (Co-60) and as
dosimeters as radiation detectors is lack of little as 0.02 to 0.03 mSv (2 mrem to 3 mrem) at
information about the incident radiation energy. 100 keY. Because of film fog, statistical variations,
Natural lithium contains 7.4% Li-6 and etc., most suppliers of film badge dosimetry do
therefore is somewhat sensitive to slow neutrons, not attempt to report exposures below 0.1 mSv
via the (lI,a) reaction, because of the thermal (10 mrem).
neutron cross section of Li-6. This response can be Use of film for personnel monitoring has
increased by using lithium enriched with Li-6, or severa l disadvantages. Fogging may result from
decreased by using lithium consisting entirely of mechanical pressure, evaluated temperature, and
Li-7. Because of this capability, lithium fluoride exposure to light and moisture as well as other
thermoluminescent dosimeters can also be used environmental contaminants.
as neutron dosimeters.
Selection of Survey Instrumentation
Film Badges The selection of radiation s urvey instruments
Photogruphic film has been in wide use for for use in monitoring radiographic operations
monitoring personnel exposure to gamma, X-ray, should take many things into consideration. The
beta und neutron rudiution s ince the eurly 1940s. ruggedness of the instrument and its suitability to
This method of monitoring consists of placing a perform in a dependable and reliable manner arc
small packet or packets of film in a holder probably more important than any other
designed to protect the film and providing filters considerations. Ionization chamber instruments
to account for the variation of absorption versus typically have many desirable features from the
energy of the particular radiation to be measured. standpoint of health physics and accuracy of
Filters are usually placed on the front and rear of exposure/dose readings. This must be balanced
the film holder. This placement produces images against the ruggedness of most geiger-mueller
thut ullow the eVuluator to determine from which instruments designed for radiography and
direction the radiation emanated. whether the instrumen t will be used in a
The response of photographic film varies laboratory environment with reasonable
with photon energy and becomes significantly environmental controls or in a temporary field
greater at energies below 150 keV. Proper job site location.
selection of filters allows the filter absorption In general, geiger-mueller instruments for
versus energy response to match the film rad iography are not as susceptible to moisture,
density energy characteristic, leaving an exposure and physical damage as are ionization
essentially energy independent radiation ch amber instruments. The thin windows of many
response on the film. Filters of lead, cadmium, ionization chambers make them impractical for
tin, aluminum and brass are commonly used. use in radiographiC operations. Similarly,
Filters are arranged in specific patterns and geiger- mueller instruments with external tubes
permanently mounted to the film badge holder.

28
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

and thin windows should also be avoided in and permanent (or fixed). Radiographic
radiographic operations. operations carried out in permanent inst<lll<ltions
Current federal a nd most s tate regula tions require the use of electrical inte rlocks, area
require the use of a survey instrument when monitors and alarm systems to prevent accidental
performing X-radiography or gamma entry into a high radiation area. Federal and state
radiography. At minimum, instruments in regulatory requirements are equally stringent, but
industrial rad iography must be able to should be consulted to ensure that you are aware
adequately measure radiation in the range of of any recent revis ions. These requirements can
0.02 mSv per hour (2 mrem per hour) through at be found in 10CFR20 and 10CFR34 a nd the
least 10 mSv per hour 0000 mrem per hour}. equivalent sections of state regulations.
Many instruments are available that meet or Area monitors may use radiation detectors
exceed these requirements. In addition, the us ing geiger-mueller tubes, ionization chambers
instrument should be capable of detecting the or proportional counters. The monitor is usually
energy of radiation being used. an instrument mounted in a permanent location
Geiger-mueller instruments of inexpensive and interlocked with e ntry doors to the
design may exhibit a phenomenon known as radiography exposure cell. The monitor normally
sa turation. If such an instrument is placed in a uses a meter face that indicates the radiation level
high radiation field, the geiger-mueller tube will within the room and is connected to audible and
go into continuous discha rge and the meter visible indicators. The radiation detector can be
movement will typically go to zero. This could located within the exposure cell and the monitor
cause an individual to inadvertently enter a high and alarms located outside the cell. The visible
radiation area and receive an unnecessary s ignal must be activated by radiation whenever a
exposure. Most modern geiger-mueller tube radiography source is in the 011 position, whereas
instrument circuits arc designed to prevent meter the audible ala rm must be activated whenever
movement zeroing when saturation of the tube any attempt is made to enter the cell when the
ocrnrs. source is exposed.
Geiger-mueller tube survey instruments are Some area monitors ha ve preset alann levels,
the most widely used in radiographic monitoring, so that when the radiation level within the cell
although there are ionization chamber exceeds the p reset level the alann indicators will
instruments available that are rugged and activate (audible and / or visible). Area monitors
durable. Those instrume nts are usually much for exposure cells must be designed to alarm
more expensive than the geiger-mueller tube whenever the exposure level in the cell reaches
ins trument. Note that geiger-mueller instruments, 1 mSv per hour (100 mrem per hour) and the
unlike current ionization chambers, ind icate door is opened. Lower alarm levels may be
pulses regardless of energy and register in pulses desired by the ind ividual user.
per minute. 11,ey <Ire typically calibrated in During a radiography exposure, the exposure
coulombs per kilogram (milliroentgen per hour) cell door(s) are closed and the electrical interlock
at one s pecific energy, such as from Cs-137 switches are opened, causing the audible and
(0.666 keY) or Co-60 (1.173 and 1.332 MeV). Use v isible alarms to activate and thereby warning of
at other energies requires an energy response the existence of a high radiation area.
curve to make the instrument readings usable. Alarm systems should be checked on a daily
Most well designed geiger-mueller tube basis to ensure they are functioning. Entry into
instruments in radiography are relatively linear in radiography exposure cells should always be
energy response from 100 keY through 1.2 MeV. done with a portable radiation survey instrument
Survey instruments using sodium iodide in hand. Monitor / alarm systems are not intended
detectors and other inorganic scintilla tors are to be a substitute for s urvey instrumen ts.
available, bllt <lre very seldom used in industrial
r<1diography. They are generally fragile Calibration and Maintenance
instruments and their extreme sensitivity is not Survey instruments used in radiography
requi red for normal monitoring purposes. They requ ire routine maintenance to ensure proper
can be usefu l in the performance of surveys for operation and are required to be calibrated
lost sourc(;.'S by health physics personnel. periodically. The required calibration interval for
survey instrumentation is 6 months and, for
Area Monitors and Alarm Systems pocket dosimeters, annually.
Radiographic operations are generally classed Cal ibration should be performed us ing a
into hvo major categories: mobile (or temporary) source of radiation with intensity traceable to the

29
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiograph ic Testing Method

National Institute of Standards and Technology. Radiation exposure can also be controlled via
Calibration typically involves placing the the distance between the individual and the
instrumen t at a distance from the calibration source. This situation is governed by the inverse
source computed to give a desired field intensity, square law. As applied to radiation this states that
then reading the instrument. If the instrument the dose rate from a point source is inversely
reading is outside the allowable calibration limits proportional to the square of the distance from
at that point, an adjustment of the instrument the origin of the radiation source. This holds
potentiometer for that scale may be required. provided that the dimensions of the radiation
Typical calibration limits are ±20% of the source are small compared to the distance, and no
calibration source intensity. Good practice appreciable scattering or absorption of the
requires intensity checks at two positions on each radiation occurs. In practice, the first condition is
instrument range. One measurement should be satisfi ed whenever the distance involved is at
near the high end and one near the low end of least 10 times greater than the largest so urce
the range. dimension. In situations where there is
Maintenance that should be performed daily insignificant scattering or absorption, the primary
includes a check of battery intensity and beam is the total radia tion field. This relationship
cleanliness of the instrument. Accumulations of is expressed as:
dirt and moisture will eventually cause
in strument malfunction or damage. Depleted
battcri!.:s can caus!.: severe damage to portable
radiation survey instrumentation. Equation 15
Records of calibration should indude where:
id entification of the source used, specific points
that were checked on the instrument, the 11 = radiation intensity at distance ri 1,
calculated intensity and the actual instrument 12 = radiation intensity at distance d21
reading for each point, the individual performing d 1= distance from the source al wh ich the
the calibration and the date of calibration. intensity is 11, and
d2= distance from the source at which the
Exposure Control Techniques intensity is 12
The concepts of time, distance and shielding
can be used to control the amount of exposure Common materials such as concrete and lead
received by personnel working with sources of can be used as absorbers or shields to reduce
radiation . personnel exposures. The thickness of any
The time concept relates to the amount of material that will reduce the amount of radiation
time spent near the exposed source. Obviously, passing through the material to one half is
shorter time spent near a source will reduce the referred to as the half-value htyer. Similarly, the
radiation exposure. Every effort should be made thickness that will reduce the rad iation to one
to minimize the amount of time in areas adjacent tenth is referred to as the tenth-value layer.
to the sources of radiation. Working time in hours
per week can be calculated. For example, for an Contamination Sources and Control
exposure rate of 100 I1Sv per hour (10 IlR per It is important to understand the difference
hour) to the whole body: between radiation and contamination and how
they are related.
Permissible occupational Radiatioll, whether it be X-rays or gamma
dose per week rays, is energy. Energy may be dissipated or
Working time change its form but it in itself is not radioactive.
Exposure dose rate
On the other hand, contamination is the actual
deposition of radioactive matter in an unwanted
1000 pSv X wk '[ location. This radioactive matter, although it has
100 IlSv x h"' physical characteristics such as mass, usually
occurs in such a minute quantity that it cannot be

(
= 100 mR x wk "' J viewed with the naked eye. Contamination
consists of particles of matter from a source of
to mRxh"' rad ioactive material and, as such, will em it
= 10 h X wk' [ radiation energy and have all the characteristics
of the parent source.
Equation 14

30
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

One may be exposed 10 radiation without emergency action in a clear and concise manner.
being contaminated; but one cannot be Topics that should be a part of the radiography
contaminated without being exposed to radiation. operating and emergency instructions include
The danger of contamination is that most personnel monitoring. su rvey instruments, leak
rad ioisotopes emit alpha and / or beta particles testing. use, care and maintenance of radiography
and, if the particles are ingested, radiation wiU be exposure devices, s..,fe work practices, survey
very intense at thei r final position in the bod y. records, state and federa l regulations, and
Contamination may occur in industrial emergency action in the event of an overexposure
radiography from a sealed source whose situation. Operating and emergency instructions
enca psulation has failed, from shipping are required by state and federal regulatory
conta iners and source changers that were not agencies and apply to all sources of ionizing
properly cleaned by the source manufacturer, and radiation.
from uranium shielded exposure devices whose
shield liner tubes have worn through to the Radiation Regulatory Stan dards
uranium. The fede ral government regulates industrial
Sea led sources of radioactive material used in isotope radiography in areas under its
radiography are required by sta te and federal jurisdiction through the Nuclear Regulatory
regulations to be leak tested for contamination at Com mission. Many state governments have
six month intervals. These tests must be capable established agreements w ith the Nuclea r
of detecting 0.185 kBq (5 nCi) of removable Regulatory Commission which allow them to
radioactive material contamination. regulate the uses of radioactive material within
Leak test samples of Ir-192 and Co-60 sources their state in lieu of the federal agency. Such
willllot show visible contamination, although states are called Agreement States.
gross uran ium cont.. min.. tion can be visually Most states have a radiation regulatory
noted. Uranium con taminat ion is normally in the program w ith established rules for the regulation
form of uranium oxide, which is black. In both of all sources of ionizing radiation including
uranium and radioisotope sources, if X-ray machines. These regulations are
contamination is present, the only positive administered through state nuclear energy or
method of detection is by measuring with a thin health departments and follow the federal
window (I mg/cm2) o r windowless radiation requirements very closely.
instrument. Radioactive material use and possession are
Once a positive leak t<.'St sample has been typically authorized by the appropriate
discovered, every effort should be made to isolate regu latory agency via issuance of a Radioactive
the sealed sou rce and its shielded container to Materials License. The licensee applies for a
prevent contam ination. A common technique is to license by submitting deta iled instructions and
seal the container in a nonporous plastic bag or procedures that describe how the licensee will
container. Individuals who have come into implement regu lations and how they will be uSt!d
physical contact with the conta iner should be by their personnel in the administration of the
monitored and have their hands and other licensee's radiation safety program. Regu latory
exposed areas thoroughly washed. SmOking. agencies make frequent onsite inspections of
eating or drinking in an area of known licensee operations to ensure that public health
contamination should be prohibited. and safety are being maintained during the use of
Contamination from sea led radiography ionizing radiation sources.
souro..'S occurs very infrequently, but when it The licensee in industrial isotope radiography
docs occur the Level III should be thoroughly must comply w ith the Code of Federal
aware of its significance and of basic techniques Regulations (CFR) when operating under a
to prevent the spread of contam ination. Nuclear Regulatory Com mission license. [n
particular, the following CFR TItle 10 areas are of
Radiography Operating and specific interest: l OCFR20 Slalldards for Protection
Emergency Instructions Agaillst Radiatiou and lOCFR34 Lice1lses for
The Level III is frequently called on to write ludllstrial Radiography alld Radiation Safety
the operating and emergency procedures to be Requirements for ludl/strial RadiographiC Operatiolls.
used by radiography personnel using sources of In addition to licenses for use and possession
ionizing rad iation. Such procedures are required of radioactive material. the Department of
to be written and should convey the direction of Transportation issues rules and regulates the
management w ith regard to sa fe practice and transportation of rad ioactive materials. These

31
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

regulations cover packaging, labeling and mode the forces of an accident. The consequences of a
of transport requirements. The Department of release of the material in o ne of these packages
Transportation requirements arc s pecified in would not be major because the quantity of
Hazardous Materials Regulatiolls, 49CFR, Parts material in this package is so limited. Type A
171 to 179. Packaging is only used to transport nonlife
Different shipping packages are required for endangering amounts o f rad ioactive material.
various tyiX--'S, forms, quantities and levels of Type B Packagillg is used to trans port material
radio.1ctivity. Three common packaging types are with the highest levels of radioactiv ity. Type B
Indus trial Packaging. Type A Packaging and Type Packaging ranges from small handheld
B Packaging. radiography cameras to heavily shielded steel
Jlldl/strial Packaging is a fa irly new category or casks that weigh up to 125 tons. Examples of
package type. Industria l Packaging is used in material transported in Type B Packaging include
certain s hipments of low speci fic activity material s pent nuclear fuel, high level radioactive waste
and surface contaminated objects, which are and high concentrations of some other
usua ll y categorized as radioactive waste. Most radioactive material like cesium and cobalt. These
low level waste is sh ipped fo r disposal in secured package designs must withstand all Type A tests,
packages like these. Department o f but they must also withstand a series of tests that
Transportation regu lations require that these simu late severe or worst case accident condition:;.
packages allow no identifiable release of the Accident conditions are simula ted by
material to the envi ronment during normal performance testing and engineering analysis.
trans portation and handling. Requirements for Type B Packages may conta in potentially life
ind ustrial packaging are addressed in 49CFR endangering amounts of radioactive material.
173.411. Packaging requirements fo r Type B Packaging aoc
Type A Packaghlg is used to trans port small addressed in 49CFR 173.41 3 and IOCFR 71. To
quantities of radioactive material w ith higher demonstrate that Type B Packages can withstand
concentrations of radioactivity than those a severe accident, a tractor trailer carry ing a Type
shipped in Industrial Packaging. They are B Package prototype was crashed into a massive
typically constructed of steel, wood or fiberboard concrete wall at 8 1 mph. While the truck was
and have an inner containmen t vessel made o f destroyed, damage to the package was external
glass, plastic or meta l surrounded with packing and su perficial. Many handheld radiography
material made of polyethylene, rubber or cameras are Type B Packages. They are heavily
vermiculite. Examples o f material typically shielded and conta in a small high level rad iation
shipped in Type A packages include nuclear source.
medicine (radiopharmaccuticals), radioactive Three different labels may be used on
waste and radioactive sources used in industrial packages containing radioactive materia l:
applications. Type A Packagi ng and its
radioactive contents must meet standard testing • Radioactive While-I: minimal radiation levels
requ irements designed to ensu re that the package detectable outside the package.
retains its containment integrity and shielding • Radioactive Yellow-JJ: medium level
under normal transport conditions. Type A radiation levels detectable outside the
Packaging requirements are addressed in 49CFR package.
173.412. Ty pe A Packag ing must w ithstand Radioactive Yellow·lII : highest radiation
moderate degrees of heat, cold, reduced air levels detectable outside the package.
pressu re, vibra tion, impact, water s pray, drop,
penetration and compression tests. Type A Table 4.5 briefly summarizes the three labels
Packaging is not, however, designed to withstand and the conditions that apply to their use.

Table 4.5: Label requirements for radioactive materials.

Radioactive Label Type Maximum allowed dose Maximum dose rate at 1 m
rate at package surface (3.3 tt) from package surface
------------------~--~------~
White-l Label s 0.005 mSv/h (s 0.5 mA/h)
Yellow-II Label 0.5 mSvlh (50 mRIh) 0.Q1 mSvlh (1.0 mRlh)
Yellow-Il l Label 2.0 mSvlh (200 mRlh) 0 .10 mSvlh (10 mR/h)

32
 Chapter 4: Personnel Safety and Radiation Protection

Chapter 4 Review Questions

4.1 Which one of the following radioisotopes is 4.6 Specific areas of the Code of Federal
not naturally occurring? Regulations used frequently by radiography
licensees are:
•• Cs-137
b. Ra-226 •• 10CFR20 .
c. K-40 b. 10CFR34.
d. C-14 c. 10CFR50.
e. H-3 d. 10CFR70.
e. both a and b.
4.2 Which of the following human cell
categories is the most sensitive to radiation 4.7 In accordance with Department of
exposu re? Transportation regulations, radioactive
materials are classified into which two
a. granulocytes categories?
b. basal cells
c. bile duct cells a. haza rdous and nonhazardous
d. muscle cells b. normal and speoa l
c. lymphocytes c. penetrating and non penetrating
d. Type I and Type II
4-.3 IfaX-radiation exposurcof 1.4 me / kg e. flammable and nonflammable
(5.8 R) is received by an individual during
,m incident, what is the individual's dose 4.8 If an exposure of approximately 3 Sv
equivalent? (300 rem) of gamma radiation was received
to the whole body of an individual, which
il. 0.058 Sv (5.8 rem) one of the following would not be likely?
b. 0.029 Gy (2.9 Tad)
c. 0.232 Sv (23.2 rem) a. white cell count decrease
d. 0.116Sv (11.6 rem) b. vomiting
e. 0.116 Gy (11.6 md) c. diarrhea
d. death
.. ,4 The old English unit of radiation, the cu ric,
is 3.7 x lOW disintegrations per second. The 4.9 The critical difference between the operation
new unit is how many disintegrations per of detectors in the ionization,
second? geiger-mueller and proportional region is
the:
a. 1000
b. 100 a. pulse duration.
c. 10 b. voltage applied to the center electrode.
d. c. specific ionization of the chamber gas.
d. amperage of the chamber Orcuit.
4.5 When using film <IS the method for neutron e. amperage of the electrode.
personnel monitoring, what filter material is
used to produ ce an (lI,y) reaction, which will 4.10 All other design parameters being equal,
increase the film density after neutron which of the follow ing opera tes at the
exposure? h ighest applied vol tage?

u. tin a. geiger-mueller detector

b. polyethylene terephthalate b. ionization chamber detector
c. cadmium c. proportional counter detector
d. brass d. photomultiplier tube
e. lead e. All operate at the same voltage.

33
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

4.11 The minimu m amount of energy required to 4.14 What is the distance from the calibration
produce an ion pair in ai r is approximately: source to the instrument detector to obtain
the calculated intensi ty required at the
a. 100 cV. lower limit check in the above situation?
b. 68 keY.
c. 0.510 MeV. a. 18.9 m (61.9 £I)
d. 1.02 MeV. b. 6.3 m (20.6 £I)
e. 34 eY. c. 4.0 m (13.2 £I)
d. 12.1 m (39.6 £I)
4.12 Survey instruments used to monitor e. None of the above
radiography operations should have a range
of at least: 4.15 In the above situation. if the ins trument
indication was +30% of the requ ired lower
a. 0.258 to 516 ~C / kg per h level reflding, it wou ld read approximately:
(1 to 2000 mR / h)
b. 0.5 16 to 2580 ~ C / kg per h a. 83.85 ~C / kg per h (325 mR / h).
(2 to 10 000 mR / h ) b. 38.70 ~C / kg per h (150 mR/h).
c. 0.516 to 516 ~C / kg per h c. 28.63 ~C / kg per h (111 mR / h ).
(2 to 2000 mR / h) d. SO.31IJ,C / kg per h (195 mR / h).
d . 0.5t6 to 258 ~C / kg per h e. 33.54 ~C / kg per h (130 mR / h).
(2 to 1000 mR / h)
e. 0.258 to 77.4 ~C / kg per h 4.16 The detection efficiencies of scintillation
(1 to 300 mR / h) detectors over gas ionization chambers for
photons is approximately:

The fo llowing situation is to be used in a. 1()6 times greater.

answering questions 4.14 through 4.16. A survey b. 1(}3 times greater.
instrument is to be cal ibrated using a 25.9 GBq c. 1 ()'1 times greater.
(3.4 Ci) Co·60 source. It is desired to calibrate the d. 1()9 times greater.
0.0258 to 258 mC / kg per h (100 to 1000 mR / h) e. 10 12 times g rea ter.
range of the instrument at ±20% at two locations
on the range. The two locations are at the lower 4.17 Which of the (ollowing survey instrument
limit p lus 15% and the upper limit minus 15% of types is usually considered least su sceptible
the range at that point. to moisture and ph)'sicai shock?

4.1 3 At what locations on the instrument range a. proportional counter instruments

would you be checki ng in the above b. ion ization chamber instruments
situntion? c. geiger-mueller tube instru ments
d. bonner sphere instruments
a. 64.5 and 2%.7 j.1C / h e. germanium detector instruments
(250 and 1150 mR / h)
b. 64.5 and 219.3 ~ C / h
(250 and 850 mR ! h)
Co 21.93 and 296.7 j.1C / h
(85 and 1150 mR / h)
d. 29.67 and 219.3 ~C / h
(115 and 850 mR / h)
e. 38.7 and 219.3 j.1C / h
(150 and 850 mR / h)

34
 Chapter 5
The Film Radiographic Process

Radiography technology has seen dramatic where:

changes, especially in the areas of digital
detectors and imaging, and computer aided D = density
methods such as tomography. Because those 10 = intensity of incident light, and
areas have seen such explosive development, It = intensity o f the transmitted light.
they will be treated independently in their own
chapters. This chapter deals exclusively w ith film The ratio of incident to transmitted intensities
methods. is caBed opacity. The inverse of this ratio is called
transmittance and indicates the fraction of incident
Radiographic Image Quality light transmitted through the film. The
The amount of information contained in any relationship of density to opacity and
photographic image, and in a radiographic image transmittance is tabulated in Table 5.1.
in particular, is strongly dependent on the quality
of the image. Radiographic sellsitivity is a Subject Contrast
qualitative term used to refer to the smallest Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation
d etail that can be seen in a radiograph and hence intensities transmitted by two selected portions of
is a measure of overall image quality. Image a specimen. As the energy level of the radiation is
quality is a combination of the factors of contrast increased, the radiation becomes more
and definition of the radiograph. penetrating. This has the effect of flattening out
Radiographic contrast is defined as the the image of a typical test speci men at higher
difference between the film densities of two areas kilovoltages. For instance, consider a steel
of a radiograph. It, in turn, is broken down into specimen having thicknesses of 12.5 and 25 mm
the contrast provided by the subject being (0.5 and 1 in.). If an optimum energy level is
radiographed (subject contrast) and that provided chosen for the 12.5 mm portion of the radiograph,
by the film itself (film contrast). the image of the 25 mm section will have density
Dejil/ilioll refers to the sharpness of the image and contrast too low to be of any use. On the
outline. It depends on geometric factors such as other hand, if an energy level is chosen to give a
focal spot size, source-to-film distance and shape
of specimen, and on the inherent film / screen
limitations of image s harpness. In practice, one
1"('f('rs to unsharpness rather than sharpness. Table 5.1: Transmittance, percent transmittance,
opacity and density relationships.

