According to the Latest Syllabus Preseribed by HEC Linguistics —® Language & Linguistics —® Phonetics and Phonology —® Morphology & Syntax —® Semantics & Pragmatics —® Pedagogical Grammar —® Sociolinguistics —® Psycholinguistics —® Language Teaching Methodologies ACT reneAccording to latest Syllabus prescribed by HEC for BS & M.A. English FOR “tig e BS-ENGLISH (4 Year Programme (Semester-1) e M.A. ENGLISH (Annual & Term System) Written by: PROF. M. SALEEM SAJID M.Phil (English)M. Phil. (History) Department of English GOVT. COLLEGE CHISHTIAN Published By: ‘NIMBUS PUBLICATIONS Urdu Bazar LahoreDEDICATION: I dedicate this book to: My Wife (May her soul rest in eternal peace!) To whom I owe the leaping delight That quickens my senses in our waking time And the rhythm that governs the repose of our sleeping time, the breathing in unison. Of lovers whose bodies smell of each other Who think the same thoughts without need of speech, And babble the same speech without need of meaning. No peevish winter wind shall chill No sullen tropic sun shall wither The roses in the rose-garden which is ours and ours only But this dedication is for others to read: These are private words addressed to you in public. (T.S. Eliot)PREFACE | feel encouraged by the widespread response from teachers and students alike to “The Study of Stylistics” which is an effort to provide the readers an easy approach to the discipline. Now, | am Presenting “The Study of Linguistics” to the teachers and students of BS-English in particular and readers in general in all humbleness. All possible efforts have been made to pro-“de fairly detailed coverage of syllabus in this book, and to make the readers understand the nature the discipline, and in general to enhance the usefulness of the book. It is hoped that humble effort made in’the form of this ‘book will assist in the accomplishment of result-oriented studies in linguistics. The book is, in fact, an outgrowth of my experience of teaching the subject to M.A. (English) students forthe last some years, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | am highly indebted to the learned Colleagues for providing the necessary stimulus for writing this book. | am grateful to all those persons whose writings and works have helped me in the preparation of this book. Many thanks go to my teacher of Linguistics, Prof. Dr. Raza Qayum, (Now in New Zéaland), a great source of encouragement and Dr. Bushra Shoukat, the Head of the English Department, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur (Bahawalnagar Campus) whose encouragement made the task easier. | am also thankful to Prof. Ejaz Hussain Korai (Govt. Postgraduate College Rajanpur), Prof. Mahar Fareed (Govt. Postgraduate College Arif Wala) Prof. Imran Ghuman (Govt. S.E. College Bahawalpur) for their cooperation and encouragement. | am thankful to all those authors and writers whose books were consulted in writing this book. | am equally grateful to all my colleagues who made extremely valuable suggestions and have thus contributed in enhancing the standard of the book. | am indebted to all the members of my family who equally deserve the credit of what I did.CONTENTS (ETA aie MOO Les Syllable Part- one: Language FM = Unit-03: MORPHOLOGY What is Language? 7_ [i What is Morphology? 79 [Key Features of Language ‘9 [iy Some Major Concepts of Morphology | 80 Yule's Characteristics of Language 10 [MM Branches of Morphology 80 Design Features of Language 10 [iM Affixes 81 ‘Components of Language 12 [MM The study of Morpheme 82 Kinds of Language 12 [ll Morphemic Analysis 83 Significance of Language in Life 13 [Mil Morphological Productivity 85 Functions of Language 14 [Ml Morphosyntactic Structure 86 Origin of Language 14 fi Government and Binding Theory — 89 ‘Animal Communication System 16 [i Minimalism 92 Part- Two: Linguistics EE _Unit-04: SYNTAX & GRAMMAR Organs of Speech (articulators) Phonetic Symbols & Sounds Cre aWNeeee on What is Linguistics? 18 [Mm Part-One: Syntax 95 Linguistics as Science 19 fam What is Syntax? 95 Branches of Linguistics (i) 20 Syntax as Study of Sentence 97 Branches of Linguistics (i) Difference between Morphology& Syntax | 98 ‘Scope of Linguistics Phrases and its Types 98 Levels of Linguistic Analysis 25. fa Clauses & its Types = 100 Basic Concepts in Linguistics 25 [MM Sentence & its Types 102 Schools of Linguistics 32 Transformation 104 Part- Three: Branches of Linguistics 33 Agreement in Grammar 106 Applied Linguistics 33 IMM Case & Case Agreement 107 Sociolinguistics 35. Part-Two: Grammar 108 [ Psycholinguistios [37 fa What is Grammar? 108 ‘Computational Linguistics 39 Prescriptive Grammar 110 Cer ae Tenens Descriptive Grammar 110 Part- one: Phonetics 43 Universal Grammar 114 What is Phonetics? 43_ [am Language Universals 113. Branches of Phonetics Transformational-Generative Grammar__|_116 Articulatory Phonetics Phrase Structure Rules 117 Clause Elements 119 Description of Consonant Sounds 50 ‘Sub-Ordination and Coordination 121 Description of Vowel Sounds 52 Basic Concepts of English Grammar 122 Phonetic Transcription 57 Modality [aaa Part- Two: Phonology 66 Voice 123 ‘What is Phonology? 