DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA

BIO 221 (GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY I)(Aspects) – 2 CREDIT UNITS

ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic catalyst produced within the living organisms which speed up chemical
reactions, by lowering the activation energy, in the living organisms but themselves remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction. Activation energy is the energy required to make the
substances react. As heat is often the source of activation energy, enzymes often dispense with
the need for this heat and so allow reactions to take place at lower temperature In molecular
terms.

The enzyme combines with the substrate molecules to form an enzyme-substrate complex. In
such close contact the substrate molecules may be distorted and hence easily react to form an
enzyme-product complex which then split to release the product molecule and the enzyme. In
this way, the activation energy is lowered. Since they are not altered by the reactions they
catalyse, so enzymes can be reused.

Page 1 of 10
Characteristics of Enzymes:

1. It speeds up chemical reactions but remain undestroyed at the end of the reaction. i.e. it has the
catalytic properties.

2. It works in either direction. i.e. it catalyses the forward and backward reaction to the same
extent. The direction in which the reaction goes depends on the relative amounts of substrate and
products present. The products are continuously removed to maintain the reaction in living
organism. e.g. A + B ↔ C + D

3. An enzyme changes the rate only at which chemical equilibrium is reached; it does not affect
the position of the equilibrium.

4. An enzyme speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy barrier.

5. It works rapidly and therefore is required in small quantity.

6. It is soluble in water and works in aqueous solution in living cells.

7. All enzymes operate only on specific substrates. Only substrates of particular shape will fit
the active site of an enzyme.

8. All enzymes are proteins, some may have other associated molecules.

9. Enzyme may be denatured by excessive heat, extreme pH or various chemicals. This is

because enzymes are soluble proteins. Such extremities or chemicals cause enzymes to coagulate
by breaking down bonds in the molecule making them insoluble.

10. The activity of an enzyme is affected by temperature.

11. Enzyme activity is affected by pH of the medium. It worked best at an optimum pH.

12. Some enzymes work efficiently only in the presence of appropriate co-factors.

Examples of enzymes

1. Digestive: These are a group of enzymes involved in digestion of food in humans and

animals. e.g Amylase, Trypsin, lipase.

2. Metabolic: As the name indicates, these are the enzymes which aid in metabolism and also
detoxification of substances in the body. E.g oxireductase, hydrolases, ligases, isomerases,
transferse, lyases.

3. Liver: Liver enzymes detoxify substances in the liver and help in expulsion from the body
through urine. E.g Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, Serum glutamic pyruvic
transaminase.

Page 2 of 10
4. Nucleases: Breakdown nuclic acid into nucleotide e.g Topoisomerase, endonuclease, DNA
polymerase

5. Receptor enzymes: These are enzymes which are part of certain types of receptors. E.g:
phosphotases

CELL - THE MEMBRANE SYSTEM

All living organisms consist of cells. Cells are classified into two types:

1. Prokaryotic (Organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and therefore have DNA floating loosely
in the liquid center of the cell. Prokaryotes divide, and thus reproduce, by simple mitosis) and

2. Eukaryotic (Organisms that have a well-defined nucleus to house and protect the DNA.
Eukaryotes divide by meiosis for sexual reproduction). All plant and animal cells contain
organelles which are structures within the cell that are specialized for particular functions.

The membrane system of a cell performs many important functions. This system controls the
entrance and exit of substances into and out of the cell, and also provides for the manufacture
and packaging of substances. The membrane system of the cell consists of the plasma membrane,
which encloses the cell contents; the endoplasmic reticulum, which manufactures lipids and
proteins; the Golgi body, which packages substances manufactured within the cell; and various
vesicles, which perform different functions. Figure below

A
B

Page 3 of 10
Figure 1: Some typical cells; A) general cell features and B) an animal cell showing details of the nucleus

CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Organelle Structure/Function
Cell Membrane The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic
membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all
cells from the outside environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer
with embedded proteins. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to
ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in
and out of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the
cell from its surroundings. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of
cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell
signaling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular
structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular
cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

The cell membrane keeps the cell together by containing the organelles
within it.
Centrosomes The centrosomes contain the centrioles, which are responsible for cell-
division.
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that is sometimes described as "the
cell-matrix". It holds the organelles in place within the cell.
Golgi Apparatus The golgi apparatus of a cell is usually connected to an endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) because it stores and then transports the proteins
produced in the ER.
Lysosomes Lysosomes are tiny sacs filled with enzymes that enable the cell to
utilize its nutrients. Lysosomes also destroy the cell after it has died,
though there are some circumstances (diseases/conditions) in which
lysosomes begin to 'break-down' living cells.
Microvilli "Microvilli" is the pural form; "Microvillus" is the singular form.
Microvilli are finger-like projections on the outer-surface of the cell.
Not all cells have microvilli.
Their function is to increase the surface area of the cell, which is the area
through which diffusion of materials both into, and out of, the cell is
possible.
Mitochondria "Mitochondria" is a plural term; which is appropriate as these are not
found alone. The quantity of mitochondria within cells varies with the
type of cell. These are the energy producers within the cell. They
generate energy in the form of Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP).
Generally, the more energy a cell needs, the more mitochondria it
contains.
Nuclear Membrane The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus and the nucleolus from the

Page 4 of 10
 rest of the contents of the cell.
Nuclear Pore Nuclear pores permit substances (such as nutrients, waste, and cellular
information) to pass both into, and out of, the nucleus.
Nucleolus The nucleolus is responsible for the cell organelles (e.g. lysosomes,
ribosomes, etc.).
Nucleus The nucleus is the "Control Center" of the cell, which contains DNA
(genetic information) in the form of genes, and also information for the
formation of proteins. Information is carried on chromosomes, which are
a form of DNA.
Ribosomes Ribosomes interpret cellular information from the nucleus and so
synthesize appropriate proteins, as required.
Rough Endoplasmic "Rough" indicates that there are ribosomes attached to the surfaces of
Reticulum (RER) the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is where proteins
and lipids are produced within the cell, and is also concerned with the
transport of these materials within the cell.
Smooth Endoplasmic "Smooth" indicates that there are no ribosomes attached to the surfaces
Reticulum (SER) of the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is where
proteins and lipids are produced within the cell, and is also concerned
with the transport of these materials within the cell.

Plant organelles
Plant cells have several organelles not found in animal cells. Plastids are vesicle-type organelles
that perform a variety of functions in plants. Amylopasts store starch, and chromoplasts store
pigment molecules that give some plants their vibrant orange and yellow colors. Chloroplasts are
plastids that carry out photosynthesis. The interior of chloroplasts contains an elaborate
membrane system. Thylakoids bisect the chloroplasts, and attached to these platforms are stacks
of membranous sacs called grana. Each granum contains the enzymes necessary for
photosynthesis. The membrane system within the chloroplasts is bathed in a fluid called stroma,
which also contains enzymes.

Like mitochondria, chloroplasts resemble some ancient single-celled prokaryotes and also
contain their own DNA sequences. Their origin within eukaryotes is thought to have arisen from
the endosymbiotic relationship between a photosynthetic single-celled prokaryote that was
engulfed and remained within another prokaryotic cell.

ULTRASTRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE

PLASMA MEMBRANE OF A CELL
Page 5 of 10
Description
The plasma membrane, which is present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell, is the barrier
between the inner and outer surface of a cell. In animal cells, it is present in the outer most layer
of the cell and in plant cell it is present just beneath the cell wall. The plasma membrane
regulates what enters and exits the cell. Cells must maintain an appropriate amount of molecules
to function inside them. They must also have a way to keep things out or to allow things to enter.
This is the job of the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is like the guard at a gated
community. The guard must inspect those who enter and those who leave to make sure that only
the people and things needed in the community are there.