Density Percent
Transmittance Transmittance Opacity Density
The quantitative measure of blackening of a
photographic emulsion is called density. Density
is usually measured directly with a densitometer. 1.00 100 1 0
Film density is defined by the equation: 0.50 50 2 0.3
0.25 25 4 0.6
0.10 10 10 1.0
0.01 1 100 2.0
0.001 0.1 1000 3.0
Equation 16 0.0001 0.01 10000 4.0

35
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

high contrast image of the 25 mm portion, the the overall exposure conditions are moved to a
12.5 mm area will probably appear to be black. point on the curve where the slope is greater.
These conditions represent high subject Although the shape o f the characteristic
contrast. One can lower the s ubject contrast and curve for a g iven film type is insensitive to
thereby obta in usable images of both sections on changes in X-ray or gamma ray quality, it is
one radiog raph by increasing the energy level affected by changes in degree of development;
substantially so that radiation penetrating the that is, type and temperature of developer and
thinner section will also penetrate the thicker time of development. Within limits, an increase in
section. In other words, as the radiation energy is the degree of development results in an increase
increased, the ratio of photon transmission in the speed and contras t of a radiographic film.
through the thicker portion to that of the thinner As the processing time is increased from
section is decreased to give a lower subject 2 minutes to 10 minutes, the characteristic curve
contras t. Subject contrast, therefore, depends becomes s teeper and moves to the left,
primarily on the shape of the specimen, but is a corresponding to higher contrast (slope) and
parameter that can be altered by choice of energy speed (less exposure for a given density). if
level. characteristic curves for several film types are
Another factor affc-cting radiographic contrast included on a Single graph, the exposure
is that of scattered radiation reaching the film and technique for one film can be translated to
raising the overall background level. The fog another.
resulting from s uch scatter is not a subject
contrast factor but usually is lumped in with Film Speed
subject contrast when considering those factors Film speed is inversely related to the time
affecting overa ll radiographic contrast. Sca ttered required for a given intensity of radiation to
radiation can lower image contrast and detail and produce a particular density on the film - the
is considered to be lIoise. Every practical method fa ster the film, the shorter the exposu re required.
o f reducing scatter should be used to enhance the For most practical applications, it is convenient
signal-to-noise ratio of a radiograph. and effective to deal with relative speeds. To
avoid making absolute measurements of film
Film Contrast speed, it is convenient to refer to a group of film
The relationship between the exposure curves s uch as those shown in Figure 5.1 . Curves
applied to a given type of rad iographic film and positioned to the left of the chart require less
the res ulting density is expressed in a curve exposure for a given density, those to the right
known as the dmraeter/stic curve. The curve is more exposure.
generated by plotting density against the
logarithm of relative exposure. Unsharpness of a Radiograph
Relative exposure is used because there are The two major contributors to unsh arpness
no convenient units in which to express exposure are geometric unsharpness and film unsharpness.
suitable for all energy levels and other exposure Geometric III/sharpness is caused by radiation
conditions, and partly because it is easy to emanating from a source of finite d imension. This
determine the logarithm of relative exposure. The means that the shadow cast by any point in the
logarithm is taken to compress an otherwise long object is not sharp because it is formed by rays
scale. Furthermore, ratios of exposures are more coming from all over the target in the X-ray tube
signi fi ca nt in radiography than the exposures or the source of rad ioactive material.
themselves. Pairs of exposures having the same It is easily seen that similar triangles are
ratio will be separated by the sa me interval on formed by the lines drawn in connecting the
the log relative exposure scale no matter wha t the edges of the focal s pot, the point in the object and
actual value may be. the image as shown in Figure 5.2. Simple
The slope, or gradient, of the characteris tic geometry shows the ratio of the target size F to
curve changes along the length of the curve. This the unsharpness Ug is equal to the ratio of the
has the effect of increasing or decreasing the target to specimen distance d to that of the
contrast change on the film beca use of a given object-to-film distance D. Solving for U g
exposure ratio, the greater contrast change determines that U = Fd/D.
occurring when the slope is greater. That is, a Geometric u n:"arpness, therefore, varies
small change in exposure resu lts in a small directly w ith the focal spot dimensions and with
change in contrast at a low slope, a the object-ta-film distance and inversely with the
correspondingly larger contrast change occurs if distance from the focal s pot to the object. To

36
 Chapter 5: The Film Radiographic Process

minimize unsharpness, one uses a source with as from the imaging point of view this is equivalent
small a focal spot size as practical, positions the to a red uction in image sharpness.
sou rce as far from the object as conditions will At higher energy levels, lead screens are
allow and positions the film as close to the object generally used to intensify the image as well as to
as physically possible_ reduce scatter. This is because lead, being a heavy
If the unsharpness is of the order of metal, provides a much higher probability of
magn itude of the smallest details to be imaged, photon absorption than bare film. A shower of
interpreta tion becomes d ifficult if not impossible. photoelectrons is emitted by the lead from the
This leads to the use of finely detailed objects to point of photon absorption. Because film is
provide an index of the overall image qual ity. ultimately exposed by electrons, photoelectrons
Such objects are called image quality i/ldicators emitted from the lead screen result in film
IIQ I) or pelletmmeters. exposure at the point of contact. When lead
Film ullsharplless, al!So sometimes ca lled screens are used, extreme care must be exercised
illi! t'rel lt IIl1sirmp"ess, arises from the generation of to ensure intimate contact between screen surface
secondi"lry electrons in the film emulsion . When a and film surface: otherw ise, divergence of the
qucmtum of ionizing radiation is absorbed in a photoelectron shower will cause a loc<ll
silver halide crysti'll in the film emulsion there is enlargement of the image formed by the
sometimes sufficient energy both to make the incoming photon. Th is will result in more
crystal developable and to release secondary unsharpness.
elec tron~ w ith su fficient energy to travel th rough Total unsharpness is given as:
the emulsion to other silver halide gmins, and
also ma ke them developable. Thus, instead of a ULOUI = (Ug '- +U/ ')'"
'ingle exposed gT<lin from each X-ray quantum,
there is a small vohlnle o r string of grains, and Equation 17

Figure 5.1: Characteristic curves of three typical Figure 5.2: Geometric construction for
X-ray films, exposed between lead foil screens. determining geometric unsharpness Ug where
source is smaller than object.
4.0

3.5

3.0
1/
2. 5
/
C
.~ 20
/
~ t
/ Object ;/ \ d
1/ \\
I
0.5

"
/ / / //
1/ \\
\\
/
Fi/ Film X
~lmY Film plane 1
0.5 u,
V Legend

o
----- Do : source-to-objeet distance
d : OOject-to-lilm distance
o 0.5 0.0 0.5 20 25 3.0 F: radiation source
Ug : geometric; unsharpness
Log relative exposure

Reprin ted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. edition: Votume 4. Radiographic Testing.

37
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Specific examples of unsharpness are

illustrated in Table 5.2. Viewing of Film Radiographs

Film Processing Illuminator Requirements

Exposure of the film to radiation resu.lts in To properly view a radiogra ph that meets the
the formation of what is called the late"t ,,"age. A film density requirements of cu rrent codes and
photographic emulsion consis ts of a. s uspension s tandards, a high intensity film viewer is
of sil ver halide grains, usually chlonde or required. Many s tyles of viewers are available,
bromide, s uspended in a thin layer of gelatin. but in general they fit into four groups:
When radiation s uch as light o r X-rays falls on
the e mulsion, extremely small particles in the 1. s pot viewers,
silver halide crystals are converted into metallic 2. area viewers,
silver. The number of pa rticles formed is 3. strip viewers, and
proportional to the quantity of light or radiation 4. combination spot /arcn viewers.
incident on the area, so that there is a latent
image in the emulsion. Viewers must have power ventilators to cool
When the film is placed in a developer, the the intense light source required for viewing high
silver g rains that have received a hi~h expo,sure density radiographs. Most viewers wilt usc one
are reduced quickly w hile those which receiVed or more photoflood incandescent lamps as the
sligh t exposure are reduced or d eveloped slowly. light source. [n addition, a d iffu ser is required to
The latent image becomes overt through the eliminate variation in light intensity. A good
reduction of silver halide and the formation of a illuminator will use a rheostnt to vary the light
s table, visible, black sil ver deposit. Once initiated, intensity, allowing lower density radiographs or
the development continues until all the silver . areas to be viewed w ith o ptimum light
halide is reduced to metallic silver. The process IS conditions.
stopped after a s pecified period of time by . A fil m density of 2.0 is allowing only '1% of
placing the film into a s top bath that neutralizes the incident light to be trans mitted through the
the developer and s tops the development. This is film, whereas a 4.0 denSity allows only 0.01 %
followed by a fixing solution that continues trans mission. This illus trates the neC\.'Ssity for
neutralization, dissolves unexposed silver halides h igh intensity film illuminators.
allowing them to fan o ff the film and hardens t.he A good high intensity viewer should have an
film. L.1Stly the film is washed w ith dean runnmg initial intensity of at least 3.426 cd / m2
water to remove all the remaining chemicals. (1.000 fL) and be able to produce an intensity of
The specifics of the film development p rocess 3.426 cd / m 2 to 6.853 cd / m 2 (I fL to 2 fL) when
are beyond the scope of this guid e, but excellent viewing radiographs in excess of 3.0 density.
discussions of it can be found in many sources
and (rom film manufacture rs.

Table 5.2: Rad iographic unsharpness resolution of film radiography is limited by the combination of film
and geometric unsharpness.

Energy Sources (I n.) Specimen U, (In.) Udln.) 0..01&1 (in.)

Thickness (in .)
50 kV 0.20 0.16 0 .0006 0.0012 0 .002
100 kV 0.20 0.24 0 .0024 0.0020 0 .003
200 kV 0.20 1.00 0 .0052 0.0036 0.006

400 kV 0.28 3.00 0.0228 0.0060 0.024

Ir·192 0 .16 2 .00 0.0176 0.0052 0.018
Co-60 0 .08 1.00 0.0044 0.0140 0.015

Where: U, = (sM/(sod)
UrOIaI= (Ui + U,2)1f2

38
 Chapter 5: The Film Radiographic Process

Background Lighting judge the quality of the radiograph in the area of

The film illuminato r should be located in an interest.
area that allows for background light control.
Although the viewing room need not be 1. Film denSity 1.8 minimum, 4.0 maximum for
completely dark, no direct light should impinge X-ray.
on the radiograph being viewed except from the 2. Film denSity 2.0 minimum, 4.0 maximu m for
high intensity light source. All precautions should gamma ray.
be taken to ensure that other light is not reflecting
off the surface of the radiogra ph and, potentially, When viewing two superimposed
distracting the film interpreter. radiographs, known as composite viewillg, each
It is desirable that the interpreter adapt to the film is usually required to be a minimum density
lighting conditions of the viewing room for at of 1.3. The area of interest on each film being
least 10 minutes before interpreting radiographs. eva luated should be measured for acceptable
density using densi tometers that have been
Viewing Aids calibrated to a national standard.
Numerous aids may be used to enhance the
ability of the interpreter in discerning small Film Definition
indications. These include masks to cover large The blurring of the object image on the
portions of the film and aUow concentration on radiogra ph is caused by poor definition. The
small areas, and mag nifiers such as those with sharper the image outline and fea tures, the better
compa rators that employ an etched glass reticle. the definition.
Definition is affected by two major
Interpretation Aids componen ts: inherent unsharpness and geometric
Reference radiographs with known unsharpness. Il/lIere"t IIl1s/lllrplle5S is affected
discontinuity images are useful in evaluating and primarily by the film and screens chosen, the film
interpreting rad iographs. References that show screen contact <lnd the energy of rad iation used.
these indications in typical product form s, such Geometric IIl1s/Ulrplless is affected by the
as castings, welded pipe or tubing and pressure source-to-object distance, the focal size of the
ves::;cls, <lfC also useful. Reference radiographs are source and the object-to-fil m distance.
commerci<llly <lvai lable from severa l sources. If radiographic images being evalua ted have
Overl"ys of clear plastic with printed and poor definition, selecting a finer grain film,
sized indications can provide a convenient means decreasing the radiation energy, or suitably
for determining acceptance, particularly of varying the source-ta-film distance or source size
scattered porosity and slag indications. will result in bette r geometric unsharpness.
When interpreting radiographs, the specific
code or st<lndmd, <It the very minimum, should Artifacts
be avail<lble for the interpreter to use in making Artifacts on film radiographs can red uce the
acceptance decisions. Reference 1 provides quality of the radiographs significantly and can
excellent coverage of radiogra phic viewing. cause misinterpretation if not thoroughly
Additional information C<ln be found in understood . Most film artifacts are caused by
references 3 and 8. improper film processing and careless handling
of films, screens and cassettes. In addition, the
fil m can be partially fogged o r mottled because of
Judging Radiographic Quality improper storage. Commonly occurring film
artifacts include:
Film Density
The optic<ll denSity of the film is an accepted 1. pressure marks, caused by improper
measure of the amount of information that has handling of film and cassettes;
been recorded. The denSity is in proportion to the 2. scratch marks, ca used by fingerna ils or
number of silver halide g rains that have been abrasives;
exposed and developed into metallic silver. 3. static marks, caused by static electricity
The greater the de nSity, the more det<lil generated when fil m is removed rapidly from
available for evaill ation. In accordance with the a tight container;
most commonly used codes and standards, the 4. screen marks, ca used by screen d<lmage or
follow ing film density g uidelines arc used to contamination with chemicals;

39
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

5. streaks, because of ineffective agitation of

solutions during development or rinsing.
a = 100 I X(TH /2)"2
Equation 18
References 2, 6, 7 and 11 give extensive
information with regard to identifying and taking where:
preventive and corrective measures for artifacts.
the equivalent penetrameter sensitivity
Ct. =
Image Quality Indicators (in percent),
The image quality indicator, or penetrameter, X = material thickness,
is the primary indicator of radiographic quality. It T = image quali ty indicator's thickness,
is a means to judge the quality relative to H = hole diameter expressed as a multiple of
requirements. image quality indicator's thickness.
The plaque type penetrameter of the ASTM
design specified in ASTM E-1025 is the primary This relationsh ip will yield the equivalent
type used in North America, although the DIN sensitivity of a specific penetrameter and a
wire penetrameter is lIsed in Europe. specific specimen thickness as shown in Table 5.3.
The MIL-STD penetrameters are similar to A detailed explanation of how to use the above
the ASTM penetrameters, but require material equation in practical applications can be fou nd in
type and thickness to be designated by lead reference 9 ASTM E-l025.
markings on the penetrameter. In both types,
ASTM and MIL-STD, the penetrameter is a
rectangular metal plaque with three holes that are
Exposure Calculations
related to the penetrameter thickness. The holes
are 1T, 2T and 4T in diameter, w here T is the Selection of Energy
thickness of the penetrameter. A quality level may The importance of choosing the correct
be specified for sensitivity by indicating percent kilovoltage varies considerably with the
of specimen thickness the penetrameter should kilovoltage range being considered. For X-rays
be, as well as the minimum hole size that must be below 150 k V the choice of corrcct kilovoltage is
visible. Typical quality level designations would important because the attenuation coefficient
be 2-lT, 2-2T and 2-4T. varies rapidly. From 200 to 400 kV, only a
When evaluating the adequacy of the considerable difference on the order of 30 to
radiograph, carefully examine the penetrameter 40 kY, will make a significant d ifference in
image to ensure that the complete penetrameter sensitivity. In the high energy region, kilovoltage
outline as well as the required hole can be seen. It is relatively unimportant in te rms of attainable
is important that the density of the radiograph in sensitivity.
the area of interest be within -15 to +30% of the A good rule of thumb when using X-ray
density through the body of the penetrameter energies below 400 kV is to keep the exposure
and that this density meets the minimum within the range of 10 rnA-min to 30 rnA-min.
required by the particular code or stand ard. It is Usually the only effect of using too Iowa
important also that the correct penetrameter is kilovoltage on a uniform thickness specimen is
used for the material thickness and type being that the exposure time will become impractical. If
rad iographed. a long exposure time is tolerable, the
discontinuity sensitivity wil l be somewhat beNer.
Equivalent Penetrameter Sensitivity The effect of using too high an energy is to
If the required thickness penetramcter is not shorten the exposure time, lose image contrast
available, or the thickness or hole size is more and so lose discontinuity sensitivity.
restrictive than required by the referenced code or
standard, then an equivalent sensitivity may be
determined for the available penetrameter. Table 5.3: Equivalent penetrameter sensitivity
Alternately, the specific penetrameter sensitivity (see Equation 18) .
for any specimen thickness may be calculated.
Equivalent penetrameter sensitivity in terms of H T =O.7% 2·1T= 1,4% 3·1T=2.1% 4·1T=2.8"10
penetrameter thickness, penetrameter hole 1·2T = 1.0% 2·2T", 2,0% 3·2T = 3.0% 4·2T = 4.0%
diameter and specimen thickness is expressed in 1·4T =1,4% 2·4T=2,8% 3·4T = 4.2% 4·4T = 5 ,6%
the following mathematical relationship:

40
 Chapter 5: The Film Radiographic Process

X-ray Exposure Charts different density is desired, say 2.5, then a

An exposure chart is a graph depicting the correction factor must be calculated from the
relationship between material thickness, characteristic curve for the specific film being
kilovoltage, and exposure for a specific film used.
density and specific processing cond itions, The characteristic curve for a film plots the
specific source-ta-film distance, and screens, if density versu s the log of the relative exposu re
used . needed to produce that density. The characteristic
Figure 5.3 illustrates a typical X-ray exposure cu~ve can be used to calculate the ratio of any
chart. From this chart, prepared for a specific pair of exposures by finding the antilog of the
X-ray machine / tube combination, the difference in the relative exposures. For example,
appropriate exposure for a specific material if we wish to increase the d ensity from 1.5 to 2.5
thickness may be selected. in the previous problem, we would d etermine the
From Figure 5.3, if a 19 mm (0.75 in.) thick di ffe rence in the relative exposure for each
steel specimen were to be radiographed at 180 kV density, as follows:
peak, then the exposure would be 8 rnA-min. If,
fro m the same data, one wishes to use the same log E at D = 2.5 = 2.0
technique but wants to increase the focal film log E at D = 1.5 = 1.80
d istance from 100 to 150 em (40 to 60 in.), the difference in log E = 0.20
resulting exposure, using the source distance
equa tion, would be 18 mA-min. The antilog of this difference is 1.58; therefore
The X-ray exposure chart allows one to select the original exposure of 8 rnA-min should be
exposures that will prod uce a s pcri fi c density. In multiplied by 1.58 to give the correct exposure of
the case of Figure 5.3, that density is 1.5. If a 12.6 rnA-min for a 2.5 density.

Figure 5.3: Typical X-ray exposure chart for steel

m~y be applied to film X, (Figure 5.1) with lead Figure 5.4: Typical gamma ray exposure chart for
fall screens, at 1.5 film density and 1.0 m (40 in .) Ir-192, based on the use of film X (Figu re 5.1).
sou rce-to-film distance.
"0
soo {10.0 ,,
400 (8.0

,o ~~ eo
300 (6.0 ,
~2 1=it/7-, I-§~T t 60

fo 200 (4.0
,
, 0 = 2.5 -
0 = 2,0 -

,, 7 ~*.L 'I- " '1: 150 (3.0

/ 0 = 1.5 -

, I II ./ '" ~
2.100 (2.0 , 11/
W
20
'i"~
II / I/~ /
2 ?
•, .~
~ o
,,
~ {i'~ E- '~ 50 {1.0
• " •,• g
,
O! 0.9 O 40 (0.8
3 6
•& "i 30 {0.6

I ,
w
M
:!! 20 (0.4 , /1/
,
0.6
/ / 1/ , ~ 15 (0.3
1//

0.'
1/1 1/ /
'1/
2
~
10 {0.2 , / YI
If
o 5 (0.1)
o 6.4 12.7 19 25.4 31,8 38.1 o
(0.25) (0.50) (0.75) (1.00) (1.25) (1.50)
25
1"
50
(2) "
{" '" {"

Equivalent thickness, mm (in,) of steel Steel thickness, mm (in.)

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. edition: Volume 4, RadiographiC Testing.

41
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Radioisotope Exposure Charts gamma fay exposure times for any becquereJ
Gamma ray ex posure charts are similar to (curie) activity of iridium or cobalt, any steel
X-ray exposure charts, but there is no variable thickness and any desired source-to-film dis tance.
corresponding to the kilovoltage. An exposure The only externa l item required is the exposure in
chart for a specific radioisotope s uch as Ir-192 cou l ~mbs per kilogram (roentgen) specified by
would contain one line for each film type and the fi lm manufacturer for the particular film
density. Fig ure 5.4 illustrates this type of gamma speed and d esired density.
ray exposure cha rt. Exposure charts are readiJy available from all
In addition to charts, gamma ray exposure major film manufacturers and references 2, 4, 6
da ta can be conveniently displayed on a special and 7 present methods for calculating exposure
slide rule. Slide rules allow quick ca lculation of time and related factors.