66. Hypothetical Meaning 123 Branches of Phonology 67 Grammar in Context 125 Major Concepts of Phonology [M Unit-06: LEXICAL STUDIES Connected Speech 68 What is lexicology? Difference between Phonetics & Phonology | 69 [aml Morphological field Superasegmental Features of Phonology | 70 fam Words & lexemes Tntonation 70_ [MM Lexis or lexicons 129 Stress 73_ [a Word formation 129 Word Classes 131 fl English as Second Language in Pakistan [ 185CONTENTS - Issues in Borrowing Cree sels Sees Semantic Field 133 Discourse | Sense Relations 2 aE 133. ‘Text and Discourse 192 Collocation & Coligation | 133, BM Discourse Analysis 194 Lexical Priming 134 BM Seven Standard of text as Discourse | 196 Lexi Tum-Taking in Discourse 197 Cohesion and Coherence What is Semantics? 136 Early Theories of Meaning 137 MM Approach, Method & Technique 202 Types of Meaning 139M Grammar Translation Method (GTM) | 204 Other Theories in Semantics 142 Direct Method (DM) 208 Componential Analysis 143M Aucio Lingual Method 24 | Sense Relations/ Lexical Relations 144 MM Communicative Method 214 ‘Semantic Roles Syntactic Semantics ‘Suggestopedia ers LANGUAGE SKILLS ek HO Ad SL d The Listening Skill we Sociolinguistics ‘The Speaking Skill 220 Language & Context 150 {8 The Reading Skill 221 Language Variation 150 ‘The Writing Skill 222 language Varieties 151 Cer Sea Psycholinguistics Aims and Objectives of Stylistics Language, Society and Culture 152 MM Error Analysis 224 Funetions of Language in Society 152. Kinds of Errors 225 Domains of Language Use 153 (MM Testing and Evaluation 2 Regional & Social Dialects 154 GM Language Tests 2 Bilingualism 156 [Mi Subjective and Objective Tests 228 Code Mixing and Code Switching 159 UREA Sse Language and Gender 163 i What is Stylistics? 230 ited eho eS Branches of Stylistics 231 CSE Ea aed Psycholinguistics & Neurolinguistics Stylistics as a Branch of Linguistics 236 ‘Theories of Psycholinguistics 169 fi Linguistic Stylistics 236 Behavioursm [170 iM Literary Styistics 237 Mentalism = 172 i Major Concepts of Stylistics 237 Interactionism a 74 iam Levels of Stylistic Analysis 244 First Language Acquisition 177 i What is Pragmatics? 250 Second-Language Acquisition 178 [ill Various Aspects of Pragmatics 251 Factors Affecting SLA 179 Context and Presuppositions 251 Factors/ Causes of Errors | 180 Context and Co-Text 252 Theories of SLA 163 [MMI Language Functions & Speech Ais __| 253 Significance of English in Pakistan 186 [| Speech Act Theory 23 Problems in Teaching English 188 lm Conversational Impicatures 25 Difficutties in Learning English 189 Ml Grice's Maxims 255NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 7 Introduction to Linguistics Unit -o1 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS LANGUAGE (Nature, Features & Functions) Language is a medium of communication. It is a set of signals b man, as member of society, communicates his ideas and thoughts, feelings and expressions, needs and requirements to others. Language is a most powerful, convenient and permanent means of communication in the world. It is ubiquitous present everywhere in all human activities, thoughts, dreams, prayers, meditations and relations.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 8 Introduction to Linguistics Language is a gift of God to humanity. It is man’s finest asset. It is not only a medium of communication but also a storehouse of knowledge. It is also a custodian of knowledge. It preserves knowledge and transmits it from generation to generation. Simply, language is a tool to transmit information, learn knowledge, express feelings, emotions, and ideas, and to construct social identity. Definitions: Linguists have proposed many definitions of language: Some important of them are given below. Oxford English Dictionary: “Language is a system of sounds, words, patterns etc. used by human beings to communicate thoughts and feelings". Edward Sapir: "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols." J. Whatmough: “A language is a device that establishes sound- meaning correlation, pairing meaning with signals to enable people to exchange ideas through observable sequences of sounds” Noam Chomsky:" Language is the innate capacity of native speaker to understand and form grammatical sentences". Henry Sweet: Language may be defined as “the expression of thoughts by means of speech and sound." Encyclopedia Britannica: "A system of conventional, spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings as members of social groups and participants in their culture, communicate" Gardiner; "Language in its widest sense means total of such signs of thoughts or feelings us capable of external perceptions as could be produced and repeated at will." Bollinger: “Language is species specific,” H. A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour.” * Bernard Bloch (1942): “A language is a system of. arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Different scholars have viewed language in different ways. They look at this Phenomenon fiom their own point of view. Anthropologists regard language form of cultural behaviour. Students of literature say that language is an artistic medium, Sociologists say that language is an interaction between members of social groups. Philosophers say that language is a means of. interpreting human experiences. Language teacher says that it is a set of skills.