Structure
The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which is two layers of
phospholipids back to back. Phospholipids are lipids with a phosphate group attached to them.
The phospholipids have one head and two tails. The head is polar and hydrophilic, or water
loving. The tails are nonpolar and hydrophobic, or water hating.

Figure 2: Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail of a phospholipid.

Since water is a key component of living organisms, both inside and outside of the cell, this
causes the phospholipids to line up in two layers with the heads pointing outward and the tails
hidden in the middle. It basically looks like a phospholipid sandwich with the heads forming the
bread and the tails forming the meat in the middle.

Page 6 of 10
Figure 3: Diagram showing how the phospholipids line up to make the cell membrane.

Figure 4: Structure of Plasma Membrane

Located all throughout the surface of the plasma membrane are cholesterol molecules. These
molecules help stabilize the phospholipids and keep them in position. The plasma membrane is
also dotted with proteins. Some of the proteins are peripheral proteins that only go halfway

Page 7 of 10
through the membrane, while others are integral proteins that go entirely through the membrane.
These proteins serve as channels to allow the molecules to enter and leave the cell.

Intercellular communication
Intercellular communication (transfer of information) is an essential issue for continuity of life in
multicellular organisms. Several types of communication systems coordinate body functions to
maintain homeostasis. Conventionally, two major organ systems control all physiologic
processes within the human body: The endocrine system and the nervous system. Beside them, a
third organ system, immune system, is a super-system which provides recognition and destroys
foreign cells by specific coordination between their cells again within the body.

Transport of Cell Substances through Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane surrounding animal cells is where the exchange of substances inside and
outside of cells takes place. Some substances need to move from the extracellular fluid outside
cells to the inside of the cell, and some substances need to move from the inside of the cell to the
extracellular fluid.

Some of the proteins that are stuck in the plasma membrane help to form openings (channels) in
the membrane. Through these channels, some substances such as hormones or ions are allowed
to pass through. They either are “recognized” by a receptor (a protein molecule) within the cell
membrane, or they attach to a carrier molecule, which is allowed through the channels. Because
the plasma membrane is choosy about what substances can pass through it, it is said to be
selectively permeable.

Permeability describes the ease with which substances can pass through a border, such as a cell
membrane. Permeable means that most substances can easily pass through the membrane.
Impermeable means that substances cannot pass through the membrane. Selectively permeable or
semipermeable means that only certain substances are able to pass through the membrane.

Transporting substances across the plasma membrane can require that the cell use some of its
energy. If energy is used, the transport is called active. If molecules can pass through the plasma
membrane without using energy, the molecules are using passive transport.

Active transport
Sometimes, the molecules are too big to easily flow across the plasma membranes or dissolve in
the water so that they can be filtered through the membrane. In these cases, the cells put out a
little energy to help get molecules in or out of the cell.

Embedded in the plasma membrane are protein molecules, some of which form channels through
which other molecules can pass. Some proteins act as carriers — ie., they are “paid” in energy to
let a molecule attach to itself and then transport that molecule inside the cell.

During active transport, a protein moves a certain material across the membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Because this movement is happening

Page 8 of 10
against the concentration gradient, the cell expend energy that is usually derived from a
substance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). An example of active transport occurs in human
nerve cells. Here, sodium ions are constantly transported out of the cell into the external fluid
bathing the cell, a region of high concentration of sodium. (This transport of sodium sets up the
nerve cell for the impulse that will occur within it later.)

Passive transport
A membrane can allow molecules to be passively transported through it in four ways: diffusion,
osmosis, and filtration.
1. Diffusion: Sometimes organisms need to move molecules from an area where they are
highly concentrated to an area where the molecules are less concentrated. This transport
is much more easily done than moving molecules from a low concentration to a high
concentration. To go from a high concentration to a low concentration, in essence the
molecules need to only “spread” themselves, or diffuse, across the membrane separating
the areas of concentration.