42
 Chapter 5: The Film Radiographic Process

Chapter 5 Review Questions

5.1 Release of hydrogen ions during film 5.6 As compared with film typica lly exposed to
developmen t: a density of 2.5, fil m exposed to an average
overall density o f 4:
il. decreases the pH of the solution.
b. increases the pH of the solution. a. requires a s pecial stop bath for proper
c. fixes the latent image. fi xation.
d. catalyzes the reduction of silver halide. b. will exhaust the developer solu tion
e. is accom panied by release of ca rbon more quickly.
dioxide gas. c. is especially difficult to dry.
d. requi res both a and c.
5. 2 From a chemical viewpoin t, the effect of the e. requires none of the above.
latent image on film development is:
3.7 Use of a slap bath:
a. latent.
b. catalysis. a. prevents frilling of the image.
c. fixa tion. b. inhibits fixation.
d. neu rosis. c. allows a shorter developing time.
c. None o f the above. d. neutralizes the acid fixer.
e. results in nonc of the above.
5.3 r ixalion of an unexposed fi lm will result in:
5.8 It is recommended that, as film is being
a. film having a m ilky appearance. removed from the developing tank, the
b. milky fixer solu tion. excess d eveloper not be dra ined back into
c. fo rmil tion of a negative image. the developer solution because:
d. a clear film.
e. None of the above. a. the developer clinging to the film is 100
exhausted 10 contribule 10 the developer
5.4 Add ition of replen isher to a developing solulion.
solution: b. tiny particles of emulsion released
during the developing process wi ll only
a. is not recommended. contam inate the solution .
b. G IUS('S streaking on the film. c. the developer resid ing on the film is
e. must be done at an elevated needed to maintain a balanced stop bath
temperature to assure dissolution of the concentration.
I\.'<! udng agent. d. of both a and b.
d. should not be done more often than e. of both b and c.
once a week.
e. is subject to none of the above. 5.9 If the incident light intensity on a film is
30 units, and the measured tr<H1smitted light
3.5 is (are) widely used as intens ity is 1.20 units, what would the film
a film developing agent. density be?

a. Trinitrotoluene a. 3.2
b. Acetylsalicylic add b. 18.5
c. Parahydroxybenzene c. 1.39
d. Carboxymethylcellulose d. 2.3
e. Both a and c e. 1.0

43
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

5.10 Using the characteristic curve in Figure 5.1, 5.14 In general, w hen using the composite film
what is the exposure correction factor for viewing technique, each film should have a
film Z when increasing film density from minimum density of:
0.5 to 1.75 density?
a. 1.5.
a. 3.4 b. 1.8.
b. 5.1 c 2.0.
c. 6.3 d. L3.
d. 2.22 e. None of the above.
e. 17.8
5. 15 If an acceptable 2.5 density is obtained
5.11 Which one of the following is not a us ing a 30 mA-min techni que at an SFD of
component of a typical developer solution? 61 em (24 in.), what would the exposure
time be at 91.4 cm (36 in .) SPD using 5 rnA
a. phenidone to obtain the same film density?
b. sodium carbonate
c. acetic add a. 45 minutes
d. hydroquinone b. 13.5 minutes
e. sodium sulfide c. 9 minutes
d. 30 minutes
5.12 Development temperature in most e. 22.5 minutes
automatic processors is in the range of:
5.16 The graphic presentation that depicts the
a. 81 to 85 OF. relationship between exposure and the
b. 68 to 70 oF. resulting photograph ic dens ity for a
c. 74 to 78 oF. particular film type is commonly referred to
d. 77 to 91 °F. as a:
c. 95 to 98 OF.
a. linear curve.
5.13 Contamination of developer with as little as b. characteristic curve.
-,-_,---_ _--,,_ fixer can result in serious c. spectral curve.
developer malfunction. d. logarithmic curve.
e. All of the above.
a. 10.0%
b. 1.0%
c. 0.025%
d. 0.05%
e. 5.0%

44
 Chapter 6
Radioscopy

Principles 1. the fraction of incident X-rays absorbed by

While trClditional radi og r<lphy uses film as
the screen,
he imaging medium, radioscopy uses a 2. the X-ray to light conversi on efficiency, and
rl uorescent screen for direct viewing or electronic 3. the light trans mission efficiency.
Imagi ng. Fluorescent screens may be viewed
dI rectly by the human eye, am plified in an image Although the spectral emission of phosphors
tntensificr tube with video output, or imaged is broadband, it is disti ngu ished by a maximulll
dIrectly by a tow light level vid<.'O ca mera. With intensity at a characteris!"ic wavelength. The
electronic imaging systems, the image signal is spectral emjssion should be matched to the
dmplificd and presented as an ana log signal for application, whether the human eye in a direct
\"icwi ng on a television monitor, video recording. viewing system, a low light level camera or a
analog processing, or for converting to d igita l for photocathode for an image intensifier tube.
computer display, storage and analysis. Persistence of a fluorescent screen is the
amount of time it continues to em it light
following excitation. Some persistence curves
Light Conversion have an exponential decay, whereas o thers have
long decay tails. The persistence, particularly
Fluorescent Screen s with rapid de<:ay phosphors, ca rl vary
FluQrt'SCcnt screens consist of phosphor significantly depending on the purity and the
particles di spersed in a binder and coated on a manufacturing process.
reflecting, supporting b.lsc. Th£' basic function of
the fluorl!scent screen is to convert X-rays to light.
Figure 6.1: Structure of typical X-ray intensifying
This h"ppcns in three steps ait shown in screen and typical paths followed by light
fig ure 6. 1. photons.

1. Absorbed X-ray energy is converted to high : : ::

," , . X·rays
energy free electrons.
,"
", ,
."
.", ,,
" .
2. Pa rt of the kinetic energy of the h igh energy •i;t
elect rons is used to excite other electrons to ~z
exci ted states within the phos phor material. 1 X'ray phoIon
3. Light emission occurs when the excited
electrons return to their normal s tate. ....
Light emitted si multaneously with the
~==:;;;;~~s===~-- RefJective layer

excila lior' energy (X-ray absorption) is called Phosphor

fl uorescwce. By cont rast, light that persists after
the exci tation somce is removed is called "======'Ic===="-- .... 'olective coatirIQ
Ughl emrssion
pilospilorcsamce.
Fluorescent screens are characterized by their
efficiency, spectral emission, persistence,
''''"''''
• • Excite(! grain
61 " Absorption 01 lighr pholOn
unsharpness and gamma. The overall efficiency
of the screen in converting X-rays to light is Aeprinled from Nondeslrucfive Testing Handbook, Ihird
composed of three terms: edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

45
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Unsharpness in images formed by fluorescent serving as filters in front of the screen. Besides
screens is primarily a function of the grain size of producing secondary electrons to increase the
the phosphor and the screen thickness, increasing absorbed energy in the adjacent screen, the heavy
as the parameters increase. Light transmission metal will shield the screen from low energy
ch aracteristics of the screen can also affect the scattered X-rays. Both of these processes improve
unsharpness. Figure 6.2 illustrates how contrast sensitivity.
unsharpness can affect the detection of a sharp
edge discontinuity by s preading the edge shape. Scintillator Plates
Here, C represents the contrast in percentage of Scintillators are materials that produce light
brightness change, d represents width of from interactions with X-rays and are transparent
discontinu ity and U represents screen to their own light emission, unlike phos phor
unsharpness. Por a fixed value of U, a change in materials that are more absorptive of their own
contrast C produces a change in the slope of the emission. Conversion of X-rays to light follow s
unsharp edge. It can be seen from Figure 6.2b the same process in scintilla tors as in phosphor
that when d is smaller than 2U, the di scontinuity materials. Light emission from scintillators is very
will vanish unless C1 is above the minimum fast and the amount of light emitted is
observable contrast level. The following proportional to the energy deposited in the
relationship may be obtained from Figure 6.2: interaction. Because scintilla tors are transparent

d; 2C,u IC for C, ~ C Figure 6.2: Effect of unsharpness on discontinuity

Equation 19 detection: (a) spread of edge shape;
(b) discontinuity above minimum contrast level.
Typical values of screen unsharpness for
commercially available screens vary from 0.50 to (,)
].0 mm (0.020 to 0.040 in.).
The (Juorescent screen gamma is a measure of
the contrast ratios between the output screen
1 1 1 1 Radiat ion

image brightness and the input radiation

intensity. As in film radiography, the output
image must have a minimum brightness ratio If-,-~, Obj&Ct

between adjacent areas for detection. For most i,

~ d ,i,I"
screens at industrial energies, the screen gamma , ,,
is very close to 1.0. Therefore the screen itself is ,, C Image
very seldom the limiting factor as far as the total
system ga mma is concerned.
. . . uk . . . Iu
Special Screens (b)

Neutron Sensitive Screens

Real time radiography may be performed
using neutron beams when the fluorescent screen
is a good neutron absorber. Screen composition
and construction are more important in neutron
imaging than in X-ray imaging because the
neutron intensity is generally lower and the
screen must absorb enough neutrons to obtain an
acceptable light yield for adequate contrast.
Legend
C " cont rast
High Energy Screens C1 " minimum observable brightness difference
d dime nsion
Because some materials emit large amounts U " screen unsharpness
of secondary electrons when they absorb X-rays,
and fluorescent screens are generally more
Rep rin ted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
sensitive to electrons than X-rays, heavy metals edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
are often used in high voltage radiography,

46
 Chapter 6: Radioscopy

to their own emissions, they can be used in is the statistical fl uctuation of b rightness on
thicknesses not possible with phosphors. fluorescent screens and is the result of the
randomness of X-ray production and absorption.
The numerous sou rces of this flu ctuation incl ude:
Image Quality
1. X-ray photon production,
Contrast 2. X-ray photon absorption in the object and the
Subject con trast for fluorescent screens is screen,
defined as the fractional change in brightness 3. conversion of X-ray photons to light photons,
resulting from a change in absorber thickness. 4. fraction of the light photons reaching the eye
Observed contrast in radioscopic imaging is after traversing the imaging system, and
affected by several factors beyond the screen 5. light photon absorption in the retina.
response. One must include the effect o f all
system components. For example if using a The statistical flu ctuations o f screen
vidicon television, the system gamma would b rightness, which are caused by the randomness
inclu de the electron ampl ifier chain gamma, of the process, are important at low b rightness
vidicon tube gamma, television tube picture levels such as occur with low intensity neutron
ga mma and fluorescent input screen gamma . sources. Most industrial X-ray machines produce
Scattered radiation affects contrast in fluorescen t sufficient intensity to render the flu ctuations
screens by effecti vely increasing the background unimportant for most applications. Where
brightness level. The scattered rad iation affects quantum fluctuations do occur, they can be
only the primary imaging component, the removed in near real time by video frame
fluo rescent screen. averaging or summing.

Control of Scatter Radiation Sources and Energy

The control of scatter for radioscopic imaging The radiation source plays an important role
is the same as for film radiography. There is in radioscopic imaging just as it docs in film
sca ller from the room, object, fixtures and air radiography. Consideration must be given to the
path in the primary beam, and scatter fro~ . types of materials to be examined, densities,
object.;; in the path of the beam. Some speCIfiC thicknesses, smallest feature size to be resolved,
techniques to red uce scatter include the smallest thickness change to be detected,
follo wing. response of the radioscopic imaging system and
rate of image acquisition. High output, high
1. Collimate the primary beam to the minimum stability, constant potential X-ray systems are
viewing area. com mercially available fo r these applications.
2. Shield the setup to reduce room scatter from Neutron rad ioscopi c imaging is performed with
walis, ceiling and floor. portable accelerators and reactors with beam
3. Filter the primary beam to ('('move the low ports suitable for radioscopic imaging. The
energy portion of the spectrum . effective focal spot of neutron sources is typically
·t Filter the beam between the object and large. For most neutron sources the focal spot is
screen . defined by the collima tor opening at the neutron
;). Use antiscatler grids between the object and source. To transport a reasonable number o f
the screen. neutrons down the beam tube, these collimator
6. Use projection magnification to increase the openings are necessarily larger than the focal
distance of the screen from the object sca tter. spots possible with an X-ray machine or linear
accelerator. The size of the object to be imaged
Definition and the materia l type will determine the
The same rules that apply for unsharpness radiation type and energy to be used. As a
and optimal magnification in film radiography general rule, the radiation type and energy
apply to radioscopic imaging. In add ition, in should be selected so that the object thickness is
radioscopic imaging, unsharpness because of 3 to 5 half-value layers. Satisfactory results can be
object movement can also limit definition. obtained even in the range of 2 to 10 half-value
Determining factors for this are the layers.
X-ray excitation rate, the decay time of the
screen's phosphor and the delay time or scan
time o f the imaging components. Qualltum mottle

47
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Imaging Systems

,,-
Figure 6.3: X-ray image intensifier tube design.
The fl uorescent screen converts rad iation to
Protective
light and either an image intensifier is used to vacuum
boost light intensity to a level suitable for pickup
by a sotidstate or television camera, or a low light
camera is used to image the screen directly. The X-ray wincSow
signal from the camera is sent to a television Output phosphor
monitor or computer video card for viewing.
At X· ray energies above 1 MeV, shielding
mirrors are used to protect electronic components Input - _ Intc"'siliod
from rad iation damage. Below 300 kV, the
intensifier and camera can be placed directly in
the beam without damage. Given time outside
X-rays

-
_ = Iight
output

the radiation field, most materials will recover

Input
from any radiation damage. Class may fluoresce conversion PhotocathOde layer
und er strong irradiation resulting in undesired screen
li ght Signals. Noise may also be generated in the
electronics, increasing with rad iation intensity. Reprinted from Nondestrucfive Testing Handbook. third
edition: Votume 4. Radiographic Testing.

Image Intensifier Tubes

The image intensifier tube (Figure 6.3)
converts photons to electrons, accelerates the Figure 6.4: Microchannel plate.
electrons and then converts them to light.
Channel plate
Intensifiers lypically operate in the range of 30 to
10 000 light amplification factors. The
intensification is not necessarily solely electronic Photocathode
but may also focus electrons from a large input
Phosphor
screen onto a s maller output screen thereby
reducing the image area.
Modern tubes are ava ilable wi th 100 to
400 mm (4 to 16 in. ) input diameters, multiple
modes that electronically select variable field size
of the input and fiberoptic output for direct
camera coupling. A typical 200 mm (8 in. ) tube
performs with resolution on the order of 4 line
pairs per millimeter and gains on the order of
10 000. Resolution is at a maximum at the center
of these intensifiers and decreases somewhat at
the edges.
Primary e~trons

Channel Electron Multiplier

The channel electron multiplier or
microchannel plate (Mep) is an assembly of small
tubes for amplifying an electron signal using
seconda ry emission as shown in Figure 6.4. The
channels are glass or ceramic coated, with a high
resistance material on the inside. A potential
d ifference o f 500 to 1000 V is applied across the
channel plate. An electron entering the channel
will strike a wall causing one or more secondary
electrons to be released. These will continue to
strike the channel wall yielding more electrons as
they are accelerated by the field along the Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
channel. The gain of the channel multiplier edition: Votume 4, Radiographic Testing.
depends on the applied voltage and the ratio of
length to diameter.
48
 Chapter 6: Radioscopy

systems. The most common types for radioscopy

Cameras applications are:
Until recently, real time X-ray imaging
systems typically used a television camera in
1. vidicons,
combination with a device (such as an image
2. silicon intensifier targets,
intensifier tube or fluorescent screen) to convert
3. image isocons, and
incident X-rays to visible light. Newer systems
4. X-ray sensitive tubes.
however, use charge coupled device cameras
almost exclusively.
A vidicoll is a small, rugged, simple tube in
which an electron beam scans a light sensitive
Charge Coupled Devices photoconductive target as shown in Figure 6.5.
Charge coupled devices and related solidstate Another type of tube called the silicoll intel/sifter
cameras use an array of photodiodes as the target uses a photocathode as an image sensor
sensitive layer. The photodiode arrays in and focuses the photoelectrons onto a silicon
solidstate ca meras are simple photon detectors mosaic diode target. The silicon intensifier target
that absorb incident photons and liberate current and the intensified silicon intensifier tube are
carriers. This gives rise to a current referred to as used extensively for low light level applications.
the pilOtoClirrellt signal, which is proportional to With the image isocoll tube, the image on its
the arrival rate of the incident photons. Charge photocathode forms a photoelectron pattern
coupled devices work like photodiodes. A focused by an axial magnetic field onto a thin,
photon, incident on the charge coupled device moderately insulating target as shown in
will create an electron hole pair if absorbed. This Figure 6.6. The scattered and reflected
creates a current flow that is stored in the components in the return beam are separated,
potential well of the device. The amount of and only the scattered component enters the
charge collected at the potential well is in direct electron multiplier surrounding the electron gun.
proportion to the amount of local light intensity. This signal is amplified to become the video
output.
Image Tubes Although the usual input to a television
A wide variety of television cameras and camera is light, for radioscopic purposes it is
image tubes are used on real time imaging possible to make a television camera sensitive

Figure 6.5: Vidicon television camera.

Semitransparent conducting
coating on gtBS9
(+20 V dired curroot)

Photoconductor
Cath<:>d6

Electron gllfl
EJectron beam

mesh SCfeen

Electron beam
Focused image of
SC&1'\e viewed

Connected to semitransparent
COflOI)ction coating on glass R .",V
- OV •
300 V

Video signal

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

49
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

directly to radiation. The X-ray sensitive vidicon

system is an imaging system for small objects and Figure 6.6: Image isocon television camera.
low kilovoltages (150 kV or less). The X-ray
sensitive vidicon cameras have a gamma on the Focusing coil
order of 0.7 to 1.0 and penetrameter sensitivities

I-r
of 2% have been obtained. However, these DeflocliOrl
,,,,~
cameras may have problems with deterioration, ScaUE/red
possibly because of local overheating in the target retum boeam
Photocathode Signal
layer, poor bonding to the heat sink layer, " QUIP,
substrate irregularities or incompatibility
between beryllium and target materials.
:~,.::::::: .:.:: : .: . :.:: :m::O::::i:;:i;lT I
]I ~I ectron
\ ~ield mesh Eltl(;lron gun
Scanning mulhplOer

Pho too~tfOns
Target
"'.m
Aellectoo
"'.m
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing H8ndbook, third
edition : Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

50
 Chapter 6: Radioscopy

Chapter 6 Review Questions

6.1 The basic function of a fluorescent screen is 6.5 Fluorescent screen gamma is:
10 convert X-rays to light. How well it d oes
this depends on: a. a measure of the contrast ratios behveen
the output screen image brightness and
a. the use of projection magnification. the input radiation intensity.
b. the use of antiscatler grids. b. equally dependent on the electron ch ain
c. the fraction of incident X-rays absorbed gamma and quantum fluctuations.
by the screens. c. not a practica l parameter in the actual
d . the screen's level of qua ntum mottle. use of fluo rescen t screens.
d. the least important clement in
6.2 Fluorescent Screens arc generally: describing screen efficiency.

a. more sensitive to electrons than X-rays. 6.6 5cintiUators can be used in thicknesses not
b. more sensiti ve to neutrons than X- rays. possible with phosphors because:
e. not the lim iting factor in the total
system gamma. a. sdntillators are transparent to their own
d. producing the highest ga mma \vhen emissions.
used with heavy metal filters. b. they are solidstate devices that do not
rely on an electrochemical reaction.
6.3 Unsharpness in images formed by c. scintilla tors are not limited in spatial
fl uorescent screens is primarily a function resolution by mate rial g rain size.
of: d . quantum mottle is not a factor.

a. incident energy. 6.7 In considering the use of a fluo roscopic

b. phosphor grain size. technique to evaluate electrica l components,
c. screen thickness. the is still considered a
d . contrast in percenl"gc of brightness disad vantage.
change in the slope of an unsharp edge.
e. aandd a. source of radiation
f. bandc b. low brigh tness level of the screen
d. manipulating device
6.4 Qua ntum moult! is an effect that:
6.8 Real time systems employ fluorescent
a. is not evident when using a charge screens that affect the image quality. Some
coupled device for imaging. factors that affect the system contrast are
b. is ev idt!nt at low brightness levels. listed below. Select the factor that does not
c. requires very spedal image processing affect system contrast.
to eliminate.
d. is only ev ident with solidstate imaging a. quantum fluctuation
devices. b. gamma of screens
c. intensifiers
d. television monitors

51
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

6.9 In images formed by fluorescent screens: 6.12 The importance of the modulation transfer
function in evaluating systems is that the
a. the control of scatter is less important total system modulation transfer function is
than with film images. the p roduct of the individual MTFs of the
b. uns harpness is primarily a function of components. Because the modulation
the phosphor grain size and screen transfer fun ction can be difficult to calculate,
thickness. _ _--,_ may be used as a more practical
c. contrast and unsharpness are not as approximation.
good as with real time radiography.
d. few of the principles of film a. line spread function
radiography apply. b. sq uare wave response
c. edge spread function
6.10 Fluorescent screens convert radiation to d. None of the above.
li ght and can be used to boost the
light to a level suitable for pickup by a
television camera.

a. an image intensifier tube

b. an electron multiplier screen
c. a charge coupled device
d. a and c

6. 11 While vidicon television tubes are at a

dis.:, d vantage compared to charge coupled
devices because they use a scanning
electron beam, an advantage of the vidicon
is:

a. its low cost.

h. simple construction.
c. high dynamic range.
d. All of the above.

52
 Chapter 7
Fundamentals of Digital Images

A digit<ll image is simpl y a set of binary data Resolution is often expressed in micrometers
acquired and stored in a computer. N umerous or line pairs per millimeter. Some useful
advantages accompany the use of digi tal conversions are shown in Table 7.1. Line pairs per
imaging. They include greatly reduced exposure millimeter is an expression of resolution in terms
times, the <lbilily to use image processing for of s patial frequency. A line pair is defined as an
analysis and interpretation, g rea tly red uced X-ray opaque line and an adjoining transparent
storage volume and improved storage life. In space of equal wid th. The opaque line is often
digital radiography, the information that made of lead foil on a glass o r plastic substrate to
comprises the image is captured either directly provid e a high subject contrast. Below are some
via a sensor, indirectly via a photostimulable useful conversions of these units.
phosphor, or by sca nning a conventional film
image. Problem areas and limitations of image
analysis schemes can result from detector choices Table 7.1: Resolution conversions.
as well as processing schemt.'S. Three
1 mm = 0 .04 in.
fundamental properties of digital images arc
spatial resol ution, contrast resolution and 1 11m = 0.00004 in.
signal -to-noise ratio. Each idtmtifiable fea ture 100 11m = 0.004 in.
corresponds to some change in measured Resolution in line pair per millimeter (Ip/mm)
intensity in the image. To decide whether this
change in intensity derives from the state of the 2lp/mm = 0.04 in./4 = 0.010 in. = 250 11m
object or is some artifact of the image acquisition 51pfmm = 0.04 in.l10 = 0.004 in. = 100 11m
process requires an assessment of these three 61pfmm = 0.04 in.l12 =0.0033 in . =83.25 11m
propert ies. The imag(' performance achieved on 71p/mm = 0.04 in .l14 = 0.0028 in . = 71.3 J-Im
any acquisition is the combined result of the 12 Ip/mm = 0.04 in.l24 = 0.0016 in. = 41.6 J-Im
ra diographic technique, the detection scheme and
all the processing steps that arc used in the image
used for the test. The bit depth, the range o f discrete signal
counts possible in each pixel, defines the limit of
Resolution contrast resolution of the system . For example, an
Digital images are made up of data points image with 16 bit data will have g reater potential
contrast resolution than an image with'] 2 bit d ata
Gilled F!ixds (an acronym for pictllre element), each
and will be able to discern more subtle contrast
of which can handle a ('('rtain amount of data for
changes in the object or image. The effective
example 8, 12 or 16 bits. The p ixel size defines the
dynamic ra nge of the system defines the practical
spatial resolution of the system. The more pixels
limit of con trast performance. The effective
per object's unit arca, the greater the resolution.
dynamic range is limited by the readout noise
For example, if examining the same specimen
and the number of background scattered counts
with the sa me exposure geometry, an image of
shown in Equation 20.
512 x 512 pixels will have half the resolution of an
image consisting of 1024 x 1024 pixels. If more
resolution is required than is available with a
given system, a smaller area can be imaged w ith Equation 20
the same number of pixels thereby effectively
reducing the pixel size.

53
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

where:
Figu re 7.1: Spatial and contrast resolution
(M depth). £DR = effective dynamic range
BD = bit depth
NR = rcadout noise and
NSbk = background scatter.