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics. 9 Morphology KEY FEATURES OF LANGUAGE The following are the key features/ characteristics of language i, An Organization of Words and Sounds: Language is an organization of words and sounds. They are organized in such a way that some meaningful message may be conveyed easily. There is no language without words and sounds. ii, Means of Communication: Language is the only and permanent means of communication. Language is the best way of self-expression. Human beings express themselves by using language. Through it, they transfer their knowledge and experience from one person to another and from one generation to another iii. A Social Phenomenon: Language is a social phenomenon. It is a possession of society. It permits its members to interact with one another. It is a social institution in itself. A man, as a member of society, interacts through language. iv. Conventional & Non-Instinctive: Language is conventional & non-instinctive. Language does not come into being in a day. It is a gift of evolution and convention. It is non-instinctive because human beings acquire it. Nobody gets a language in heritage: He acquires it. v. A System of Symbols: Language is a system of symbols. Every language has its own symbols. Language is a system of arbitrary symbols. Language uses words essentially as symbols for the concepts represented by them. vi. A System of Systems: Language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and grammatical system and within a system, there are several sub- systems. For example, within grammatical system, we have morphology and syntax. vii. Arbitrariness of Language: Arbitrariness of language is another characteristic of language. It means that there is no inherent or logic relation or similarity between any given feature of language and its meaning. So we say language is arbitrary e.g. a stone in English is a Piene in French, a Pietra in Italian and a Pathar in Urdu. viii, Productivity: Language provides opportunities to send the message that has never been sent before and to understand novel messages. It also suggests that number of sentences in language is limitless. Any speaker can construct a sentence that has never been constructed before. It is this feature of language that is referred to as productivity or creativity of language. ix, Flexibility: Language is flexible to an extent that it can be changed. according to requirements. It is not still and static. It keeps changing with the passage of time and according to needs of society. x. Structurally Complex: Human language has a great structural complexity. A human language consists of sentences, which display complexity of structure at least of two levels- sounds and words. There is a complex grammatical structure to EnglishNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 10 Morphology or to any other language. Such structural complexity is not found in any animal communication system, YULE’S CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE George Yule, a famous linguist, has described the following five characteristics of human language in his baok, “The Study of Language 1. Displacement: This is the ability to use language to talk about times, places and people other than the ‘here and now’. It also enables us to say things, which we know to be false i.e. to lie. Bees are said to be able to convey some of this information in their ‘dance’, which they employ to pass on information about food sources. 2. Arbitrariness: This means that there is generally no natural, inherent relationship between the signs (i.e. sounds or letters) and their meanings. For this reason different languages can use different signs to refer to one and the same thing e.g. a flower in English is a Blume in German or a fleur in French. 3. Productivity: Language has creativity and productivity. This is an important characteristic of human language allowing us to continuously create new utterances, combining the ‘building bricks’ of language in ever new ways, whether these are sounds, words or sentences. Human languages are therefore continually evolving. 4. Cultural Transmission: This refers to how languages are acquired by our children. The assumption is that there is no genetic component (although Noam Chomsky challenges this with his theory of Universal Grammar) which would enable a child to simply start speaking e.g. English at a certain age, but rather that children need to be exposed to a language (and culture) in order to acquire it. 5. Duality: Duality (or ‘double articulation’) refers to two separate layers of language working together to provide us with a pool of sounds, which we can combine to communicate with one another. On the one hand, we have a limited number of discrete sounds (e.g. the 44 phonemes in English) which in isolation have no inherent meaning e.g. b, n, or I. On the other hand, we have a virtually unlimited number of distinet meanings, which we can create by combining these sounds in certain ways e.g. bin. or nib. Various other combinations such English, but could possibly be in other la DESIGN FEATURES OF LANGUAGE Charles Hockett presented the following features of language. generally known as the design features of human language Vocal-auditory channel: Vocal-auditory channel refers to the idea that speaking/hearing is the mode humans use for language. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: When humans speak, sounds are transmitted in all directions; however, listeners perceive the direction from which s“Ani” are not meaningful inNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 11 Introduction to Linguistics the sounds are coming. Similarly, signers broadcast to potentially anyone within the line of sight, while those watching see who is signing. This is characteristic of most jorins of human and animal communication. Transitoriness: Transitoriness refers to the idea of temporary quality of language. Language sounds exist for only a brief period of time, after which they are no longer perceived. Sound waves quickly disappear once a speaker stops speaking. This is also true of signs. In contrast, other forms of communication such as writing and Inka khipus (knot-tying) are more permanent. Interchangeability: Interchangeability refers to the idea that humans can give and receive identical linguistic signals: humans are not limited in the types of messages they can say/hear, One can say "Iam a boy" even if one is a girl. The importance is that a speaker can physically create any and all messages regardiess of their truth or relation to the speaker. In other words, anything that one can hear, one can also say. Total feedback: Speakers of a language can hear their own speech and can control and modify what they are saying as they say it. Similarly, signers see, feel, and control their signing Speci n: The purpose of linguistic signals is communication and not some other biological function, When humans speak or sign, it is generally intentional. Semanticity: Specific sound signals are directly tied to certain meanings. Arbitrariness: Languages are generally made up of both arbitrary and iconic symbols. In spoken languages, this takes the form of onomatopoeias. In English "murmur", in Mandarin "mao" (cat). The word “car” is nothing like an actual car. poken words are really nothing like the objects they represent. Discreteness: Linguistic representations can be broken down into small discrete units which combine with each other in rule-governed ways. They are perceived categorically, not continuously. For example, English marks number with the plural morpheme /s/, which can be added to the end of any noun. The plural morpheme is perceived categorically, not continuously. We cannot express smaller or larger quantities by varying how loudly we pronounce the /s Displacement: Displacement refers to the idea that humans can talk about things that are not physically present or that do not even exist. Speakers can talk about the past and the future, and can express hopes and drecms. A human's speech is not’limited to here and now. Displacement is the feature of language that separates human language from animal communication. Productivity: li refers to the idea that language-users can create and understant utterances. Humans are able to produce an unlimited amount of utterances. Language is not stagnant, but is constantly changing. New idioms are created all the time and the meaning of signals can vary depending on the context and situation,NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 12 Morphology Traditional transmission: While humans are born with innate language capabilities, language is learned after birth in a social setting. Language and culture are woven together. This quality of language is also called cultural transmission. Duality of patterning: Meaningful messages are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (words and morphemes) which themselves are made up of distinct smaller, meaningless units (phonemes). Prevarication: Prevarication is the ability to lie or deceive. When using language, humans can make false or meaningless statements. Reflexiveness: Humans can use language to talk about language. Learnibility: Language is teachable and leamable, In the same way as a speaker learns their first language, the speaker is able to lear other languages. It is worth noting that young children lear language with competence and ease; however, language acquisition is constrained by a critical period such that it becomes more difficult once children pass a certain age COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE Language Phonology - — sourids Morphology - meaningful combination of morphemes Lexis - words Syittax - meaningful combination of words Semantics - meaning Source: Loreto Todd KINDS OF LANGUAGE The following are the major kinds of language I, Standard and Non- Standard Language a, Standard Language: Standard language is that variety of a language which has the highest status in a community and has socially accepted grammar, vocabulary and Pronunciation. It is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. b. Non- Standard Language: Non Standard Language is that variety of a language which differs in pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary from the standard variety of the language. IL. First and Second Language (L1 & L2): a. First Language: First Language is generally a person’s mother tongue or the Tanguage acquired first. For example, the people