In the human body, this action occurs in the lungs. In inspiration, oxygen gets into the
tiniest air sacs of the lungs, the alveoli. Surrounding the alveoli are the tiniest blood
vessels — capillaries. The capillaries in the lungs, called pulmonary capillaries, contain
the lowest concentration of oxygen in the body, because by the time the blood gets to the
tiniest vessels, most of the oxygen has been used up by other organs and tissues.

Thus, the tiniest air sacs of the lungs have a higher concentration of oxygen than do the
capillaries. This means that the oxygen from the alveoli of the lungs can spread across the
membrane between the air sac and the capillary, getting into the bloodstream.

2. Osmosis: This term is used when talking about water molecules diffusing across a
membrane. Basically, the diffusion of water (osmosis) works as described above.
However, with osmosis, the concentration of substances in the water is taken into
consideration. If a solution is isotonic, that means the concentrations of the substances
(solutes) and water (solvent) on both sides of the membrane are equal. If one solution is
hypotonic, there is a lower concentration of substances (and more water) in it when
compared to another solution. If a solution is hypertonic, there is a higher concentration
of substances in it (and less water) when compared to another solution.

For example, the blood in the body contains a certain amount of salt. The normal
concentration is isotonic. If suddenly there is too high a concentration of salt, the blood
becomes hypertonic (too many salt molecules). This excess of salt forces water out of the
blood cells in an attempt to even things out. But the effect this action has is actually that
of shrinking the blood cells.

This shrinking of cells is called crenation (not cremation). If too much fluid is in the
bloodstream, the blood cells have too few molecules of salt in comparison, making them
hypotonic. Then, the blood cells take in water in an attempt to normalize the blood and
make it isotonic. However, if the blood cells need to take in too much water to bring

Page 9 of 10
 everything back into balance, they can swell until they burst. This bursting of cells is
called hemolysis (hemo = blood; lysis = break apart).

3. Filtration: The last form of passive transport is used most often in the capillaries.
Capillaries are so thin (their membranes are only one cell thick) that diffusion easily takes
place through them. But remember that animals have a blood pressure. The pressure at
which the blood flows through the capillaries is enough force to push water and small
solutes that have dissolved in the water right through the capillary membrane. So, in
essence, the capillary membrane acts as filter paper, allowing fluid to surround the body’s
cells and keeping large molecules from getting into the tissue fluid.

4. Endocytosis: The final mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane
is endocytosis, a process in which a small patch of plasma membrane encloses particles
or tiny volumes of fluid that are at or near the cell surface. The membrane enclosure then
sinks into the cytoplasm and pinches off from the membrane, forming a vesicle that
moves into the cytoplasm. When the vesicle contains particulate matter, the process is
called phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of fluid, the process is
called pinocytosis. 

Along with the other mechanisms for transport across the plasma membrane, endocytosis ensures
that the internal cellular environment will be able to exchange materials with the external
environment and that the cell will continue to thrive and function.

Homeostasis: how cell transport help cells to maintain homeostasis

Homeostasis, is the physiological process by which the internal systems of the body (e.g. blood
pressure, body temperature, acid-base balance) are maintained at equilibrium despite variations
in the external conditions.

Active transport is movement of a molecule through a membrane against its concentration

gradient, using a carrier protein and energy from ATP. The body uses this in most if not all cells
to some degree. This is one of the mechanisms that the kidney uses to maintain healthy serum
sodium and potassium levels and to maintain pH. If the body needs to get rid of a little more H+
ion (acid) into urine that is even more acidic than the blood, it does so with active transport of
H+ ions from the blood into the urine. Passive movement through osmosis would cause H+ to re-
enter the blood from the urine because it is more concentrated in the urine.

Active and passive transport help to maintain homeostasis because they transport
fluid/water/materials across the plasma lemma (cell membrane). All of these materials need to
exist in certain ratios for the cell to function properly.

Page 10 of 10