Effective dynamic range is the best contrast

performance an inspector can achieve w ith a
particular system for a particular technique.
Both spatial and contrast resolutions must be
considered when specify ing a system . These are
illustra ted in Figure 7.1. For example, systems
with a pixel size larger than 3048 11m (0.012 in.)
will not be able to d etect featu res smaller than
that, even though its con trast sensitivity can be
less than 2%. Though the system could detect
sma ll changes in object contrast or density, it
Spatial resolution cannot detect features smaller than its pixel size.
Conversely, wh ile a system may have small
enough pixels to detect a feature, it must also
have sufficient contrast resolution to detect the
Fig u re 7.2: Computed tomography of line pair required changes in density. Although both
phantom: (a) tomographic image; (b) density trace
eval uation. variables must be considered, they are not
independent.
(s) Whi le spatial reso/Iltioll is idea lly d efined as
the smallest detectable featu re, it also is a
function of contrast performance. Image contrast
must be at some minimal level in order for spatial
resolution to be assessed at all. Alternatively,
poor spatial resolution because of some sources
of uncontrolled bl ur, fo r example background
scatter or object scatter, can compromise the best
contrast performance. The modulation transfer
(b) function for a system p rovides a measu re of the
ComputlKl contrast performance as a function of spatial
"00 tomogr8pi1 ic
~o freque ncy.
~
3500
3000 ModlllatiOIl trallsfer JUlletjoll is the ratio of the
~ 2500 image amplitude to the object amplitude, as a
function of the sinusoidal frequency variation of
~ 2000

-
.€
iii'
'500
'000
- subject contrast in the object. This can be
visualized by considering a bar pattern as shown
~ in Figure 7.2. As the pattern becomes finer, the
500
00 image begins to lose contrast. A plot of thi s
30 60 90 120 150 180
response is ca lled the square wave response (when a
Distance (pixels) bar pattern is used) and is very sim ilar to the
modulation transfer function . Square wave
Legend response factors can be used to evaluate imaging
A . reference bar
B. 0.5 line pairs per 1 mm (13Ii1'\8 pairs per 1 in.) systems and under certain cond itions may be
C . 1 line pairs per 1 mm (25 line pairs pel , in.) corrected to the sine wave response or
D. 2 line pairs per 1 mm (50 line pairs per 1 in.) modu lation transfer function equiva lence.
E. 4'ine pairs per 1 mm (100 line pa,,~ per 1 in.)
In practice, va rious factors can resu lt in
information being scattered over several pixels,
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third thereby reduci ng the resolution. Modulation
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
transfer function is a usefu l measure of true or

54
 Chapter 7: Fundamentals 01 Digital Images

effective resolution, because it takes into account displayed; this is referred to as willdow and
the amount of blur (or contrast) through the leveling in the case of 16 bits. If all 16 bits are
system over a range of spatial freque ncies. mapped, the look up table equally divides the
4096 gray levels over the available 256 display
levels. Typically, the useful radiographic
Signal-to-Noise Ratio information is contained over a narrow range of
Noise is the primary limiting factor in any gray levels so that a window b rackets the desired
image enhancement procedure. When noise is val ues within the 12 (or 16) bit range to map to
present, the ability to detect features of interest the display and the level of the window
depends on the ratio of the signal intensity to the
modulates the display brightness. in this way, it
random intensity variations caused by the noise is possible to maximize the display contrast
in the system. Most enhancement techniques also associated with small change in object contrast.
enha nce the noise, sometimes more than the
..ignal. Care must be taken to use imaging and
an alysis techniques th<'lt minimize noise and give Archiving and Data Compression
the maximum signal-to-noise ratio. Archiving requirements, such as file sizes and
storage devices, must be carefully considered
when developing techniques. For example, a
Display radiograph for moisture may use a 3S x 43 cm
(14 x 17 in.) image area and, because of the low
Pixel Mapping resolution required, use a 200 I-lm (0.008 in.) pixel.
A critical aspect of the electronic display is This would produce an image of 1780 pixels
the monitor resolution. For example, monitors horizontally and 2160 pixels vertically for a total
may have display resolutions of "1200 x 1600 or of 3.8 million pixels, or a 7.6 megabyte file size. If,
2000 x 2500, however, scan resolutions of on the other hand, one is looking for fatigue
5000 x 6000 can be generated from the readout cracks and still wants to use a 3S x 43 cm
process. Therefore, it is important to remember (14 x 17 in.) image area, then a 50 I-lm (0.002 in .)
that dt.'pi.'nding on the magnification of the image pixel size would be more desirable. This would
or' the monitor, there may actually be more raw resu lt in an image that is 7000 x 8500 pixels, or
data avai lable than is displayed. To display an about 60 megapixels and a corresponding file size
image that either has more or less data displayed of 120 megabytes. This is equiva lent to more than
th,'ln is in the raw image, pixel mapping eighty floppy disks for a single image!
techniques are used. Pixel replication or pixel Data compression techniques reduce the size
interpolation are used when magnifying beyond of files by removing unneeded information so
the image resolution. When reducing the image they take up less storage space. There are a
siz(", pixel averaging is used. variety of compression techniques available and
care must be taken to ensure that the one chosen
Gray Scale Mapping does not remove necessary discontinuity related
A monitor may only be able to display a information. Lossless compression techn iques
portion of the data available in each pixel. For provide a reduction in file si7..€ wh ile maintaining
example, digital images may contain 12 or 16 bit data integrity.
digital data that must be displayed on a monitor As can be readily seen, as image resol ution
that may display only 8 bits. The system must increases, storage requirements and therefore cost
properly map the 12 (or 16) bit gray scale data to of storage will increase as well. There are key
a cathode ray tube. First, because only 8 bits can capacity and performance tradeoffs which must
be di splayed on the monitor, a dynamic look up be evaluated to minimize production delays such
table function can be used to select which 256 as having to wai t for an acquired image to be
g ray sca le range of the original data are w ritten to, or recovered from, a storage device.

55
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 7 Review Questions

7.1 The limit of contras t resolution o f a digital 7.6 Line pairs per millimeter is an expression of
imaging system is: resol ution in terms of:

a. limited by the s patial s ize of the pixel. a. bit depth.

b. limited by the spa tial frequency. b. spatial frequency.
c. the bit depth. c. p ixel size.
d . the bit dock. d. All of the above.

7.2 Three fundamental p roperties of digital 7.7 Lossless data compression:

images are:
a. is a technique that reduces file size, but
u. signal-to-noise ratio. permits the recovery of compressed
b. contrast resolution. data.
c. s patial resolution . b. is a tech nique that provides.1 red uction
d. All of the above. in file size without any loss of data.
c. None of the above. c. is a techl1 ique thai provides a red uction
in file size w hile ma intaining data
7.3 Effective dynamic range of a system defines integrity.
the practical limit of contrast performance. d . results in a ZIP file that can be
The effective dynamic range is limited by: reexpanded, thereby retaining the
original data.
u. the readout noise.
b. the limits of data compression. 7.8 The range of discrete s ignal counts (bits )
c. the number of background scattered possible in each pixel:
cou nts.
d. the image acquisition speed. a. defines the number of entries possible
e. both a and c. in the look up table.
f. both band d. b. d efines the spatial resolution.
c. defines the data compression limit.
7.4 Pixel mapping is a technique used to: d. defines the limit of contras t resolution.

u. dis play an image that has either more or 7.9 As image resolution increases:
less data d is played than is in the raw
image. a. data compression is required.
b. map pixel data from one location to b. file size, and accordingly storage costs,
another for image processing. increase.
c. maximize the dis play contrast c. larger monitors are required .
associa ted with a s mall change in object d . None of the above.
contrast.
d . None of the above. 7.10 Which o f the follow ing makes it possible to
maximize the display con trast associated
7.5 Data compression: with a small change in object contrast?

a. reduces the s ize of files by removing a. data com pression

unneeded informa tion. b. pixel mapping
b. is not poss ible without losing important c. g ray scale mapping
data. d. None of the above.
c. is only possible with pixel mapping.
d. both a and c.

56
 Chapter 7: Fundamentals of Digital Images

7.11. A35x43cm (14x17in.)imagearea is 7.12 A 35 x 43 em (14 x 17 in.) image area is

made up of 0.02 em (0.008 in.) pixels. How made up of 0.005 em (0.OO2 in.) pixels. How
many pixels are in the image? many pixels are in the image?

a. 3.8 megapixels a. 3.8 megapixels

b. 7.6 megapixels b. 7.6 megapixels
c. 60 megapixels c. 60 megapixels
d. 120 mega pixels d. 120 megapixels

57
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

58
 Chapter 8
Film Digitization

Film digitization provides the ability to is a rapid and drastic change in light level and
digitize a conwntional film image, thereby the charge coupled device momentarily saturates.
permitting bettef anu lysis and storage, and allows The image is corrected by changing the sampling
disposal of the film that would degrade over time or integration period. At high light levels,
time. the integra tion period is reduced to avoid
saturation of the cha rge coupled device, whereas
at low light levels, the integration period is
Charge Coupled Device Film increased to achieve an adequate signal-Io-noise
Digitization Systems ratio. To obtain optical density dynamic ranges
A charge coupled device is a silicon up to 5, multiple scans are performed at varying
semiconductor device consisting of a large charge coupled device integration periods and
number of grid like elements which arc sensitive scan speeds.
to light. When light energy impinges 011 the Another aspect of chilrge cou pled devices is
charge coupled device elements, the photons their spatial resolution. The elements can be
)r;L'ncrute a ckuge within each element. arrayed along one dimension or in two
Pl"riociically, the clement is discharged and the dimensions. The array's resol ution is generally
amplirude of the charge measured. In this way, g iven as the element size. Thus, the 1 cm 2 chip in
light amplitude can be converted to a a video camera that has 512 by 512 elements is
proporl ionalL' electrical signal and digitized. said to have a resolution of about 20 ~m. Once
Charge coupled devices have a limited light the various focusing lens aberrations arc coupled
intenSity dynamic range. This occurs when there together, the true resolving capability of a charge

Figure 8.1: Charge coupled device: (a) array schematic; (b) intensified camera.

(a) (b)
5eooof aITay

Microcharlnel plate

-
I
1
Retay Intensified
"",,, photons

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

59
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Method

coupled device chip is quite low. A home video

camera is surely not capable of discerning objects Figure 8.2: Cutaway drawing of photomultiplier
that are 20 11m apart. Thus, it is important to tube showing crystal, photocathode, collecting
differentiate between the chip specifications dynodes and voltage divider network.
versus those of the imaging system. The ~-II--" Output pulse
resolution of the imaging system depends in part
on the quality of the focusing optics, and in part
on the cross talk between charge coupled device
elements (Le., one photon activates more than one
element), so that actual system resolutions are
limited. The only way to actually determine the
resolution of a charge coupled device digi tizer is
to scan a modulation transfer function pattern to Dynodes
validate performance.
In the case of film digitization systems, a
linear array is used with appropriate optics to
focus the film image onto the much smaller Photoe~tlon
charge coupled device element as shown in Photocathode
Figure 8.1. A narrow line of diffused light is
Reflector
passed through the film and the transmitted light
is focused onto the charge coupled device array, Ught photon Focusing electrode
one line at a time. Once one line of data is
Ionizing event Path of primary ioni~ong
collected, a second line is then scanned. pa nicle
Incident photon Crystal

Laser Film Digitization Systems

Laser scanners utilize a nonimaging Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
photomultiplier tube, as shown in Figure 8.2, to edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
detect light transmitted through the film. The
tube has a wide d ynamic range, good
s ignal-lo-noise ratio and uses a log amplification
process such that a uniform density resolution is
maintained over the entire range.
The spatial resolution of a laser scanner is
determined by the size of the point of laser light
that impinges on the film. Because there is only a
single beam, there is no cross talk between pixels
and a true limiting resolution equal to the laser
spot size can be achieved. However, the actual
modulation transfer function will depend on
overall laser beam quality, detector noise and
electronic noise.

60
 Chapter 8: Film Digitization

Chapter 8 Review Questions

8.1 Laser digitization systems that use a 8.5 C rosstalk between charge coupled device
photomultiplier tube: elements occurs when:

a. always result in images with the same a. the elemen ts are not sufficiently
resolution as the original film image. electrically isolated.
b. have no issues with resulti ng dynamic b. the elements become too small.
range. c. very high energies are used.
c. require multiple scan because the laser d. one photon activates more than one
is diffused through the film . element.
d. None of the above.
8.6 The spatial resolution of a laser scanner is
8.2 In o rder to reach an optica l density range determined by:
from 0 to 5, charge coupled devices mlls t be
sca nned severa l times. This is because: a. the size of the laser s pot and the laser
frequency.
a. photomultiplier tubes have a limited b. the size of the laser spot and overall
d ynamic ra nge. beam quality.
b. the integrating cylinder is so much Co the system modulation transfer
larger than the desired pixel size. function .
c. charge coupled dev ices have a limited d. All of the above.
intensity dy namic range.
d . None of the above.

8.3 When using charge coupled devices, the

resolution of the imaging system depends
on:

a. the quality of the imaging optics.

b. the intensity of the laser used.
c. the frequ t::ncy of the laser used .
d. All of the nbove.

8.4 One disad vantage of using charge coupled

devices is that:

a. they have a fixed pixel size that cannot

oc adjusted.
b. they mu ~ t be scanned several times in
order to reach a w ide range of densities.
c. the logarithmic density scale is
converted to a linea r voltage scale.
d. quantum fl uctuations degrade
efficiency.

61
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

62
 Chapter 9
Digital Radiographic Imaging

There are various methods of acqui ring

digital radiographs by electronic means. These
Thin Film Transistors
include: (Amorphous Silicon Detectors)
Most designs are based on a flat glass panel
1. conversion of X-rays to light and then to that has a coating on one side that contains
electronic images, several million amorphous silicon transistors
2. photoconductive conversion of X-rays to (TITs) that are arranged in rows and columns.
electronic images, Each individual transistor has bias and control
3. photostimu lablc storage phosphors, lines that are brought to the edge of the panel. A
·t array detectors, large pixel space is required to accommoda te the
5. line scan imaging. and transistor, data lines and scan lines, thus limiting
6. scann ing electron beams. how small a pixel this device can permit. The
length and makeup of these control lines also
This subject differs from radioscopic imaging playa role in how fast image data can be scanned
in that these systems are not video based. Rather, out of the array.
they employ discrete sensors with the data from On top of the thin film transistor is an X-ray
each detection element being read out into a file conversion layer. This layer may consist of
~ tructurc to form the pixels of the digital image. phosphors, as shown in Figure 9.1, that convert
In radioscopic imaging the major emphasis is on the X-rays to visible light photons. In this case
the conversion of X-rays to analog electronic data each detector element is made up of a transistor
tha i are viewed as video signals in real time. and a photodiode. The light from the phosphor is
An exception to the discrete sensor based captured by the photodiode, converted to
systems is the photostimulable phosphor system electrons and then read out through the
thtlt forms a latent image, similar to film, on a transistor.
phosphor screen. The screen is then read out Other X-ray conversion layers may consist of
electronically using a spccial laser SCillU1er. photoconductors, such as amorphous selenium.
Detection devices that support imaging These are referred to as direct because the incident
!ilystems include: X-ray photons are directly converted into
electrons with no intermediate step as shown in
1. phosphors deposited on amorphous si licon Figure 9.2. The high voltage bias field applied to
thin film transistor diodes, an amorphous selenium layer creates vertical
2. photoconductors such as amorphous field lines. Because these field lines are parallel to
selenium deposited on thin film transistors, the incident X- ray beam, the field prevents the
3. phosphors deposited on, or coupled through, charge from scattering and thus there is Virtually
fiber optic lenses onto charge coupled device no blur. Consequently the amorphous selenium
based detectors and complementary metal conversion layer (excluding the pixel electrodes)
oxide silicon based detectors, exhibits extremely high resolution.
4. photosnmulable storage phosphors,
5. phosphors deposited on linear array systems,
.nd Charge Coupled Devices
6. X-ray scalU1ing source and geometry Charge coupled devices are essentiaUy
photon detectors. An incident photon creates an
detectors.
electron hole pair. This creates a current flow
which, in a charge coupled device, is stored in the

63
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

potential well of the device. The

amount of charge collected at F,i gure 9.1 : Charge coupled device based X-ray detector: (a) X-rays
the potential well is in direct dIrectly excite charge coupled device; (b) fiber optic scintillator coupled
proportion to the amount of directly to charge coupled device provides shielding to sensor.
local light intensity.
Charge coupled devices, I') Phosphor layer, 0.05 10 0.20 mm
(0.002 10008 in.) thick
although made with high pixel
densities, are typically small in
size because they are based on . .. " / . . . . .................. .
crystalline silicon, cut from ----------------------------------------------
silicon wafers, which are
traditiona lly available in sizes
/
only as large as 100 to 150 mOl
(4.0 to 6.0 in.) in diameter or less. (b) ~F~:;"':~:
. f :-:::O;:":::":'i~::,
mm fibef
1.0 optic
In.)
Larger fields of view can be
achieved through the use of
tiling of charge coupled devices,
through n lens or a fiber optic
transfer device to view an X-ray
conversion screen. The lens
approach has very poor light
collection efficiency while fiber
optics and tiling do not prov ide Charge coupled device array
large fields of view but will
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edlhon: Volume 4, Radlogrsphlc
result in more efficient light Testing.
colleclion.
Charge coupled devices are ~::;;:;----~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
typica lly used in combination with phosphor
materials as shown in Figure 9.3. On a per pixel Figure 9.2: Schematic cross section of
basis, the charge coupled device is more efficient amorphous selenium X-ray detector.
in collecting the light produced from the Top bias electJode
phosphor material than is the thin film transistor.
For sma ll field of view applications, the directly
coupled charge coupled device will provide high
spatial resolution and high light collection F.... 1 1111 1 11
lines Amorphous selenIum
efficiency.

Storage Phosphors
1 t """,
Storage phosphor imaging utilizes a screen Pixel electJode III Pi>cel electrode
that is exposed with geometries that are the same I I I I I I I , I

as with conventional film and uses the same

X-ray sources as conventional film. The screen
itself is made lip of a plastic substrate on which is
deposited a phosphor material that is then
covered with a clear protective overcoat and is Reprinted trom NondestfJJctive Testing Handbook, third
edilion: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
full y reusable after erasure. Additionally, these
screens are somewhat flexible which gives them
process constitutes the latent image fonnati on
an advantage over other digital approaches that
within the phosphor layer. However, this does
use rigid plates.
not produce a permanent chemical change, but
Storage phosphors operate by trapping
one that can be reversed by stimulating trapped
electrons that are excited by incident X-rays, at
electrons with external energy. This process
higher energy levels. For example, in the case of
reversal produces photostimulated luminescence.
SrS:Ce Sm, the Ce3+ ion's 4f ground state electron
The intensity of the photostimulated
is excited to its Sd state and subsequently to the
luminescence is d irectly proportional to the
Sm J + where it becomes trapped . This trapping
number of trapped electrons, which is in turn

64
 Chapter 9: Digital Radiographic Imaging

proportional to the amount of radiation energy makes the phosphor screens fully reusable and
absorbed by the storage phosphor screen. As a provides a major advantage over film.
result, the characteristic cu rve, or exposure curve, Various systems are available that utilize
is linear as opposed to logarithmic as with film. different phosphor materials and d ifferent
The photostimulated luminescence from a wavelength lasers to extract the latent image. This
small area (determined by the laser spot size) is scanning process is where this technology departs
then collected at a photomultiplier rube that from the other digital approaches. The screen is
converts the incident luminescence photons to then erased and can be reused. This technology
photoelectrons (current) and amplifies it. This produces an image that is identical in perspective
current is then converted to a voltage, digitized to that produced with film and eliminates the
and stored as a function of x-y position . This need for darkrooms and film processing
process is repeated until every point on the chemicals.
phosphor screen has been scanned, the image Inherent unsharpness in ph osphor images is
computed and digitally displayed. a factor of grain size, screen thickness and pixel
After scanning, a residual image may remain size. Unsharpness is reduced and resolution
on the screen. The image is eliminated (erased) by improved as these three parameters aTe reduced.
using an intense source of energy at the same The main advantage of storage phosphor
wavelength used for scanning. This fearure imaging over film is the reduction of film use, the
ability to digitally acquire a film quality image
and the corresponding benefits of that digital
Figure 9.3: Coupling of light from phosphor to image file, such as easy archival and retrieval.
charge coupled device in X-ray detector system:
(a) lens coupling; (b) fiber optic coupling. Linear Arrays
(a) Linear array detectors are much like charge
Fiber optic scintillator or coupled devices, except that they typically have
/hoSphor or both pixels in only one dimension or they may be
composed of a small rectangular array such as
30 pixels x 1024 pixels. The advantage of linear
arrays is their scatter rejection capability. The key

0- is that the radiation beam is collimated to match

the size of the detector. This dramatically reduces
the object's scatter field. The scatter detected at
each of those lines is substantially less than that
of individual lines in an array area.
1
Shielding glass
lens

Cooled charge CO\lp~ Scanned Beam

device camera With scanned beam radiography the test
(b) object is placed near the X-ray source, unlike
Scintillating conventional radiography where the object is
liber opt ics placed near the detector. As shown in Figure 9.4,
the X~ray source is large and operates in a
manner similar to a video monitor. An electron
beam is electronically scanned over the inner
I\ surface of the front of the X-ray source. Where the
Charge electrons collide with the iJUler surface of the
Fiber optic coupled
tube, X-rays are generated, By electronically
tape r
-, device
camera scanning the beam, the position of the X-ray
emission is determined and correlated with the
detected energy and an image can be formed.
Phosphor layer / Because a single small area detector is used
X·ray and light shield
and the object is placed at the source, not at the
detector, the X-ray scatter from the object is
essentially zero. The disadvantage of this
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing,
approach is that, because it is reverse geometry,

65
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

the effecti ve focal spot size is that of the detector

size. The detector is typically much larger than a Detection Efficiency
typical industrial X·ray focal spot. As a result, The selection of the phosphor or
any specimen that has some thickness will show photoconductive material, its thickness and
significant uns harpness as the features o f interest effective atomic number, will affect the total
move away from the X-ray source. number of X-rays absorbed. Once energy is
absorbed, each material has its own efficiencies
for convers ion of this energy into either light or
Figure 9.4 : Scanned beam laminography system . charge carriers. Following this, there are other
coupling steps to transfer the signal onto
pixelizcd readout circuitry.
Scanning ak!ctron
The performance of the X-ray detector 1"0
beam system convey the information in the radialion beam is
then dependent on the effi ciency of each step in
the X-ray con version process leadin g to an
electronic signal. The signal-to-noise ratio of the
detector, and thus the image contras t, arc
Elec1ron therefore dependent on the transfer of
""om information along the entire imaging chain.
I.\~ ___'" _ X-ray generating target

X-rays

Mechanically
rotating mirror
system

Reprinted trom Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third

edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

66
 Chapter 9: Digital Radiographic Imaging

Chapter 9 Review Questions

9.1. Digital imaging systems differ from 9.6 One disadvantage of TFTs is:
radioscopic systems in that:
a. the relatively large pixel size required
a. radioscopic images have significantly for the readout circuitry.
better image quality. b. the need to use a scintillator with them.
b. radioscopic systems are video based. e. the need to couple them with fiber optic
c. digital systems arc faster. relays.
d. There is no fundamental difference. d. the lighter weight of the electron ics
They just use different sensors. associated with them.

9.2 All of the following are methods of 9.7 An advantage of storage phosphors over
acquiring digital radiographs except: other digital imaging schemes is:

a. they are less expensive to replace.

a. thin film transistors.
b. they do not have a large array of
b. photoconductive conversion of X-rays
individual elements that can fail.
to electronic images. c. they can be r€Scanned or reused.
c. photophosphoric detection screens. d. the phosphor screens arc somewhat
d. phosphors coupled through fiberoptic flexible.
lenses onto charge coupled devices.
9.8 The major difference between imaging with
9.3 A 11 of the following detection methods of storage phosphors and imaging with other
acquiring digital images utilize discrete digital methods is:
sensors except:
a. the images created with storage
a. charge coupled devices. phosphors arc easier to manipulate.
b. thin film transistors. b. s torage phosphor imaging is faster.
c. photostimulable storage phosphors. c. storage phosphor imaging produces a
d. All of the above usc discrete sensors. latent image.
d. None of the above.
9.4 Thin film transistors are coated with either
phosphors or photoconductors. The purpose 9.9 The storage phosphor imaging process
of these coatings is: consists of all of the following except:

a. intensification. a. incident X-rays trapping electrons at

b. X-ray filtrat ion. higher energy levels.
c. scatter control. b. the charge on a metal oxide
d. X-ray conversion. semiconductor is depleted.
c. a PMT converts incident luminescence
9.5 One benefit of using amorphous selenium into electric current.
rather than phosphors is that: d. energy is released when stimulated by a
scanning laser.
a. incident photons are directly converted
into electrons.
b. they are more efficient per photon of
energy.
e. a thinner layer can be used because of
their efficiency.
d. None of the above.

67
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

9.10 The em ission of light by a storage phosphor 9.12 Amorphous selenium conversion layers
when exposed to the appropriate exhibit extremely high resolution because:
wavelength laser is called:
a. the modulation transfer function is not
a. photophosphorescence. dependent on the spatial frequency.
b. Ouorescence. b. lateral scattering is prevented by the
c. photostimulated luminescence. presence of vertical field lines that are
d. electroluminescence. parallel to the incident X-rays.
c. no gain or offset correction is required.
9.11 An advantage of storage phosphors over d. there are no electronics associated w ith
film is that: them.

a. storage phosphors can be erased and

reused.
b. they are less expensive.
c. they produce much higher qua lity
images.
d. their images can easily be transported
by fiber optic transfer.