of Punjab acquire Punjabi as theirNIMBUS The Study of Linguistics 13 * Introduction to Linguistics first language. In multilingual communities, where a child may gradually shift from the main use of one language to another, first language may refer to the language the child feels most comfortable. b. Second Language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of. communication. English is described as a second language in Pakistan. III. Native and Foreign Language: a. Native Language: Native Language can be defined as the language, which a person acquired in the early childhood because it is spoken in the family or it is the language of the country, ‘where he or she-is living. Sometimes first language is thought to be synonymous to native language. b. Foreign Language: Foreign Langauge is a language which is not native language in a country. Foreign language is spoken as native language in any other part of the world. English is spoken as a foreign language in Pakistan. SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE IN LIFE ES The role of language in the life of an individual can be stated as follow: i, Language is the medium of expression of our feelings and experiences. In other words, we express our feelings and experiences through language. ii, Language is medium of communicatiox:. We communicate with one another through language. With the advent of the concept of globalization, people all over the world communicate with each other and exchange ideas through the use of language. Language is vehicle of our thought. We think through language. The thinking process is disturbed if the individual has deficiency in language. iv. Language develops and grooms one’s personality as a whole. Since learning a language is part of our knowledge, it becomes one of the key factors in competitiveness. In the advanced industrial society of today, the basic knowledge of a language has become indispensable. y. Language and communication skills are important tools of intellectual development. Language development helps us to organize thoughts and make sense of the world around us. Cognitive development is about how we use our minds and organize thinking to understand the world. vi. Language is one of the key factors of human developmental process, which knits a strong feeling of kinship amongst us. vii. Language is basis of education. School education is predominately language oriented. Reading, writing and arithmetic are all based on language proficiency.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 14 Introduction to Linguistics viii, Language is medium of literature. All great literature is produced through the medium of language. Language thus helps us to read literature, understand and appreciate the work of great writers and poets. ix. Language contributes to the growth of civilization. Language and civilization are inseparable. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE Language is the only way of communication, which becomes its major function, However, keeping in mind the nature‘and purpose of communication, the functions of language can be categorized under the following headings. A. Communicative Function: The function of language is communication of meanings. Usually, we think of language as something spoken or written, but there are many other forms or devices which man has been using for communication. For instance. there are various signs of Highway Code, which convey diverse information to the motorists. Similarly, there are red, green and yellow lights at the city road- crossings. “Red” stands for “Stop or Danger”, “Green” stands for “Safety or Go” and “Yellow” stands for B. Informative Function: One of the basic functions of language is to communicate information of some kind or another. This information may be true or false, correct or incorrect, important or unimportant, general or particular. In any case, the language use is said to be informative in its function. C. Emotive or Expressive Function: Another important function of language is its emotive or expressive function. Here the speaker speaks to express his/her feelings, thoughts and ideas, and thus gets rid of his nervous energy when he is under stress. Poetry is one of the best examples of the expressive function of language. D. Directive Function: The third basic function of language is directive function. Commands and requests are examples of the directive function of language. If a mother advises her son to always speak the truth, she neither wants to convey any information, nor wants to express her feelings; rather she is trying to make her son do OW what is indicated. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE EE SP SP LS All religions and mythologies contain stories of language origin. Philosophers through the ages have argued the question. Scholarly works have been written on the subject. Theories of divine origin, language as a human invention, and evolutionary development have all been put forward. Linguistic history suggests that spoken languages of the kind that exist today have been around for tens of thousands of years at the very least, but the earliest deciphered written records are barely six thousand ¢ development of language years old. These records apes. so late in the