68
 Chapter 10
Radiographic Techniques

Although scattered radiation can never be

Reduction of Scatter completely eliminated, a number of means are
When a beam of radiation s trikes any object,
available to reduce its effect. Techniques to
some of the radiation is absorbed, some is
control scatter include masks, diaphragms,
scattered and some passes straight through. The
screens and filters.
wavelengths of much of the primary radiation are
increased by the scattering processes with the
resulting scatter being softer and less penetrating Figure 10.1: Sources of scattered radiation.
than the primary radiation. Any material that is
subjected to direct radiation becomes a source of Aood, r- - 7
scattered radiation and steps must be taken to L._ -;' \ Focal spot
reduce this scatter because it reduces the contrast
of the images recorded on the film. Preventing
scatter from reaching the film (or any detector)
markedly improves the quality of the
m
rad iogrilphic image. Scatter occurs, and is a ; : : D ;;'P
:hrag
problem, w ith all types of energies and detectors.
The discussion which follows is in terms of Fi lter
X-rays and film, but the sa me basic principles
apply in general.
As a rule, the greater portion of the scattered
radiation affecting the film is from the test object
(A in Figure 10.1). However any portion of the
film holder or cassette that extends beyond the
specimen and rece ives d irect radiation also
becomes a source of scatter which can affect the
film. The influence of this scatter is most
notic(·abh..' just inside the borders of the image of
the specimen (8 in Figure 10.0. In a similar
manner, primary radiation striking the film
holder or cassette through thin portions of the
specimen will cause scattering into the shadows
of the ad jacent thicker portions. Such scatter is
called 1Indercut. Another source of scatter that Specimen
may undercu t a specimen is diffraction, shown as
C in Figure 10.1.
Any other material, such as walls or floor, on Film and cassette
the film side of the specimen may also scatter an Legend
appreciable quantity of radiation back to the film, A = transmitted scaner
especially if the material receives direct radiation B = scatter from cassette
C = diffractioll scatter
from the source as shown in Figure 10.2. This is
referred to as backscattered radiation. This can also
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, th ird
be significant and can even produce an image of edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Tes~·ng.
cinder block walls overlaying the entire film.

69
 AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Masks the film completely, such as s mall castings, bars

Scatter radiation originating in matter outside and qualification samples. Additional masking
the s pecimen is most serious for specimens which techniques involve the use of bariu m day, a
have a high absorption fo r X·rays because the saturated solution of lead acetate and lead nitrate,
scattering from external sources may be large o r copper and / or steel shot.
compared to the primary image forming
radiation that reaches the film through the Diaphragms
specimen. Depend ing on the energy range of the Often the most satisfactory method o f
radiation emitting source being used and the lessening scatter is by the use o f d iaphragms. The
thickness of the specimen being radiographed, purpose of diaphragms is to li mit the radiation
masking the specimen w ith sheets of lead may reaching the film to only that passing through the
reduce scatter radiation to an acceptable level as specimen o r area of interest. Frequently the
s how n in Figure 10.3. To be s uccessful, the lead diaphragm is located at the tube head to allow a
mus t be cut to fit tightly around the edges of the cone of rad iation to cover only the film as s hown
s pecimen. Any major gaps or crevices will in Figures 10.1, 10.2,10.3 and lOA, or to limit the
provide a path to the film resulting in very erratic beam cross section to only the area of the
scatter patterns on the film . Masking is used
primarily on those specimens that do not cover
Figure 10.3: Combined use of metallic shot and
lead mask for lessening scattered radialion is
Figure 10.2: Intense backscattered radiation may conducive to good radiosraphic quality. If several
originate in the floor or wall. Collimating , masking round bars are to be radiographed, they may be
or diaphragming should be used. Backing the separated along their lengths with lead strips held
cassette with lead may give adequate protection. on edge by wooden frame and voids filled with
fine shot.

J..._-{\"x. 'PO'

OIaphragm
Diaphragm

F..,

Floor orwd Film and cassella

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, RadiographiC Testing. edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

70
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

specimen th at is of interest in the examination.

This minimizes scatter off cabinet walls and other Figure 10.4: Filter placed near X-ray tube
objects. reduces subject contrast and eliminates much of
secondary radiation, which tends to obscure detail
Another method of lessening scatter is by the in periphery of specimen.
use of cutout diaphragms or some other form of
mask mounted over or around the object
rad iographed. If many specimens of the same
article are to be radiographed, it may be J.._-f \ Focal spot

worthwhile to cut an opening of the same shape,

but slightly smaller, in a sheet of lead and place it
on the object. The lead serves to reduce the
exposure in surrounding areas to a negligible Diaphragm

amount an d to eliminate the scatter from this

source.
Filter

Screens
Lead screens in contact with a film red uce the
effects on the film of scattered radiation from all
sources. Front lead screens between 0.025 and
0.25 mm (0.001 and 0.01 in.) thick, in intimate
contact with the film, are typ ically used for all
rad iographs taken with X-rays or gamma rays
that exceed 150 kV Lead screens lessen the scatter
re(Jch ing the film regardless of whether the
screens permit a decrease or necessitate an
increase in the radiographic exposure.
Specimen
X-ray exposure cassettes often incorporate a
sheet of lead foil, usu ally 1.6 to 3.2 mm (1/16
to 1/8 in.) thick, in the back for the specific
purpose of protecting the film from backscatter.
)(
This lead will not serve as an intensifying screen;
first, because it usually has a paper facing and
second, because it often is not of radiographic
Film and cassette
quality. If using such a cassette for gamma rays or
mil lion vol t X-rays, the film should always be Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third
enclosed between double lead screens. Otherwise, edition: Volume 4. Radiographic Testing.
the secondary radiation from the lead backing is
sufficient to penetrate the intervening felt or
short (hard) wavelengths. The beam emerging
paper and cast a shadow of this material on the
from the filter therefore contains a higher
film, giving a gran u lar or mottled appearance.
proportion of the shorter wavelengths. The
In high energy applications, lead screens up
low energy radiation, if not filtered out, would
to 3.0 mm (0.12 in.) thick or more may be used.
increase the undercutting or burning out of the
edges in thinner sections.
Filters Rules for filter thicknesses are difficult to
Filters may be placed either between the formulate exactly because the amount of filtration
object being radiographed and the X-ray source, required depends not only on the material and
as in Figure lOA, or between the object and the thickness range of the specimen, but also on the
film. When the filter is placed between the object distribution of material in the specimen and on
and the film, the filter is intended to reduce the amount of scatter to be eliminated.
scatter. In general, the use o f filters is limited to Typical filters for aluminum and steel are
radiography with X-rays. shown in Table 10.1. The values in this table are
A metallic filter placed between the source maximum values, and depending on
and object reduces subject contrast by hardening circumstances, useful radiographs can often be
the radiation. The longer (soft) wavelengths do made with far less filtration.
not penetrate the filter to the same extent as the

71
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

In X-rad iography, up to about 250 kV, front

ie<ld screens 0.013 em (0.005 in.) thick are Table 10.1: Typical filters for aluminum and steel.
customarily used. Additional filtration between
the s pecimen and film only lends to contribute
Material Filter Thickness
additional scatter from the filter itself. The sca lier
undercut ca n be decreased by adding an aluminum copper 4% of maximum
appropria te filter at the tube. Although this filter specimen thickness
gives rise to scattered radiation, it is emitted in all steel copper 20% of maximum
d irections, and beca use the film is far from the specimen thickness
filter, sca tter reaching the film is very low in lead 3% of maximum
intensity. Further advantages of p lacing the filter specimen thickness
ncar the tube are that specimen film distance is
kept to a minimum and that scratches and dents
in the fi lter are so blurred thai their images are wh ich high contrast can be achieved with a s ing le
not apparent on the radiograph. exposure. Films may also be viewed separately or
superimposed. However, the number of film s
Control of Diffraction Scatter Effects simultaneous ly exposed or viewed may be
A special fo rm of scatter caused by X-ray limited by certain specifications beca use of
diffraction is encountered occasionally. It is most unsharpness considerations.
often observed in the radiography of metallic A commonly used variation of this method is
specimens w hose grain size is large enough to be to use two films of the sa me s peed . With the
an appreciable fraction of the part thickness, or correct exposure parameters, the details in the
multiple of the X-ray wavelength. Th is effect is thick section ca n be evaluated by superimposing
sometimes SLocn in castings. The radiographic the images of both films. The thinner portion i5
appea rance of this type o f sca ttering is mottled recorded on both films and either film can be
and may be confused with the mottled used for the evaluation. Again, this techn..iquf.' is
appearance sometimes associa ted with porosi ty specifically prohibited by some specifications.
o r segregation. II can be distinguished from these
conditions by taking two s uccessive rad iographs,
with a sligh t s hift of the rad iation angle (1 degree
Enlargement and Projection
In conventional radiography, it is desirable to
to 5 degrees) by moving the specimen or the
have the film as close as possible to the object
source. A pattern caused by porosity or
being rad iographed to red uce geometric
segregation will remain essentially unchanged,
unsha rpness Ug. An exception to thiS rule occurs
w hile one ca used by diffraction will change
when the sou rce of radiation is very small, a
s ignifica ntly o r be eliminated . The mottling
fra ction of a millimeter in a microfocus tu be or in
caused by diffraction ca n also be reduced, and in
a betatron for exam ple. In s uch a case, the film is
some cases elim inated, by increas ing the
placed at a dis tance from the object, rather than
kilovoitage or by using filters.
in contact w ith it. A setup o f this type will
produce enlarged radiographiC images w ithout
Multifilm Techniques introducing objectionable geometric unsharpness.
Extreme part thickness variations and Useful enlargements of up to three diameters
component configuratiol' can result in the ha ve revealed structures otherwise invisible
tran smi ssion of too w ide a range of intensities to radiograph ica lly. Enla rgemen ts all the order of
be successfu lly recorded on a s ingle film. In such 10 times or more ha ve been found feasible in
s ituations, rather than s imp ly taking mu ltiple microradiography with very small focal spots
expos u res, a multifilm technique may be used in (near 1 j.1m, o r 4 X 10""5 in.).
which two or more films of different speeds are Geometric enlargements also reduce scattered
combined in a single cassette and exposed radiation because an increase in test object to film
simultaneously. distance red uces the proportion of scattered to
The exposu re paramete rs are selected so that d irect beam radiation reaching the film.
the thick sections are recorded on the faster film
and the th inner on the s lower film. This method
is not limited to only hvo films being exposed
Stereo Radiography
Stereo rad iography is a radiographiC method
together. In special cases, three to five films may
using two sepa rate radiographs made with a
be used, expanding the range of thickness over source sh ift exactly parallel to the fil m plane, as

72
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

in Figure 10.5. The stereoscopic method is

infrequently used in industrial radiograph y, but Figure 10.5: Diagram of stereoscopic
on occasion it can be used to local ize and radiographic setup (top) and stereoscopic viewer
(bottom).
characteri ze indications or to visualize the spatial
arrangement of hidden structure.
Because a single radiographic image does not
possess depth perspective, it cannot give the
impression of depth or indicate clearly the
rela tive positions of the various parts of the object
along the direction of vision. Stereoradiographic
techniques can be used to create depth perception
similar to that of natural vision. Objects viewed
with a normal pa ir of eyes appear in their true
perspective and in their correct spa tial relation to
each other, largely because of the natu ral Left shift 01 tube
stereoscop ic vision of the human eyes (depth
perception). Each eye receives a slightly different
view and the two images are combined by the
brain to g ive the impression of three dimensions.
To duplicate this stereoscopic vision in -----
radiography requires two radiographs made from
two positions of the X-ray tube separated by the
normal human interpupillary distance. After
'h=i'
, II '/
processing, the two radiographs aTe viewed in a 1\ I I ' /
stereoscope, a device that by an arrangement of
Left stereoradiograph
IIJ1 IV'J Right stllfllOfadiograph
~A I
prisms or mi rrors pennits each eye to see only
one of the stereoradiographs. As in normal
',.1 1 R

f
vision, the brain integrates the two images into
one in which the various fea tures stand out in
relief in true perspective and in correct spatial
relation.
R
'M:
Left eye Right eye
L
[t is important to remember that the
radiograph exposed in the right shift position of
the tube is vie\·"ed by the right eye and the one
exposed by the left shift position is viewed by the
left eye. In fact, the cond itions of viewing the
radiographs shoUld be analogolls to the
Figure 10.6: Similar triangle relationship.
conditions under which they were exposed. The
two eyes lake the place of the two positions of the
focal spot of the X-ray tube, and the radiograph Source posnlon 1 Source position 2
as viewed in mirrors or prisms occupies the sa me A

r~
position with respect to the eyes as did the films
with resp~ct to the tube during the exposures.
The eyes sec the X-ray representation of the part
just as the X-ray tube exposed the actual part.
T·O
Parallax Methods T

Triangulation, or parallax, methods are based

on the principle that from two exposures made
with different positions of the source, the depth
of the discontinui ty is computed from the shift of
the shadow of the discontinuity. An object close
6
-<---- -
L-\ \----'-
F;lm plane

to the film does not appear to change position L B-'

much, wh ile an object farther from the film
appears to shift more. The amount of left or right
movement of the projected shadows is directly

73
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

proportional to the closeness of the object to the H = the height of the discontinuity above the
source. back surface of the part,
A similar triangle relationship is the basis for K = the distance of the part to the film, and
most of the calculations used in the radiographic T = the source-ta-film distance.
paral lax methods. Figure 10.6 shows this
relationship graphically. By measu ring or knowing the firs t three
Radiographic parallax methods use three parameters, the fourth parameter can be
variations of the sim ilar triangle relationship. calcu lated on the basis of the si milar triangle
These three methods are: relationship. With the rigid formu la method, no
markers are necessary. However, the part
L rigid formula, thickness, the source-ta-film distance and the
2. sing le marker approximate formula, and source shift must be accurately recorded. In
3. double marker approximate fo rmula. addition, the image of the discontinuity must be
shown on a double exposed radiograph.
The data for a similar triangle relationship are The following exposure techniques should be
derived from the displacement of the image on used when applying the rigid formula method.
the film plane. The film plane is used, rather than
the depth below the surface, because it is not 1. Calculate necessary exposure timC'.
always possible to have the film in intimate 2. Make first exposure at one half of this
contact with the surface of the part. exposure time.
In addition to problems encountered in 3. Move source parallel to (and a s pt.."'Cificd
calculating the object's height above the film, distance along) the film p lane.
certain orientation or discontinuity geometries 4. Make second half of the exposu re.
can cause measurement errors. These are not
because of a failure of the method, but rather a The rigid formula method can be used when
failure of the radiographer to recognize and the film is placed in intimate contact with the
compensate for variations in object displacement. bottom of the part and when there are no
limitations on the height of the sourcc "bove the
Rigid Formula film plane. It is important to have significa ntly
A schematic diagram of the rigid formula large source-to-film versus top of object-ta-film
method is shown in Figure 10.7a. The method is ratios when using the rigid parallax method .
also defined in the following equation: It is important to remember that the
fundamental relationship between d iscontinuity
height and image shift is nOlllinear. As the
D B discontinuity height approaches the
T- D A source-to-film distance, the image shift incre,lscs
Equation 21 without limit. When the discontin uity height is
sma11 compared to the source-to-film distance, the
curve of accuracy approaches linearity.
D=~
A+B Single Marker Formula
Equation 22 When the part thickness and discontinuity
height are slllall relative to the source-to-film
distance, the relationship between D and B
approaches linearity and the height of the
H = D-K+ BT discontinuity above the film plane becomes
, A+B-K approximately proportional to its parallax. A
Equation 23 proportional relationship offers certain
advantages in that an artificial discontinuity or
marker can be placed on the source side of the
where: object, as shown in Figure 10.7b. The height of the
discontinuity can be estimated or calculated by
A = the source shift between exposures,
comparing the shift of its radiographiC image
B = the image shift of the discontinuity,
with that of the marker. For example, if the
D = the distance of the discontinuity above single marker shift is twice the shift of the
the film,

74
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

discontinuity, it wou ld indicate that the Double Marker Formula

discontinuity is abou t mid wall . If the film cannot be placed in direct contact
The single marker method eliminates the w ith the object o r if the image of the
need for detailed measurement of part thickness, discontinuity is not present on a double exposed
source-to-film d istance and the source shift, as radiograph, the double marker method would be
required by the rigid formula method . Provided applicable as shown in Figure 1O.7c. If both
the film is in in timate contact with the part and a markers are thin, neglect the thickness and
source-to-film distance at least ten times the assume th at they represent the top and bottom of
thickness of the part is used, the maximum error the part. By measuring the parallax (image shift)
thai can be e xpected is on the order of 3% of the of each marker as well as that of the
part thickness. discontinuity, the relative position of the

Figure 10.7: Stereo technique diagrams: (a) rigid.formula par.allax technique; (b) single marker
approxi mate technique; (c) double marker approximate technique.

(,) (c)
A
A- _ _ _AA_ __

,'!.,:~,----~l
'\ lr
,...,---~
.
Source
1
'l
Sw,re
.'"'~

T-D

T Discontinuity

t
_I
Source T
side
H marker
i

Sensor plane I I
H

_
,kJ, ~H~'~~~~~;:~~~~::~~~~
(b) A
-, - K
Sensor
A- ~ ~

marker BJ 81 B:2 Se nsor

plane

Legend
A " source shift
B " indication shift in image
D " distance from discontinuity to sensor plane
K " distance from test object to sensor plane
H " thickness 01 test objee1
Hs " height 01 discontinuity above mar ker on sensor side
T " distance from source to seosor

Di scontin uity

.---t::~----t\"1T
H~,~~__~~-,~__~~
K

"
SenSOl" plane Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Vo lume 4. Radiographic Testing.

75
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

discontinuity between the two test surfaces of the currents required for flash rad iography, different
part can be obtained by linear interpolation using electron sources must be used. These sources do
the following equations: not allow effective focusing of the electron beam,
so special X-ray tube and target geometries must
be designed to achieve the necessary confined
BI - B3 == fj.B, focal spot.
Equation 24
and Film Recording
Fast film /screen combinations are used to
B2 - 8) :: DB", obtain adequate film exposures. A dual emulsion
and Equation 25 light sensitive film is placed in close contact with
and between two fluorescent screens that absorb
H,= B1- B" and convert a portion of the incident X-rays to
light, exposing the emulsion facing each screen.
H", - 8 2 - 8)
The film denSity range is more limited than th.1t
or Equation 26 of film used in conventional radiography and the
slope of the characteristic curve (gamma factor) is
f I!.Bf
H ~ s mall at both short and long exposures, resulting
in very low image contrast. Careful adjustment of
H", l1fJ",
the exposure is required to achieve image qua lity
or Equation 27 and contrast.
The choice of screens is a tr"de off between
speed and resolution. Thicker screens have more
H = H
f •
(I!.Bf
tlB
) output but reduced resolution. High speed film is
• generally selected but, on occasion., a slower film
Equation 28 speed is used to avoid excessive quantum noise
where: in the image.

1'1 = the height of discontinuity above the In Motion Radiography

film si de marker, and The techniques used for in motion
Hill = the distance between the source side radiography are the same as for conventional
marker and the film side marker. static radiographiC techniques except for the
exposure time. The exposure time is converted to
Flash Radiography speed of travel and is recorded as some d istance
Flash radiography is a special type of pcr minutc. Two methods nre available for
radiography that is used to produce a single stop density control: decrease density by increasing
motion image or a series of sequential images of speed or increase density by decreasing speed.
high speed phenomena. Exposure times of These are affected by:
one millionth of a second or less can be achieved
through the usc of specially designed high 1. type of material being radiographed,
voltage generating equipment and X-ray tubes. 2. thickness of material,
Such exposure times are significantly short to 3. film speed,
provide s top motion radiographs of projectiles, 4. use of intensifying screens, and
high speed machinery and other objects. 5. source-to-film distance.
The general principles that govern the
production and the imaging characteristics of Advantages of in motion radiography are
X-rays are identical for conventional static that it:
radiography and flash radiography. In
conventional X-ray tubes, a therm ionic cathode is 1. permits testing of almost unlimited part sizes
u sed to produce an electron beam thai is with slightly modified conventional
accelerated and focused to strike a small spot on equipment,
a metal plane target. This basic mechanism is also 2. can be used in production shops without
used in fl ash radiography. However, because radiation hazard because of equipment used,
thermionic cathodes are not capable of producing and
the very high peak cu rrent densities and total 3. permits images to be recorded on a
continuous sheet of film.

76
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

An exposure is made with one of the Rotary motioll - The X-ray source and slit are
following techniques. stationary and the cylindrical part rotates
360 degrees or more through the collimated X-ray
1. A part is moved through a collimated beam beam, as in Figure 10.9.
of radiation emitted by a stationary source.
2. A collimated source is moved relative to a
stationary part. Figure 10.8: Unsharpness due to motion.

Image blurring has been determined to be

greatest in the direction of motion. Variables must
be established to determine the influence of
,- M F

blurring. These variables arc determined through \

the use of equations derived from equations used \
in static radiography to determine unsharpness
Ug- \ c
I I
V =~ I I
g D- d
Equation 29 \ I
I I D

where:
Y
D = source-to-film distance, 1\
d = defect-to-film distance, and
F = effective focal spot size. 11t-_ _,
Unsharpness because of motion is derived I
---IL F~==:-M;:;:':;;U-==::l
from Equation 30 using the relationships in
Equations 31, 32 or 33 (see Figure 10.8 for
definitions):
The conditions for unsharpncss because of
-I u I- --I I- u~
motion arc shown graphically in Figure 10.8. C sourw·to·sht distance
o source·to·lilm distance
F effective focal spot size
F S M motion at source side of part
S slrt width
X C-X T sourw sKSe of part to film distance
Equation 30 U unsharpness
X retated to F and S
M .. U" motion plus unsharpness at fitm pta ne
F M M+V
- - = Reprinted from Nondesrructive Tesring Handbook, secorld ediHon,
X D-(X+T) D- X V~ume 3, Radiography aM Radiation Tesling.

Equation 31
Lillear 1II0tioll - The part under testing is
V= T(F+S) moved past the collimated X-ray beam or the
C collimated X-ray beam is scanned over the
surface of the part, as in Figure 10.10.
Equation 32
Sy"chro"ous radiography - Applicable to
F+M D-T cyclical motion: requires a short pulse X-ray
generator capable of adjustments of the pulse to
F+S C match the speed of the cyclical motion.
Equation 33 Since its conception in 1956, applications of
in motion radiography have been to examine
In motion radiography techniques currently used weldments, brazed honeycomb structures,
in industry are linear motion, rotary motion and adhesive bonded honeycomb structures, nuclear
synchronous radiography. fu el elements and rocket motors.

77
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

As with any nondestructive testing 2. Large focal spot creates a need for tight
technique, the user must consider the advantages collimation, which in turn results in a higher
and disadvantages of in motion radiography. percentage loss of X-ray energy.

Advantages Electron Radiography

1. Radiographic setup time is reduced. This technique uses high energy secondary
2. There are fewer ind ividual films to interpret. photoelectrons instead of X-rays for recording a
3. Distortion of specimen image is reduced. specimen image on film . There exist two distinct
4. Area of interest on thicker sections will types of electron radiography, transmission and
appear sharper than with a conventional emission.
stationary radiograph . Electroll trallsmission radiography has been
used to evaluate paper thin, low atomic number
Disadvantages specimens when X-ray photons of about 250 kV
1. Because of the motion between the source produce secondary photoelectrons. Thesc
and the recording medium, this method is electrons are normally from lead foil and are used
limited to thin specimens. to register a latent image on a film.

Figure 10.9: Rotary in motion radiography.

SlOE VI EWS

Ron film

Cylinder
Cylinder

RQjllilm

(
Rotation
Lead plug
(
Rotation
)OO..l\~r--- X'IIIY source

\ \ CoIimaIOd X-ray beam

Replirlled from Nondestrucfive n,sting Handbook. second edrtion. Volume 3. Radiography and Radiation Testing.

Figure 10.10: Linear in motion radiography_

TOP VIEW

1-----
-L.
Scan 2

- - ' - - - ~'
T -,
-
Roillilm (scan 1)
-.; ..
~

T CoIimated X-ray beam (scan 1)

Reprinted lrom Nondestrvctive Testing Handboolo:, second edition. Volume 3. Radiography and Radiation Testing.

78
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

Figure 10.11: Electron radiography: (a) transmission technique, (b) emission technique.

X-ray tube (-250 kV) X·ray lUbe (-250 kV)

Zc=

~A§'~~~.~~~::::=='F;'~~~;:'=~~====4"~~~~:""
I

Roptin\ed ',om Noodesrnx:tive r.st/ng Handbook, second edjllOll. Volume 3, Radiography and Radiarion Tes'lIIQ.

EleelrOIl emission radiography (specimen

elc-ctron emission) uses X-ray photons to produce Figure 10.12: Weld radiography of larger
5('condnry photoelectrons at the surface of a diameter pipes and pressure vessels.
sui t<lble specimen, enabling a material related
surface image to be formed on the film.
The radiographic setup for both of the
elect ron radiographic techniques is shown in
Figure 10.11. Note that in the transmission
technique, the photoelectrons arc produced from
the lead foil above and adjacent to the specimen.
However, in the em ission technique, the
specimen itself is the source o( the
phutoelectrons.

Panoramic Exposures
[n those instances where both the inside and
outside surfaces of a pipe o r cylindrical vessel,
hemispherical head, or small parts w ith the same
geometriC'S arc accessible, the panoramic
technique can be used. Figures 10.12,10.13 and
10.14 show the general arrangement of the source
of radiation and the film. The basic radiographic
exposure princip les are the same for panoramic
exposures as for the more conventional
arrangements. Depending on the diameter of the This technique is by far the fastest and most
exposure, source size should be considered to economical method of performi ng radiographic
control geometric uns harpness Us' and when examination of these types of configurations and
examining numerous specimens, care should be is acceptable to most codes, s tandards and
taken to maintain identification of all parts. specifications, but requirements that must be
controlled vary.

79
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

where:
Radiation Attenuation Gaging
Techniques II = mass attenuation coefficient of the sample
Radiation attenuation gaging is used when material for the energy used, and
information on changes in specific parameters p = density of the sam ple.
such as thickness, density or composition is
desired. A nonimaging radiation d etector is used Measurement of radiation intensity [ can be
to measure transmitted radiation intensity, which used to d etennine cha racteristics of the sa mple
is related to the attenuation caused by the which depend on the product JipT. The results
specimen, which in turn is related to some are either numerical values or strip chart
specific material parameter of interest. The basic recordings that represent the amount of radiation
attenuation gage, in its simplest form, consists of passing through, or sca ttering fro m, the area of
a source, source shielding and collimation, an air interest. These meas urements ca n usuall y be
gnp where samples can be introduced and a made very rapidly, even automatically. The
collimated detector as shown in Fi gure 10.15. information can be related to a property of the
If the intensity o f the radiation measured by
the detector with no sa mple in place is 10' then
when a sa mple of thickness T is introduced SO as Figure 10.14: Panoramic exposure arrangement .
to intercept the radiation beam, the intensity I
meas ured by the detector is given by:
I=I e - Jlpr
"
Equation 34

Figure 10.13: Hemispherical orange peel head

exposure arrangement.

/
I
/
I
I

Figure 10.15: Diagram of a simple transmission gage.

Specimen

Source Detector

Reprinted from Nondestructive resting Handbook. second edition. Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation T8$fing.

80
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

Figure 10.16: Diagram of a simple backscatter gage.

Specimen

Reprinted from NondcslrtlCflW ruling Handbool<. second edition, Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Telllflg.

s pecimen th at changes with location along the

s pecimen or that changes with time at a specific Figure 10.17: Diagram of an X-ray fluorescence
locat-ion on the s pecimen. gage.
Thickness gages may use a beam of radiation
passing through the specimen, as do the level
gages, or they may usc radia tion scattered back
(rom the specimen to measure its thickness.
Figures 10. 15 and 10.16 are diagrams of
transmission and backscatter gages. respectively.
The ba ckscatter gages become useful when only
one side of the specimen is aV<li labJe, when
plating thickt1eSses arc to be meaSlHcd, or when
the rad iation interaction depends on a scattering
in lhe specimen. Thickness gag<."S have been
applied to ma terial s as thin as gold plating on Detector
electronic circu it board s (less than I x 1()-4 in., or
2.5 11m) or as thick as armor plate or shield ing at
a power plant. Testi ng rates can be as high as
.several hundred feet per minute for materials
such as paper or plastic, with accuracies as good
as 1% of the target thickness.
Density gages normally use a beam of Ann ular
Source
radiation passi.ng through a fixed or known
thickness of the specimen, most o ften confined in
a pipe or on a conveyor belt. La rger sources and Specimen
longer measurement times may be involved for
density measurements. Sensitivity and accuracy
are often related to the radiation path length in
the s pecimen. Careful consideration of counting Reprinted 'rom NondesIn.x:fTt'e T6SDng Hatd:Iook, $8COOd edition,
statis tics is necessary in gage d esign and Volume 3, RadKJgraphy and Radiation TftSIing.
operation.

81
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Composition gages use either neutrons, X-rays also may interact more w ith one
which interact with hydrogen or some other element than others in a specimen. The
component in the specimen, or use photons interaction may be either absorption or
(X-rays or gamma rays), which interact with one fluorescence . The fluorescence interaction gives
element in the specimen more than the rest. An rise to a new X-ray, which has an energy
example is a moisture gage that determines the characteristic of the element involved. X-ray
moisture content (or other hydrogenous fluorescence gages (Figure 10.17) may provide
materials) of soil, concrete or geological qualitative and quantitative information on
structures along an oil well wall by detecting several elements simul taneously. Such gages
thermal (0.01 to 0.05 eV) neutrons scattered by permit identification of alloys or the
the specimen when it is bombarded by fast measurement of the thickness of one metal on
neutrons. Hydrogen is a more effective moderator another.
of fast neutrons than any other element.

82
 Chapter 10: Radiographic Techniques

Chapter 10 Review Questions

10.1 Various radiographic techniques will 10.6 The triangulation method to determine the
require special consideration to reduce depth of a discontinuity is based on the
scatter radiation reaching the film. Which relationship:
of the following does not constitute a good
mas king material? a. source-to-film dis ta nce.
b. similar triangle.
a. lead acetate/ lead nitrate in water c. markers-la-film.
b. steel shot d. shift-to-time.
c. aluminum
d. barium clay 10. 7 When using the rigid formula for
triangulation, it is important to reme mber
10.2 When radiographing a steel specimen that the discontinuity height and image
1.9 em (0.75 in.) thick w ith 275 kV peak shift are:
X-ray, the use of a copper filte r that is __
of the specimen thickness is recommended a. linear.
(if more latitude is necessary). b. proportional.
c. nonlinear.
a. 20% d. criticaL
b. 10%
c. 4% 10.8 The relative position of a discontinuity
d. 15% between the outside and inside surfaces ca n
be obtained by linear interpolation when
10.3 A multifilm technique may be necessary using the:
when radiogmphic inspection is to be
perfonned on a: a. double marker formula.
b. step dow n techn ique.
a. butt weld between 5 em (2 in .) thick c. single marker fo rmula.
plates. d. rigid formula.
b. consumable insert weld on small
diameter p ipe. 10.9 In flash radiography various sources of
c. long se<lm weld on a storage tank. high energy electrons are ava ilable. Which
d . large vessel nozzle weld . of the foll owing is not it source of these
electrons?
10.4 One of the major benefits of the use of a
radiographic enlargeme nt technique is that a. gas discharge tubes
it: b. vacuum discharge
a. increases the focal spot s ize. c. field emissions
b . reduces sca tte r rad ia tion. d. gamma ray sou rces
c. decreases geometric unsharpness.
d. decreases exposure time. 10.1 0 The technique for in motion radiography is
essentially the same as conventional
10.5 In stereoradiography, the shift of the X-ray techniques except the exposure time is
tube for the required second exposure is based on:
based on the:
a. source-to-film distance.
a. thickness of the pa rt. b. OIT ratio.
b. type of indication being evaluated. e. s peed of travel.
c. type of prisms used in the stereoscope. d. geometric unsharpness considerations.
d. normal interpupillary distance.

83
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

10.11 There are currently three in motion 10.14 X-ray diffraction and the resultant patterns
radiographic techniques used in industry. recorded on the inspection med ium are of
Which of the following listed techniques is primary concern when radiographing:
not an in motion radiographic technique?
a. thick sections of stee l specimens.
a. linear motion b. aluminum specimens.
b. rotary motion c. bimetallic weld samples.
c. stereographic motion d. grainy metallic specimens.
d. synchronous radiograph
10.15 If the panoramic technique of radiography
10.12 A higher percentage loss of usable radiation is selected, o ne of the most important
is expected during in motion radiographic factors to be considered is the:
techniques as the result of:
a. material composition.
a. collimation. b. thickness uniformity.
b. filtration . c. film type.
c. speed of travel. d. penetrameter requirements.
d. absorption.
10.16 In high energy radiographic applications,
10.13 The electron radiographic techn ique screens vary depending onlhc energy
utilizes in lieu of X-rays used. When using an 8 MeV linear
when u sing either the electron transmission accelerator, which of the following
or electron emission procedure. thicknesses would be the most appropriate
front screen thickness?
a. photoeledrons
b. photomicrons a. 0.76 mm (0.030 in.) Pb
c. scattered secondary radiation b. 3.18 mm (0. 125 in.) Pb
d. secondary photoelectrons c. 0.25 mm (0.010 in.) Pb
d. 6.4 mm (0.250 in.) Al

84
 Chapter 11
Computed Tomography

elements of computed tomography. The first step

Basic Principles is to recognize the features of interest. The second
Computed tomography differs from step is to correlate the test specimen, the sou rce
conventional radiographic imaging in that it uses position and the rad iographic image together for
X-ray transm ission information from numerous both exposures. The final and third step is to note
angles about an object to digitally reconstruct the position of the attenuation corresponding to
cross sectional images of the interior structure. To the feature and to project it back to the source
generate a computed tomography image, X-ray along the original attenuation line. This
transmission is measured by an array of back projection is performed for each exposu re
detectors, see Figure 11.1. Data are obtained by and the combined effects of these two
translating and lor rotating the object so that backprojections is the constructive interference of
many viewing angles around the object are used. the two attenuation patterns.
A computer mathematically reconstructs the cross In computed tomography the basic
sectional image from the multiple view data methodology can be considered in a similar
collected. Th is reconstructed image is a tvvo manne r. The X-ray beam is collimated to a
d imensional presentation of a two dimensional narrow slit and aligned with a solidstate X-ray
cross sectional cut through the object. A primary
benefit of computed tomography is that features
are not s uperimposed in the image, thus makir'g Figure 11 .1: Computed tomography using a collimated
it easier to interpret than radiographic projection fan beam and linear detector array data acquisition to
images. The image data points are small reconstruct cross section of object.
volumetric measurements directly related to the
X-ray attenuation coefficient of the material DeleclOf
array
p resent in the volu me elements defined by the
slice thickness and the image plane resolution o f
the computed tomography system. The computed
tomography image val ues and locations provide
quantitative data for dimensional and material
Objec1s 0!1
density {constituent measurements. turntable
To determine the depth location of a feature
found on a radiograph, a triangulation technique
Oata transfer
is used . This (as shown in Figure 11.2) consists of
Coll imator
obtaining a second film of the area in question,
but with the source in a different angular position
relative to the test specimen than was obtained
on the first exposure. The geometry is carefully o Computer reconstructed
laid out on paper; measured positions of source,
test specimen and discontinuities on the films are
noted; and the position of the d iscontinuities
y
t o map of slice through the
objec1 from mu~ipl e
X'ray projections

along the intersecting lines-of-sight is

determined.
Triangu lation is a rudimentary tomographic Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third
reconstruction that contains the essential edition: Volume 4. Radiographic Testing.

85
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

detector array to define a compu ted tomography computed tomography system is determined by
slice p lane in the object. The slit collimation the effective beam width of the X-ray beam in the
reduces scatter, improving the signal-ta-noise object. The effective bealll is a function of the
ratio in the image. Data are obtained by source and detector dimensions and the position
translating and rotating the object so that many of the object with respect to them. The vertical
viewing angles around the object aTe acquired. resolution of the slice volume will be determined
When a series of projections is taken from many by the effective slice thickness of the collimation
angles, the projection data can be back projected aperhtres.
to create an image. As the number of projections Figure 11.3 shows the configuration of a
increases, the ability to more exactly reconstruct source and detector for the horizontal resolution
the object increases. In a computed tomography of a computed tomography slice through an
system, the projections are actually subjected to object. In Figure l1.3a, a source and detector of
an incredible amount of mathematical massaging, eq uivalent aperture size have an object
but the steps are effectively the same as those in positioned midway between them. With this
the manual triangula tion. configuration the effecti ve beam width is
minimized at the center. At the edges of the object
the effective beam width will be slightly larger
Resolution a nd the resolution is decreased. When the source
Both horizontal and vertical resolution must
and detector apertures differ in size, as sho wn in
be considered in the case of a computed
Figure 11.3b, then the best resolution will be off
tomography system. The IlOriZOlltn/ resolution of a
center. In this case the rotation of the computed
II tomography system, whether 180 degrees or
Figure 11.2: Example of triangulation as basis for 360 degrees, could make a difference on the
computed tomography: (a) first image , with line of resolution of details in either side of the object.
interrogation normal to sensor plane; (b) second Figure 11.3c shows the case of a very small source
image, with line of interrogation oblique to sensor (microfocus) and larger detector. By using
plane.
(a) (b)
Source Figure 11.3: Examples of source-abject-detector
:_5 - "lr___ configu rations and effective beam widths:
(a) source and detector of equivalent aperture
size; (b) source larger than detector; (c) source
smaller than detector.
(a) Object

Source Collimated

CD
Object detector
d

l
1 I
Image
plane 1f ----lot::
(b) Object
----lo, Collimated

()
Source detector

Ii
Image 1
I I I
Image 2

Legend (e) Object

o
d = distance from source to image plane Detector
III = distance from round discontinurty to image plane
f? = distance from square discont inuity to image plane
5 = source travel distance Microfocus
iiI = appare nt travel distance of round discontinu ity in image plane w,~
Ii:! = apparent travel distance of square discontinu ity in image plane

Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third Rep rinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, th ird
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. edition: Volume 4 , Radiographic Testing.

86
 Chapter 11 : Computed Tomography

projection magnification, very fine resolution The number of views II can be estimated by
may be possible in the object. The resolution can allowing a ray through each beam width on the
be estimated by taking an average of the effective outer radius of the field of view:
beam size in micrometers, multiplying by 2 and
inverting to obtain line pair per micrometer V=J[D lw
resolution values. Equation 37
The number of data points, number of
projection views and slice thickness define the Computed tomographic systems often
testing volume. The operator will normally select provide contrast sensitivity measurements in the
the slice thickness. Increasing the slice thickness range of 0.1% to 1.0%. What the equations show
will allow more photons for bet.ter imaging is that the signal-to-noise ratio improves with
statistics or greater scanning speed. However, it increases in computed tomography system
will increase the smearing of sloping edges on characteristics of X-ray beam w idth, number of
objects or features and decrease sensitivity to views, X-ray beam intenSity and integration time.
details that may be thinner than the sl ice The signal-to-noise ratio will also be improved by
thickness. Narrowing the sl ice provides finer decreasing the ray spacing and object diameter.
detail sensitivity to ax ial variations in the object These characteristics reflect the tradeoffs in
but at the cost of scan time and increased optimizing a computed tomography system. Fast
statistical noise. scan times, fine resolution, high contrast
sensitivity and large object size are mutually
Contrast exclusive, requiring compromise in system
The contrast sensitivity in computed design.
tomography images is inherently high because
each reconstructed volume element is composed System Configurations
of backprojected rays from many orientations Computed tomography requires more
about the object. The contrast ratio is given by: soph isticated equipment for data acquisition and
reconstruction than conventional radiography.
Contrast ratio = 61 (RSN x Zt 2 The total time requi red to test an object
volumetrically can also be relatively long, making
Equation 35 computed tomography a Sign ificantly more
where: expensive test. However, for many structures
computed tomography provides unique
Z = number of pixels over which the information. Computed tomography has several
contrast is observed, and variat ions. The most useful forms for indu strial
RSN =signal-to-noi se ratio. computed tomography are the rotate alld trallslnte
scheme (second generation) and the rotnte ollly
The equation below gives an estimate of the scheme (third generation) as shown in
signa l-to-no ise ratio in a voxel element as a Figure 11 .4.
function of various computed tomography
system characteristics for a reconstruction of a Rotate and Translate Tomography
cyli ndrical object: The rotate and transla te scheme utilizes a
single source and a bank of detectors arranged to
RSN = O.655.uwU [(VIlII D.p)e- 2 i!r]"2 subtend a fan beam of the source. (The fan beam
is collimated so that the fan lies in the plane of
Equation 36 interest.) This allows all views that are with in the
where: fan angle of the source to be obtained on the
same traverse. After traversing the fan, the object
~ = linear attenuation coefficient, rotates the number of degrees of the fan and
w = X-ray beam width, traverses back cross the fan beam. Rotations
V = number of views, continu e until 100 degrees or 360 degrees have
/! = photon intenSity rate at the detector, been covered.
t = integration time of the detectors,
l1p = ray spacing, and
r = radius of the object. Rotate Only Tomography
Rotate only tomography also utilizes a single
source and a bank of detectors that spans the test

87
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

specimen as seen from the source. The detectors

Figure 11 .4: Computed tomographic system provide a single view sim ultaneously, and the
generations: (a) first generation ; (b) second view consis ts of a series of fan shaped
generation (rolate and translate); (c) third
generation (rotate only); (d) fourth generation. measurements, ra ther than parallel ray
measuremen ts. By continuously turning the test
(0) """" specimen and taking data, many fan views are
acquired for reconstruction. In rotate only
scanning. no detector will see the entire object as
Detector
in rotate-aod-translate. Thus detector imba lance
, , causes ring artifacts in the image.
f \ Both methods use a collimated fan beam of

"~
I
', - ,'
I
X-rays and one-dimensional array of detectors.
The rotate and translate scheme is commonly
used for industrial objects because objects larger
(b) Detector
than the X-ray bea m (an angle can be
Object
accommodated. The rot.:lte only scanning
approach is used on small industrial objects
because it is faster than rotate and translate. Both
method s image only one slice th rough the part in
a single scan. That slice inspection volume is the
size of the fan beam height collimation.

Volume Computed Tomography

I Volume computed tomography or cone beam
I
computed tomogrclphy uses a two-dimensional
~ area detector and an uncolli mated cone of
radia tion such that the entire object may be tested
(c) in one scan. This techniq ue scKcifices some detail
0.""" in the image quality fo r a higher through put
when the entire object must be tested and has
$00;",
limitations on the applicable pari size. It
generally works well only for relc1tively slllall
objects.

Limited Angle Tomography

Limited angle, tangential and annular
reconstruction computed tomography are
methods that can be beneficial to large composite
(d) structu res. Limited angle compu ted tomography
does not require that the computed tomography
data be taken from all angles completely around
the part. This can be particularly advantageous
for large planar composite structures. Tangential
and annula r reconstruction offer advantages for
large cylindrical structures where information is
needed only along annular rings, particularly
near the outside of the structure.

Mechanical Handling
Mechanica l handling system tolerance
budgets are almost always expressed in terms of
the spatial resolution. For rotate-and-translate
tomography, the total tolerance stack up is given
Reprinted Irom Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. as 0.25 to 0.33 times the spatial resolution. Thus,
for a resolution corresponding to good spatial

88
 Chapter 11 : Computed Tomography

discrimination of adjacent pixels of size 1.0 mm weight), testing parameters (spatial resolution,
(0.04 in.) the nominal tolerance stack up would be contrast sensitivity, slice thickness, time for
0.33 mm (0.013 in.). This means that all the testing) and the operator interface (system control
imprecisions in the individual mechanical pane\, image display, processing functions and
components must, when added together, be less data archiving).
than this absolute tolerance. The sensitivity to fine detail of computed
tomography systems is a function of resolution
System Design and contrast sensitivity. Com puted tomography
Table 11.1 lists key attributes of a computed resolution is fundamentally determined by the
tomography system and the ramifications of beam width of the X-ray optics design and is
choices of the attributes on system component driven by the selection of source and detector
selection. In the selection of a computed aperture sizes and the source, object and detector
tomography system to perform nondestructive distances. The beam width, size of the object and
tests it is important to define the desired testing ima ge reconstruction matrix must all be
characteristics, particularly object (size, type, considered in a system design.

Table 11 .1: Computed tomography system attributes and their major ramifications.

Attribute Ramif icat ions

Test speCimen size, weight and shape mechanical handling equipment, loading and unloading
Test specimen X-ray penetrability X-ray source
X-ray detector type
dynamic range of detector and front end electronics
Spatial resolution accuracy of mechanical handling equipment
configuration of source, object and detector
source and detector aperture size
Contrast sensitivity strength of X-ray source
integration time
Artifact level reconstruction algorithm software
accuracy of mechanical handling equipment
Speed of computed tomographic process size of object
X-ray source strength
number and configuration of detectors
bus structure
speed and architecture of processors
mechanical hardware - motors, brakes and others
Number of pixels in image number and configuration of detectors
amount of data acquired
choice of computer and hardware
Slice thickness range detector configuration
system dynamic range
Operator interface instrument control panel
image processing system
control software
interface to remote workstation
Archival requirements choice of computer and hardware
Reprinled from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.

89
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Method

A typical reconstruction matrix size for component so that a higher resolution beam
computed tomography is 1024 x 1024. To a first w idth finer than 1 part in 1000 of the object can
approximation, this would make the resolution be used effectively. However, the scan must still
limit roughly 1 part in 1000 and the system cover the full size of the part As the part size is
would be designed to match the X-ray optics to increased, the source to detector distance
0.001 times the s ize of the part. For example, a increases, and X-ray intensity at the detector fall s
system designed to handle a 0.5 m (20 in.) size off quadratically. Thus, it is impractical to use a
part might allow for 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) size beam very small beam width on large parts because of
width, and a system designed for a 10 mm the very long scan time that wi ll result. As shown
(0.4 in.) size part might have a 0.010 mm in Table 11.2, practical resolutions for computed
(0.0004 in.) beam width. tomography systems that hand le large
It is possible to reconstruct the components greater than 300 mm (12 in.) in
1024 x 1024 matrix over subregions of a diameter are in the range of 1 to 2 line pair per
1 mm (25 to 50 line pairs per 1 inch). For
components less than 300 mm (12 in.) in diameter
Table 11 .2: Part size versus resolution. 2 to 4 li ne pairs per 1 mm (50 to 100 line pairs per
Part size Resolution 1 inch) ca n be obtained. For higher resolution,
mm (in.) Ip/mm (Iplin.) g rea ter than 4 line pairs per I mm (100 line pairs
per 1 inch) and feature sensitivity on the order of
> 300 (12) 1 to 2 (25 to SO) 0.1275 mm (0.005 in.), the computed tomography
< 300 (12) 2 to 4 (50 to 100) systems are designed to only handle objects of 25
30 to 40 (1 to 2) 0.125 (0.005) o r 50 mm (about 1 or 2 in.) in size.

Table 11.3: Parameters of interest for computed tomography standards.

Parameter Notes
Alignment image artifacts caused by mechanical alignment
dimensional accuracy

Slice thickness/geometry vertical coverage

alignment and uniformity of compuled tomography plane in
object

Spatial uniformity variation of computed tomography measurement across scan

plane

Noise random variation in attenuation measurements

(measured by statistical variation or noise power spectrum)

Low contrast sensitivity ability to detect small contrast changes

(this is mainly limited by noise)

Spatial resolution ability to distinguish two objects as separate

(measurement should be under noise free conditions)

Modulation transfer function quantitative measurement of high contrast spatial resolution

Effective energy and linearity of monochromatic photon energy that would give the equivalent
computed tomography numbers result as the polychromatic spectrum used

Accuracy and precision reliability and stability of the computed tomography

measurements
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook. third edition: Volume 4. Radiographic Testing.

90
 Chapter 11: Computed Tomography

The important conclusion to draw from this

discussion is that no one computed tomographic Ta ble 11.4: Reference standard categories and
system can provide both large object testing and measurement technique.
very fine resol ution .
Type Examp le construction!
te chnique
Reference Standards
Table 11.3 lists parameters that may be Resolution holes
measured from data taken by a reference squares
standard that contains features that represent the line pairs
parameter. A single reference standard unit may pinslwires
modulation transfer function
contain a variety of subsections that will measure calculalion
va rious parameters. The parameters themsel ves
are not independent, but often are different Contrast signal-Io-noise in a uniform
malerial sample
m.:lnifcst.:ltions of the fundamental performance small density variation
ch.:lT.:lctcristics of the system.
T.:lblc 11.4 lists some key categories for a Material/density various solids
liquids of different mixture
reference st.:lndard ,md potential methods of percentages
obtaining the measurements. porous material compaction
Dimensional
Resolution accuracy/distortion pin sets
In this context resolutioll refers to the ability to hole sets
sense that two fea tu res are distinct. Slice thickness pyramids
Me"surements of resol ution by a reference cones
standard can be performed in a wide variety of slanted edges
ways. Holes in a uniform material of either fixed spiral slit
diameter and changing separation o r decreasing
diameter with separations that also decrease Reprinted from NondestructIVe TestIng Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, RadiographIC Tes/mg.
accordingly, are very common. The resolutio n is
defin ed as the minimum separation detectable.
Plutcs of uiternating high and low density detect over la rger areas than in small areas where
material can be used to make line pair gages. The they may be eaSily masked by noise.
resolution limit is determined by the ability to see The inverse of this contrast sensitivity value
the tint! pairs. Bl!cause of thl! definition of the is commonly referred to as a signal-ta-noise
moduliltion transfe r function, it can be measured measurement of the system. The signal-ta-noise
by mathematical calculation of the four ier ratio is an important measure of system
transform of the onc-dimensionalline spread performance. The va lues improve with higher
fun ction or the two-dimen sional point spread signal strengths. Large sl ice thickness and longer
function. The line spread function and/or point sca n times will also improve signal-to-noise.
spread fun ction is obtained by measu ring the Signal-to-noise will also improve with smoothing
sprending of the image from a pin or wire. algorithms in the reconstruction; however, this
Because of the difficulty finding an adequate line will decrease the resolution. Thus, the
or point source reference standard, the line signal-to-noise ratio and resolution must be
spread function is very oft en measured by considered together in assessing level of
differentiation of the edge spread function. The perfo rmance qua lity.
edge spread fun ction is readily obtained from a
data trace across a sharp edge in the image. Material Density
An important reference standard function is
Contrast Sensitivity to establish the correla tion between computed
In thiS context con trast 5ellsitiuity refers to the tomography value and material denSity. Such a
gra ininess in an image. The best way to measure reference standard can be quite difficult to
contrast sensitivity is to obtain a histogram of manufacture because it is difficult to change
pixel va lues in a region of uniform density. In density sign ificantly without changing atomjc
practice it is of interest to measure the contrast number. The X- ray attenuation coefficient is
sensitivity as a fun ction of the fea ture size dependent on both density and atomic number.
because small contrast changes are easier to

91
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

A reference standa rd that consists of di ffering configuration, such as ci rcular rings in rotate only
materials of significant density variation for a computed tomography systems. to those that are
wide range of industrial material applications process dependent, such as partial volume
may be fabricated. However, the evaluation of the streaks. Beam hardening is a primary sou rce of
results from such a reference standard must artifacts from polychromatic sources. Mechanical
consider the X- ray energy and the atomic inaccuracies, material densities and partial
elements irwolved when extrapolating to other voluming effects can also produce artifacts. It is
materials not includ ed in the reference standard . important to recognize an artifact as such and to
An example migh t consist of an acry lic disk 'with understand the limitation the artifact pltlces on
inserts of ten various materials. the recognition of discontinuities or measurement
of some critical characteristic. For unambiguous
Other Functions of Reference interpretation. artifacts must not mask the
Standards presence of discontinuities. This is accomplished
if the artifact noise level can be kept below the
N umerous reference standard s of all sizes
and shapes have been made to evaluate various required signal level for discontinuity detectioll.
Extraction of positional and dim ensional
characteristics of a system. Most common ly.
information from complex assemblies is an
pyramids or slnnting edges of some type or other
have been used to assess the slice plane thickness
important application of computed tomography.
and field uniformity of computed tomographic An important assumption in the ext r.'1 ction of this
systems. Reference standards that represent information is the absolute equivalence of the
actual parts thai have d isconti nuities of known computed tomography image frame of refe rellce
and the scanned object frame of reference. This
dimensions are excellent for monitoring testing
equivalence depends on a variety of factors
sensitivity day-to-day and should be
implemented if possible. includ ing mechanical, motion,. physical elem"'nt,
analysis methods, software implementation and
Artifacts are features prescnt in the image that
ca libration methods. Therefore, a dimensional
are not present in the object. All imaging systems,
even the human eye, will have artifacts at some measurement reference standard is needed to
level. Art ifacts in computed tomographic systems establish the precision of this equivalence.
range from those associa ted with the particular

92
 Chapter 11 : Computed Tomography

Chapter 11 Review Questions

11.1 A commonly used technique in 11.6 The follow ing equation shows an estimate
conventional radiography that is used to of the signal~to-noise ratio (RSN ) in a voxel
determine the depth of a discontinuity, and element as a fu nction o f various
contains all the essential elements of tomographic system characteris tics for
computed tomography is; reconstruction of a cylindrical object.

a. the panoramic exposure.

b. ste reorad iography.
c. fluoroscopy.
d. triangulation.
where:
]1.2 Signal-ta-noise ratio will improve with: 11 = linear attenuation coefficient
w = X-ray bea m width
a. increased noise. v = number of views
b. decreased noise. II photon intensity ra te at the
c. smaller voxels. detector
d. a and c. f = integration time
ilp= ray s pacing
11.3 A primary benefit of tomography is that: r = rad ius of the object
a. features are not superimposed in the
image. Based on this equation, what can be said
b. it generally uses lower energies than about signal-to-noise ratio?
shadow radiography.
c. since it bu ilds on medical technology, it a. It will be improved by increasi ng the
is less expensive than conventional object d iameter.
imaging. b. Signal-la-noise ratio w ill be increased
d. since it is a selfcontained system, safety by increasing the ray s pacing.
is not an issue. c. It will be improved by increasing the
beam width .
11.4 Tomographic image data points are small d . It will get worse with longer integration
volume elements defined by: ti me.

a. the size of the object being examined . 11.7 Signal-to-noise ratio will improve when:
b. resolution of the computer screen.
c. the slice thickness and the image plane a. ray spacing and object diameter
resolution of the system. increase.
d. the relative sizes of the source and b. beam width and in tegration time
detector. increase and ray spacing decreases.
c. beam width, ray spacing and
11.5 The slice th ickness is a very important integration time increase.
operator defined parameter. Oecreasing the d. linear attenuation coefficient and
slice thickness will: photon intensity rate at the detector
decrease.
a. provide better imaging sta tistics.
b. p rovide better detail sensitivity, but
slower scan time.
c. decrease statistical noise.
d. increase the smearing of slopi ng edges
on objects.

93
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

11.8 Increasing the slice thickness will: 11.11 The inverse of the contrast sensiti vity value
is commonly referred to as:
a. provide fewer photons per u nit area for
greater scan speed and imaging a. contrast resolution of the system.
statistics. b. spatial resolution of the system.
b. provide finer sensitivity to axial c. the signal-to-noise measurement of the
variations. system.
c. decrease scan time. d. None of the above.
d. decrease sensitivity to details that are
thinner than the slice thickness. 11.12 Obtaining a histogram of pixels across a
region of uniform density p rovides u
11.9 Signal-ta-noise ratio will be worse when: measure of:

a. beam width and the number of views a. contrast sensitivity.

arc increased. b. material density.
b. beam width is decreased and object c. modulation transfer function.
diameter is increased. d. None of the above.
c. integration time is reduced and photon
intensity is increased. 11.13 Although the modulation transfer functiol'
d. r"y spacing and the number of views provides a quantitati ve mC<lsurement of
are increased. spati<ll resolution, it is difficu lt to calculate
and is often not practical. Another
11.lOThe contrast ratio w ill increasc with: measurement that is more practical, <tnd
from wh ich the modulation transfer
a. a decrease in signal-to-no ise ratio and function can be calculated , is:
the number of pixels over which the
contrast is observed. a. edge spread function obtained frorn a
b. an increase in the signal-ta-noise ratio data trace across a sharp edge in an
and the number of pixels over which image.
the con trast is observed. b. line spread function obtained from a
c. an increase in the signa l-to-noise ratio data trace across the image o f two holes.
and a decrease in the number of pixels c. noise measurement taken across a
over which the contrast is observed. uniform density.
d. a decrease in the signal-to-noise ra tio d. measurement of the noise power
and an increase in the number of pixels spectrum taken from a data trace across
over which the contrast is observed. a uniform density.

94
 Chapter 12
Neutron Radiography

Basic Principles Disadvantages

Neutron radiography is a nondestructive Disadvantages of neutron rad iography
testing technique similar but complementary to include the high cost and relatively large size of
conventional radiography. Like other forms of the source assemblies, which combined become a
energy, the penetrating radiation can be studied major limitation - no really portable or
to reveal clues about the internal structure of the inexpensive system is available. In addition,
object. Whereas the attenuation of X-rays in certain materials become radioactive when
materials increases with increasing atomic exposed to neutrons and there are personnel
number of the absorbing material, the mass protection concerns associated with neutrons.
attenuation coefficients of the elements for Nevertheless, equipment is available and in
therma l neutrons, if arra nged in order of certain circumstances, the unique in formation
increasing atomic number of the absorber, appear provided by neutron radiography outweighs the
almost completely random. disadvantages. Even though neutron radiography
This apparently random d istribution of service centers have been available for many
attenuation coefficients with atomic number years, there has been no inhouse neutron
occurs because neutron absorption does not radiography available at any general service,
dcpcnd on the electron structu re of the atom as commercial nondestructive testing center. The
docs the absorption of X-rays, but on interaction interested user is therefore advised to seek a
with the atomic nucleus. As a result, certa in light current supplier of neutron rad iography services.
elements such as hydrogen, lithium and boron,
and some rare earth elements such as
gadolin ium, dysprosium and indium have high
Neutron Energies and Sources
[t is usual to group neutrons into four
or very high thermal neutron absorption. L
categories:
The ability to image low atomic number
materials in the presence of a high
1. fast neutrons with energies exceeding
atomic number matrix can be o f considerable
0.1 MeV,
interest in a variety of industries. Rubber, plastic
2. epithermal neutrons with energies in the
or wood can be observed in specimens made of
range of 0.3 to 102 eV,
steel, aluminum or lead. The hydrogenous 3. thermal neutrons w ith energies in the range
explosive charge can be seen inside a brass shell of 0.01 to 0.3 eV,
casing. Fluid levels can be seen inside high 4. cold neutrons with energies in the range of
atomic number containers such as steel or lead.
0.0 to 0.01 eV.
Corrosion and water entrapment can easily be
seen inside metal structures such as honeycomb
Neutrons can be p roduced from various
aircraft assemblies.
sources, including reactors, accelerators and
Because neutron interactions in volve nuclei
radioacti ve isotopes. Most practical neutron
rather tha n the orbiting electrons, certain
radiography has been performed using a nuclear
elementa l compositions can be differentiated by
reactor. Reactors are prolific sources of neutrons
neutrons that would not be possible with photon
and the beams generated are rich in thermal
radiography. For example, U-235 can be imaged
neutrons. Accelerators generate neutrons by
in the presence of U-238.
positive ion bombardment of selected materials.
1 Industrial Radiology, Theory and Practice, Halmshaw, These produce a moderate intensity with medium
pg.284. resolution and have the advantage of on-off

95
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

operation. Isotopic sou rces have been used for present in the neutron beam during exposure and
many years for a variety of applications, involves converting the transmitted portion of the
however, the thermal neutron intensities that can neutron beam into a type of radiation that will
be achieved from stich sources tend to be low, expose a photographic emulsion. In the indirect,
especially when compared to that from a reactor. or tmllsjer method, the film exposu re is made by
On the basis of technical performance, autoradiography of a radioactive, image carrying
spontaneous fi ssion from 0-252 is the most metal screen. The two techniques are illustra ted
attractive isotopic source for ncutron in Figure 12.1.
radiography. Direct sensitivity of film to neutrons is
Because slower neutrons are usually desired relatively low. Therefore, conversion or
for radiography, this energy must be dissipated intensifying screens are used with both
through numerous collisions with nuclei in the techniques. For the direct exposure method these
host material. The transformation from fast screens increase the detector response by the
neutrons to slow neutrons is achieved by a emission of radiation that the adjacent film is
moderating material. Its presence produces a sensitive to. The most w idely used detection
slowing down of the fast neutrons by elastic method for industrial neutron radiography is the
scattering collisions (between the moderator direct exposure technique with a gadolinium
nuclei and the neutrons) until the average kinetic conversion screen.
energy of the neutrons is the same as that of the For the indirect method, the screens arc
moderator nuclei. TI/erma/llelltrons are so called chosen from materials that tend to become
because they are in thermal equilibrium with radioactive upon thermal neutron exposure.
their surroundings at, or near, room temperature. Indium or gadolinium scrl'CllS used for indirect
These thermal neu trons have a higher probability neu tron radiography give clearer neutron images
of interaction with the specimen's material than and are less susceptible to interferenCt.! by other
higher energy neu trons, and are therefore most radiation. However, the indirect tcchnique is
often used for radiography. much slower than the direct. A thin film or foil of
Because the source of neutrons is a dispersed an element with a high neutron absorption cross
vohlme, rather than a point source, it is necessary section is exposed to the trans mitted neutron
to use a collimator between the source and the beam. The foil is then removed from behind the
object. Many types of collimators have been specimen and placed on radiographic film in a
designed and used including point source, remote location. The film is exposed by decay of
parallel wall and divergent collimator schemes. the radioactive nuclei produced by neutron
The most frequently used design uses divergent capture. Elements such as indium, gadolinium,
beam geometry. silver, rhodium, gold and dysprosium are useful
Although divergent collimators are sim ilar to for the indirect technique. The indirect technique
point source geometry, they are generally used to docs provid e excellent discriminat ion against
extract a beam from a relatively large moderator gamma photons from neutron sou rces or from the
assembly. Therefore, walls are required to limit object.
the background radiation from reaching the A comparison of the two general classes of
image plane. Limiting the background radiation film detection methods shows that indirect
is generally as important as geometric collimation techniques yield high contrast images with no
for obtaining good quality radiographs. gamma interference. Direct exposure methods, on
Besides static radiography with thermal the other hand, provide much faster results and
neutrons, there are also specialized neutron have yielded much better spatial resolution.
radiography techniques for which different
energies may be selected. These include neutron
computed tomography, dynamic neutron
Dynamic Neutron Radiography
The development of dynamiC (real time)
imaging. h igh frame rate neutron imaging.
neutron radiography capitalized on the
neutron induced autoradiography and neutron
availability of very high intensity steady state
gaging.
neutron beams and very high frame rate video
cameras used with rapid response neutron
Neutron Imaging sensitive scintillator screens. Various services are
Images from neutron radiography are available that provide frame rates that range from
obtained in two principal ways: direct and 30 frames per second (real time motion display
indirect. In the direct met/lod, the film is actually similar to television) to 1000 or evcn
10000 frames per second.

96
 Chapter 12: Neutron Radiography

Subthermal Neutron Figure 12.1 : Direct and indirect methods of

Radiography neutron radiography: (a) direct and (b) indirect.
The neutron attenuation coefficient of a
material can change significantly as the neutron
energy is changed. The pattern of this variation (a)
also changes abru ptly from one element to
another. Therefore, selection of different energies
provides possibili ties for quite different neutron
r Fdm

radiography penetration and contrast. The effect

of using s ublhermal energy is typically to
increase the transparency of certain ma terials
while si multaneously increasing the detectability
of hydrogenous materials.
NetJtrons
---)
Epithermal and Fast Neutron
Radiography
A reactor beam, though consisting prima ri ly
of thermal ne utrons, will contain a portion of
f..:- Cassette
both subthermal and epithermal ne utrons. With a
filter s uch as cadmi um, the thermal and
subtherma] neutrons can be removed and only
the epithermal pa rt of the neutron energy
spectrum w ill be transm itted. The term fast t T Screens
IIClltrOIl radiography refers normally to those
neutron energies yielded by an unmoderated
accelerator source or a radioactive source. Fas t
neutron radiography provides high penetration (b)
but little contrast between elements.
Converter
Sa~"
Neutron Computed Tomography
Computed axial tomography has been Neutrons ----~»
developed for neutron radiography and can
provide deta iled cross sectional slices of the
object to be ana lyzed. While the information
prov ided is unique to the neutron interaction
,
with the s pecimen's material, the principles are
similar to those of X- ray computed tomography.

Neutron Gaging ",- -- -- -- _ _ _ _ t--'"

~
Casselle

Nell/roll gaging is the measurement of

attenuation of a collimated, small diameter beam C~ ------1:=
.-----~
Film
Screen
of radiation as it is transmitted through a
specimen. It has been used for s tatic gaging of
discrete assemblies and for continuous scanning
o f long objects fo r acceptable uniformi ty. The
gaging technique can test items of greater
thickness than can be tested with X-ray gaging.

97
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Method

Chapter 12 Review Questions

12.1 Ionization is not a major absorption 12.6 The selection of different neutron energies
processes for neutrons because: provides possibilities for quite different
penetration and contrast because:
a. neutrons are very large.
b. neutrons have no charge. a. the conversion screens react differently
e. neutrons are relatively low energy. to different energies.
d. None of the above. b. the attenuation coefficien ts of light
elements and metals reverse with high
12.2 The neutron is one of the primary particles energies.
that make up the atomic nucleus. Its mass c. the pattern of neutron Mtenuation
is: coefficients of the e lements changes
dramatically with energy.
a. less than that of the proton. d. None of the above.
b. essentially the same as the proton.
c. more than the proton. 12.7 The neutron energy most conunonly US(.'(i in
d. the same as the atomic mass for an nondestructive testing is:
atom.
a. cold.
12.3 What makes neutron radiography uniquely b. thermal.
useful? c. fast.
d. slow.
a. The interaction of neutrons and X-rays
with matter is fundamentally different. 12.8 All of the following are neutron imaging
b. Neutrons are easily shielded. processes except:
c. Personnel safety is easier than with
X-rays. a. conventional X-ray film.
d. Imaging neutrons requires less b. gadolinium converter with X-ray film.
sophisticated equipment. c. neutron sensitive storage phosphor.
d. dysprosium or indium foils activation
12.4 Neutron imaging is uniquely suited to transfer to film.
detection of corrosion in aircraft because:
12.9 The radioisotope most commonly used as a
a. neutronS are easier to image with light source of neutrons for nondestructive
elements and metals. testing imaging is:
b. neutrons are strongly attenuated by
aluminum. a. Ar-39.
c. neutrons are strongly attenuated by b. lr-191.
cadmium and gadoli nium. c. Co-59.
d. neutrons are strongly attenuated by d. Cf-252.
hydrogen and water.

12.5 Neutron sou rces include:

a. reactors.
b. accelerators.
c. radioisotopes.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.

98
 Chapter 13
Backscatter Imaging

Elastic scattering, also called rayleigh scattering

Physical Principles . or coherent scattering, involves no energy loss. In
Backscatter imaging involves the collection of elastic scattering the photons of the radiation are
scattered radiation, rather than the transmitted reflected, they bounce off the atoms and .
radiation, to form an image. Although a typical molecules without any change of energy. In thiS
X-ray test scatters as many photons as arc . type of scattering there is a ch.an g~ of phase, but
transmitted, imaging the scattered photons IS no frequency change. The en tire fIeld of X-ray
much more difficult. Consequently, bad,scatter diffraction is based on clastic scattering. Because
imaging is usually a d igital technique: . the energies involved are on the order of i.ust a
The unique nature of backscatter Imagmg has few kilovolts, penetration is limited . Elastic
made it particularly useful in several areas. The scattering is used primarily for one dimensional
backscatter technique images from one side, measurements at a point, such as the
making it useful in applications such as aircraft measurement of very thin coatings.
pressure bulkheads and othe ~ st~c.tures w~erc Compton scatterillg also involves the electrons
access to both sides of the object 15 Impractical or that su rround the nucleus o f an atom . In thi s case
not possible. Another propertY,of backscatt,cr there is energy loss from the incident photon to
imaging is its ability to be configured for direct the electron that recoils in a collision. There are
measurement of the electron density of the object defin ite relations between the amoun t o f energy
being measured. This property ca.n be exploited lost and the angle of scatter. Compton scattering
to detect the difference between filled and occu rs in the range of tens to hundred s of
unfilled voids within steel casings, such as the thousands of electron volts. It is the basis for most
explosive with in artillery shells. In fact, testing of of the attenuation of high energy photons and is
baggage for explosives or contraband has been a also the basis for most backscatter imaging
major driving force in the developme~t of. techniques.
backscatter radiography. Another motivatIOn for Fll/orescence occurs when K or L shell
using backscatter radiography is t~at it can . electrons are liberated in the photoelectric
perform a certain amount of c~em\Cal a~alysls on p rocess. These electrons may also interact with
the object being examined. This faculty IS most other atoms to eject further K or L shell electrons.
acute at very low (1 keV) and very high The cascade that results to refill the missing
(> 2 MeV) energies. At energies around 60 keV, a electrons results in the emission of photons in a
dual energy technique permits the estimation of process called fluorescence. As with elast~c .
the atomic number of the material being sca ttering, X-ray fluorescence has very hmlte.d
examined through comparison o f scattering and penetration and is the basis for several chem Ical
absorption coefficients. .. analysis tools. X-ray and gamma ray fluorescence
Scattering takes place through the mteractlon are used to sort alloys and to detect and measure
of an X-ray or gamma ray photon with either an the lead in paint coati ngs.
electron or the nucleus. For imaging pu rposes, Another type of fluorescence occurs at very
interactions with electrons is most important. In high energies and is called r~sOl~ance fluorescence.
most interactions, there is a transfer of energy At energies around 10 MeV, mCldent photons can
between the photon and the electron. There are cause changes in the energy of the nucleus of
four scattering processes used for backscatter atoms. After absorption of a photon the nucleus
imaging: elastic, comptoll, fluorescellce and relaxes, emitting other photons at lower e~ergies,
reSOllance fluorescence. but still in the megaelectronvolt range. ThiS

99
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

technique has advantages for the examination of 500 keY it is possible to generate residual
thick or dense structures and is also capable of radioactivity.
chemical analysis. The chief drawbacks to the
resonance fl u orescence technique are that bulky,
expensive particle accelerators are required to
Backscatter Imaging Techniques
generate the incident X-rays, and that above
Pinhole
One of the earliest examples of industrial
Figure 13.1: Multiaperture collimator. In one type scatter imaging w as performed using a pinhole
of multiaperture collimator, conical holes are camera. The pinhole camera technique gives a
drilled radially in shielding material such as lead.
Specimen is illuminated from side and only two-dimensional image. Its si mplicity is offset by
photons scattered at geometric center of the very small throughput obt,limlblc because of
collimator are detected. the small solid angle subtend(>d by the pinhole.
Closely related to the pinhole camera is th~
multiple aperture collimator. This is essentially <l
number of pinholes and masks designed to image
a selected volume clement repeatedly onto a
detector. Figu re 13.1 illu strates one form of
multiaperture detector. Conical holes are drilled
radially in a shielding material such as lea d. The
s pecimen is illuminated from the side and only
those photons scattered at the geometric center of
the coll imator are detected.

Moving Slits
By elongating a pinhole into a slit, its solid
angle may be Sign ificantly increased without
Detectors sacrificing resolution in one d irection . When
applied to compton sca ttering, slit imaging has
X-ray illumination
been used in several dep th profiling schemes. In
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, th ird these, the slits are configured to give high
edition: Vo lume 4, Radiographic Testing. resolution in the depth direction at the sacrifice of
resolution in other directions. In one case the

Figure 13.2: Moving detector depth scanning. In

slit imaging configuration, source and one slit are
- source slit detector assembly is rigid and is
physically moved relative to the surface under
study. In a second configuration, the source and
stationary while detector and imaging slit are one slit are sta tionary while the detector and an
moved across surface to collect scatter from imaging slit are moved across the surface to
progressively deeper layers. collect scatter from progreSSively deeper layers as
Collimated detector
shown in Figure 13.2.

Flying Spot
Flying spot scanning is by far the most
o;'ection of
popular backscatter technique because of the high
scannong throughput obtainable. The detector sol id angle
can reach nearly 2n: steradian. The most common
technique involves placing a chopper wheel in
front of a long, often semicircular, slot as shown
in Figure 13.3. The combination of the slot in the
Interrogated ZOM
chopper wheel and the fixed slot together form a
WorkPece
moving mask that limits the incident beam to
whatever w ill pass through the mask. The
backscattered photons are usually detected with
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third broad area uncollimated detectors. Th is technique
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing.
is used extensively in luggage scanners to test for

100
 Chapter 13: Backscatter Imaging

the checking of fuses and explosives in artillery

Figure 13.3: Flying spot X-ray backscatter shells and similar devices. The fuses and
system. explosives are made of organic materials that
Object show little contrast with transmission
Backscatter radiography_ Their composition, however, scatters
detoctors radiation well and absorbs little, making
Translation Slit backscatter imaging an ideal solution. The second
collimator
area of backscatter application to ordnance is in
mine detection. Although mines no longer rely on
the metallic housings which were the basis of
many previous detection schemes, the high
Ftying density and low atomic number materials needed
X-ray beam
to make the explosives a re ideally suited to
d etection by backscatter tech niques. Therefore,
mine detectors using compton backscatter have
evolved along the same lines as baggage
scanners.
Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. Aircraft Corrosion
The need for corrosion detection and
bombs. Flying spot scanners have also been evaluation of aircraft often permits access to only
scaled up to sizes that allow the testing of entire one side, making this an ideal application for
trucks and freight cars. backscatter imaging. Backscatter can use depth
sca ns to examine the thickness of subsurface
layers and determine how mu ch metal has been
Applications of Backscatter removed by corrosion. In form ing, corrosion
Imaging products separate metal structural members.
The principles and techniques of backscatter Corrosion products between lap joints causes
imaging have evolved in different ways to meet swelling between rivets leading to a phenomenon
the need!> of numerous applications. What called pillowing. In some cases the corrosion
follows are just a few examples of applications product may be leached out or dried leaving a
that may assist in understanding the principles. gap. Exfoliation corrosion causes the metal itself
to swell and in extreme cases to burst in pocklike
Ordnance eruptions_ Because X-ray backscatter imaging is
X-ray backscatter has proven itself useful in also very good at detecting gaps or void s it is
two arefls related to ordnance. The most direct is often applied to these situations.

101
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Chapter 13 Review Questions

13.1 Which of the following is not one of the 13.6 Which backscatter imaging method uses a
scattering processes used for backscatter chopper wheel in front of a slit collimator?
imaging?
a. pinhole
a. elastic b. moving slits
b. incoherent c. flying spot
c. Ouorescence d. moving detector scann ing
d. resonance fluorescence
13.7 What is the advantage of a moving slit over
13.2 Resonance fluorescence is used for the a pinhole?
examination of thick or dense structures,
but has the distinct disadvantage of possibly a. It increases throughput without
generating residual r<ldioactivity. Why is sacrifidng resolution in one direction.
this? b. It provides better depth resolution.
c. It views a larger area at cclllal
a. Because the sources needed for this resolution.
method have very long half lives. d. None of the above.
b. Because this type of fluorescence occu rs
at very high energies. 13.8 X-ray fluorescence measurements utilize
c. Because the materials best suited to this which type of scattering?
inspection are naturally radioactive.
d. None of the above. a. rayleigh
b. fluorescence
13.3 In which type of scattering is there a change c. resonance fluorescence
of phase, but not energy? d. one of the above.

a. elastic 13.9 Why is backscatter imaging ideally s uitL>d to

b. compton the examination of explosives?
c. fluorescence
d. resonance a. Explosive materia ls are made of urganic
materials that absorb little, but scatter
13.4 Which type of scattering is used primarily well.
for thickness measurement of very thin b. Because there is little danger of an
coatings? explosion.
c. Because of the high energies involved.
d. None of the above.
••b. resonance
compton
c. rayleigh 13.10Why is backscatter imaging well suited to
d. fluorescence some aircraft inspections?

13.5 As with elastic scattering, which other type a. Because its backscatter is based on
has limited penetrat ion and as a result is nuclear rather than electron interactions.
often used for material identification and b. Because its energies <Ire best suited to
sorting of alloys? aluminum densities.
c. Because it only requires access to one
a. resonance side.
b. compton d. a and c
c. rayleigh
d. fluorescence

102
 Chapter 14
Radiographic Interpretation

Image Object Relationships This section addresses the processes of welding,

casting and composites manufacturing as well as
Inlcrpret<llion of a radiograph is much morc
than looking at film . To interpret and analyze the the expected or inherent discontinuities.
results of any radiographic examination, the
interpreter mu st fi rst verify that the radiograph Welding
corresponds to the specimen or portion of the Over forty weld ing processes are available to
specimen being examined. Secondly, he or she manufacturers. They include, but are not limited
must verify that the technique was appropriate to, arc welding. brazing. gas welding. resistance
and adequate to the testi ng (technjque sheets, welding and solidstate welding. Regardless o f
codes, density, pcnctrameter selection and the process, there are three common variables:
sensitivity, etc.), Thirdly, the interpreter must be
able to identify any artifacts that may mask a 1. source of heat,
rejectable discontinuity. Lastly, discontinuities in 2. source of shielding. and
the specimen must be identified and reported. 3. source of chemical elements.
Knowledge of the component or part
configu ration and its manu facturing process is Control of these variables is essential. When
required for the interpreter to make sound any of these, for whatever reason, becomes
judgments. These data will enable the interpreter unstable, the individual interpreting a
to anticipate possib le discon tinuities and their radiograph of the weld would expect to detect:
locations w ithin the component or part.
Awareness of the following information 1. porosity,
permits the ins pector to intelligently interpret 2. slag inclusions,
ima ges on the radiograph: 3. lack of fusion,
4. incomplete penetration,
I. thickness, 5. cracks,
2. surf,lCe finishes, 6. tungsten inclu sions, and
3. welding process, 7. other indications.
4. weld joint design,
5. material form, Casting
6. heat treatment, The ability of molten metal to fill a mold is
7. accessibility, based on the fluidity of the molten metal. It
8. composite material forms, varies with material type and temperature. The
9. internal structure. process of solidification occu rs when the liquid
metal contracts to solid and sol id cools to room
The use of drawings, weld data sheets, temperature.
manufacturing processing data, etc., is essential Some of the factors affecting the
for the interpreter. Knowledge of the product solidification of cast material are:
may eliminate e rroneous conclusions.
1. thermal properties of the mold,
2. liquid / solid temperatures of the metal,
Material Considerations 3. thermal properties of the solidifying metal,
. Ra.diographic examination in industry today and
IS applLed to many items and is frequently
4. pour temperature.
required for heavy wall weldments and castings.

103
AS NT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

Typical of the types of discontinuities formed jncomplete penctration or lack of penetration

during the casting process, which mayor may results when weld metal did not penetrate and
not be detrimental to the casting integrity are: fuse at the root. Normally this occurs when there
is a problem with heat input, improper joint
1. porosity, design, poor fit up, or incorrect electrode angle.
2. gas voids, Incomplete penetration is normally cause for
3. sand inclusions, rejection because of its potential as a stress riser.
4. slag inclusions, Lackojjl/sio" or incomplete fu sion is a result
5. shrinkage, of nonadhesion between successive weld passes
6. lears, or between a weld pass and the weld edge
7. cracks, preparation on a side wall. Lack of fusion is
8. unfused chaplets, and considered to be detrimental to fatigue strength.
9. cold shuts. Porosity is the result of gas being trapped as
weld metal solidifies. In general, porosity is not
The radiographer must interpret the considered critical unless it is present in large
acceptability of these discontinuities to the quantities, contains sh arp tails or is aligned in a
nppl ic<lblc code, standard, engineering document, short distance.
etc. Slag illc/usioll is caused when nonmetallic
materials become trapped in the weld metal
Composites between weld passes o r between a weld pass and
Composites are basically two or more the base material.
materials that are combined such as skins and a TlIlIgsfC/l inc/rlsion is the result of pieces of the
honeycomb core. They are also often described as tungsten electrode breaking off and being
a matrix and a reill/orcement, such as graphite trapped in the weld .
fibers in an epoxy matrix.
Composites arc numerous and the number is Casting Discontinuities
growing rapidly. They can be grouped into Cold shuts are the result of splashing. surging.
reinforcing materials and matrix materials. interrupted pouring, or the meeting (without
Rei nforcements include fiberglass and carbon fu sion) of two streams of molten metal.
(graphite), and may come in a wide variety of Cracks result f.rom stresses in cast material
forms, including whiskers, filaments (single which occur at relatively low temperatures.
fibers), strands (unhvisted bundle of fibers), yarn Gas voids, such as gas holes, worm holes or
(a twisted bundle), roving (a number of yarns or blowholes, are also formed during solidi fica tion
strands collected into a parallel bundle without and are considered more critical when in a
twisting) and mat (randomly oriented chopped or taillike linear pattern, which indicates a potential
swi rled fibers in a sheet or woven fabrics). through wall leak path or stress riser.
Matrix materials come in just as wide a Hot tcars are cracks or ru ptures occurring
variety and may include polyester resins, epoxy wh ile metal is very hot.
resins, thermoplastics, polyimides, phenolics, Porosity occurs when gas is trapped i.n the
c.1rbon and ceramics. metal during solid ification. The pores vary i.n size
There are also a great many different ways to and distribution.
combine all these materials to produce structures Salld incll/siOI! results from sand breaking
of various desired properties. loose from the casting mold and becoming
trapped.
Expected Discontinuities Shrinkage resu lts from localized contraction
The text below discusses discontinuities and of the cast metal as it sol idifies and cools. It Illay
their effects by category. or may not be acceptable, dependi ng on
population, design function and several other
Welding Discontinuities fac tors.
Cracks result from fra ctures o r ruptures of Slag inc/usiolls result when impurities or
weld metal. They occur when stresses in oxides are introduced into the casti ng along with
localized areas exceed the material's ultimate the molten metal.
tensile strength. Cracks in all forms are Un/used chaplets result from the fai lure of the
considered the most detrimental discontinuities liquid metal to consume the metal device used to
because their sharp extremities act as severe support the core inside the mold.
stress concentrators.

104
 Chapter 14: Radiographic Interpretation

Composite Discontinuities
The field of composite structures is Casting Discontinuities
extremely broad . With all the different types of Cold shilts appear as d ark lines or linear areas
materials and accompanying combinations, the of varying length.
possibilities for defects are many and varied. Cracks normally appear as dark, irregular,
Every place that two different materials meet ca n intermittent or continuous lines, usually qui te
be a sou rce of d isbonds (adhesive to skin, well defined.
adhesive to core, adhesive to substru ctures, etc.) Gas voids appear as la rge, rounded, dark
All materials that start as liquid, such as adhesive indications. normally with smooth edges.
o r foam , have the potentia l fo r casting like Hot tears appear as dark, ragged, irregula r
defects (porosity, sh rink cracks, etc.) Most lines and may ha ve a number of b ranches of
bonding processes involve heat and many vary ing densities that are less clearly defined
structures are composed of mate rials of very than cracks.
different coefficients of thermal expansion. This Porosity appears radiographi cally as rounded
often results in internal stresses tha t in tu rn result da rk spots of various sizes.
in defects. An example would be microcracking Sand inclusions appear as light or dark
between a matrix and the reinforcing fibers. A indications of irregular shapes de pend ing on the
furthe r complication is that these issues can rela tive densities of the inclusion and the base
occur, o r be oriented, in all three dimensions, metal.
which is a major concern when considering Shrinkage appears as irregularly shaped spots
radiographic imag ing and inte rpretation. of varying densities, which often appear to be
interconnected .
Radiographic Appearance of Unfllsed chaplets arc easily identified as
circula r dark lines about the sa me diameter as the
Discontinuities core support device.
The p reviously identified and discussed
di scontinuities are norma ll y id entifiable by their CompOSite Disconti nuities
rad iographic images. Faam adhesive separation in radiographs of
bonded assemblies is significa ntly lighter lhan
Welding Discontinuities adjacent areas and is located at core spli ces,
Cracks normally show as dark. irregular, closures, shear ties and at certain fasteners that
wavy or zigzag lines and may have fine, hairline ha ve no accessible heads. Foam adhesive is
ind ications b ranching 0(( the main crack usua lly associated with honeycomb core. The
indic.. tion. foam may conta in cracks and may be separated
(ll complete 1"'lIetratioll ty pically appears as a from core, closu re webs or shear ties.
sharp, dark, continuous or in termitten t line. Skill to structllre disbol/ds ca n only be delected
Depend ing on weld joint fit-up geometry, this if the disbond is the result of a lack of adhesive.
dark line may occur in the cen ter of the weld or Th is is because the plane of the bond is
along the edge of a weld bevel. perpendicular to the radiation beam . To be
LAck of fUSion normally shows as a thin, detected by radiog raphy a disbond must be
str'l ight d.1fk Line parallel to the weld. Lack of oriented pa rallel to the X-ray beam just as with a
fu sion occurri ng between the weld and the side crack.
wall generally appears straight on one side and Honeycomb defects such as cnlshed or
irregular on the other side. It will typically misaligned core and defective shear ties are
a ppear some d istance from the weld centerline. easily imaged and produce d istinctive
Porosity shows as rounded well defi ned high indications.
density spots w ith sharp con tours.
Slag incilisions usually appear as dark Image Analysis Techniques
irregular shapes of varying lengths and wid ths. One advantage of working with digital
They are dark when the oxide that makes up the images is the opportunity for enhancement.
inclusions is of a lower atomic weight than the While it is important to preserve the origina l
weld metal. image, va riations can be generated that yield
TlIllgsten incilisiOlls appear as very light, g rea ter understanding o f object properties. It is
almost white, indications because of tungsten's often possible to effective ly increase d ynamic
highe r rad iation absorption . range, improve contrast in regions o f interest,

105
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

emphasize subtle features, reduce background nozzle, pump housing? Obtain a drawing.
noise and provide more robust detection of sketch or weld data sheet. Study the
d iscontinuities. configu ration, the material type, the joint
Signa l enhancement offers sha rper contrast design and the thickness involved.
and improved visibility of edges, lines, details 2. Fabrication data
and other features. Wh ile no information is How was it fabricated? Are there hea t
added in the process, enhancement makes the treatment requirements? What is the surface
information more easily viewed and fini sh? What manufacturing process was
understandable. Furthermore, enhancement can used ?
be specified and controJled and thus offers an
objective means fo r improving an image. Beca use As you review this information, some of the
of this, processing techniques become an integral basic parameters needed to determine technique
part of the docume ntation, s imilar to acceptability can be eva luated .
source-ta-film distance, energy and exposure
time. It must be emphasiz.ed thai while 1. Part thickness determines the penetrameter
processing is advantageous, raw data must be requirements and the required or permitted
preserved. radiation energy.
Numerous digita l image processing schemes 2. Reinforcement determines the need for
have ix.'en developed and are in common use. shims.
Those evaluating digital images should learn the 3. Fabrication process provides an indication of
mo re common tools and techniques of image the types of discontinuities that are exp<..'Cted.
analysis, especially those that are installed with a 4. Config uration has a direct bearing on
particular system. Not all enhancement exposu re and viewing technique.
techniques developed for reflected light images, 5. Heat treatment may have a bearing on
such as photography, apply well to radiographic whether grainir,ess is a problem to be
tr;msrnission images. Some commonly used tools expl'Cted or whether stress related
include contrast enhancement, histogram discontinuities may be present.
eq ualization, unsharp masking, edge 6. Accessibility affects h.'Chnique, such as
enhancement and spatial filtering. placement of penetramders.
7. Surface finish may aid or hinder
Codes, Standards, Specifications interpretation of nonrelcv'ln l indications.

and Procedures The radiographic inte rpreter should also be

In all nondestructive test disciplines, the use knowledgeable of the effects of the following
of applicable codes, standards and specifications variables on the rad iographi C image:
in the preparation of the procedures for
performing the test is essential. This applies to I. source size,
radiographic testing as well. Contr actual 2. source-Io-film distance,
requirements usually dictate the specific 3. source placement,
requ irements that are applicable to a particular 4. film placement,
component. 5. radiographic coverage required,
The radiographiC interpreter must be capable 6. film selection,
of interpreting and applying specified acceptance 7. screens,
criteria. In addition, he or she must also be 8. film processing tech nique, and
knowledgeable in the technique used to make the 9. processing variables.
exposu re and its effects on the image. For the
interpreter to properly determine technique RadiographiC film interpretation is more than
acceptability, the following gu idelines should be knowing or understandi ng codes, standards,
used. specifications, procedures and the proper
application of acceptance standards. A
1. Component knowledge of manufacturing processes, as well
What is it? Circumferential piping weld, as radiographic testing in gene ral, is imperative.
pressure vessel long SCam, va lve body,

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 Chapter 14: Radiographic Interpretation

Chapter 14 Review Questions

14.1 Proper interpretation of a rad iograph 14.6 Dark irregular images of va rying length,
requ ires that the film interpreter have an d ensity and width on a radiograph of a
understanding of: submerged arc-welded joint would
probably be the result of:
a. film speed.
b. configuration and manufacturing a. lack of fusion.
"a riables. b. trapped slag.
c. exposure time. c. incomplete penetration.
d. All the above. d. hot tears.

14.2 Which o f the d iscontinuities listed below 14.7 An area of incomplete fusion at the root
would no t be classified as a welding area o f a weld, which normally occu rs when
discon tinui ty? there is a p roblem with heat input,
improper jo int design, poor fi t up o r
a. lack of fus ion improper electrode selection, is generally
b. incomplete penetration referred to as:
c. slag inclusion
d. cold shu t a. lack of fu sion.
b. wagon tracks.
14.3 Generally speaking. rounded or spherica l c. slag lines.
void s resulting from trapped gas during the d. incomplete penetration .
weld ing process would be identified as:
14.8 A very light (almost wh ite) indication
a. slag inclusion. d etected in a piping joint that was welded
b. wagon tracks. using the tungsten inert gas process would
c. porosity. probably be:
d. tungsten inclusion.
a. crater pits.
14.4 A lack o f adhesion between s uccessive b. porosity.
passes or along the edge of a weld Co weld spatter.
preparation is ca lled: d. tungsten inclusion.

a. lack of fusion. 14.9 Porosity in a weld may not be critical.

b. incomplete penetration. Which of the followi ng porosity conditions
c. cracks. is not no rmally considered detrimental to
d. root concavity. welds?

14.5 Locali zed cont raction of cast metal as it a. [t is p resent in la rge quantities.
solid ifies and cools may resu lt in: b. It is randomly d ispersed and less than
0.4 mm (1 / 64 in.) d iameter.
a. gas voids. c. It contains sharp tails.
b. cold shuts. d. It is aligned in short distances.
c. shrinkage.
d. cracks.

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ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

14.10 All welding processes have three common 14.13 in all forms are considered
variables. Which of the following is not one the most detrimental because their sharp
of those variables? extremities act as stress concentrators.

a. source of heat a. Slag inclusions

b. source of shielding h. Tungsten inclusions
c. size of electrodes c. Oxides
d. source of chemical elements d. Cracks

14.11 and reinforcement 14.14 Image analysis techniques convert analog

requirements are important in determining television images into a digitized image that
i f the proper penetrameter(s) were used. is further quantized in:

a. Surface finish a. time and space.

b. Welding b. space and intens ity.
c. Thickness c. distance and time.
d . Heat treatment d. brightness and clarity.

14.12 One of the factors tha t affects the 14.15 Image enhancement techniques currently
solid ification of cast material is the: used include three of th e four applications
listed below. Identi fy the nonimage
a. pour temperature. enhancement technique.
b. heat treat condition.
e. elasticity. a. edge enhancement
d. root opening. b. spatial filtering
c. pseudocolor enhancemen t
d. static radiography

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 Review Question Answers
Review questions in this Level III Study Guide use a modular numbering system, so that question 3.1
is the first review question in Chapter 3. Comments about this table should be directed to the
Educational Materials Supervisor at ASNT. See the copyright page or www.asnt.org for ASNT staff
contact information.

1.1 c 2.1 c 3.1 a 4.1 a 5.1 a 6.1 c 7.1 c

1.2 b 2.2 b 3.2 d 4.2 e 5.2 c 6.2 d 7.2 d

1.3 d 2.3 b 3.3 c 4.3 a 5.3 d 6.3 f 7.3 e

1.4 b 2.4 b 3.4 e 4.4 d 5.4 e 6.4 b 7.4 a

1.5 c 2.5 b 3.5 b 4.5 c 5.5 c 6.5 a 7.5 a

1.6 a 2.6 c 3.6 a 4.6 e 5.6 b 6.6 a 7.6 b

1.7 b 2.7 c 3.7 d 4.7 b 5.7 e 6.7 b 7.7 c

1.8 c 3.8 e 4.8 d 5.8 a 6.8 a 7.8 d

1.9 b 3.9 b 4.9 b 5.9 c 6.9 b 7.9 b

1.10 a 3.10 c 4.10 a 5.10 c 6.10 d 7.10 c

1.11 d 3.11 a 4.11 e 5.11 c 6.11 d 7.11 a

1.12 a 3.12 d 4.12 d 5.12 a 6.12 b 7.12 c

1.13 b 3.13 b 4.13 d 5.13 b

1.14 d 4.14 b 5.14 d

1.15 c 4.15 b 5.15 b

, ,1 6 a 4.16 d 5.16 b

1.17 a 4.17 c

1.18 d

1.19 b

1.20 a

1.21 a

1.22 c

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ASNT level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method

8.1 d 9.1 a 10.1 c 11.1 d 12.1 b 13.1 b 14. 1 b

8.2 c 9.2 c 10.2 a 11 .2 b 12.2 b 13.2 b 14.2 d

8.3 a 9.3 c 10.3 d 11.3 a 12.3 a 13.3 a 14.3 c

8.4 b 9.4 d 10.4 b 11.4 c 12.4 d 13.4 c 14.4 a

8.5 d 9.5 a 10.5 d 11.5 b 12.5 d 13.5 d 14.5 c

8.6 b 9.6 a 10.6 b 11.6 c 12.6 c 13.6 c 14.6 b

9.7 d 10.7 c 11.7 b 12.7 b 13.7 a 14.7 d

9.8 c 10.8 a 11 .8 d 12.8 a 13.8 b 14.8 d

9.9 b 10.9 d 11.9 b 12.9 d 13.9 a 14.9 b

9.10 c 10.10 c 11.10 b 13.10 c 14.1 0 c

9.11 a 10. 11 c 11.11 c 14.11 c
9.12 b 10.1 2 a 11.12 a 14.1 2 a

10.13 d 11.l3 a 14.13 d

10.14 d 14.14 b

10.15 b 14.15 d

10.16 a

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