DYNAMICS

Titles in the Foundation of Engineering Series

J. A. Cain and R. Hulse, Structural Mechanics
G. E. Drabble, Dynamics
R. G. Powell, Electromagnetism
P. Silvester, Electric Circuits
FOUNDATIONS OF ENGINEERING
Series Editor: G. E. Drabble

Dynamics
G. E. Drabble

M
MACMILLAN
© G. E. Drabble 1990

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First published 1990

Published by
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Drabble, George E. (George Edmund), 1924-
Dynamics.
1. Dynamics
I. Title II. Series
531'.11

ISBN 978-0-333-47379-5 ISBN 978-1-349-10448-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-10448-2

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CONTENTS

Series Editor's Foreword Vll

How to use this book ix

Programme
1 Revision 67
2 Kinematics of Mechanisms: Velocity Diagrams 67
3 Kinematics of Mechanisms: Acceleration Diagrams 93
4 Kinematics of Mechanisms: Analysis 121
5 Non-linear Acceleration 147
6 Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 183
7 Work, Energy and Power 221
8 Momentum 257
9 Coupled and Geared Systems 295
10 Simple Vibration 339

Index 369
SERIES EDITOR'S FOREWORD

This series of programmed texts has been written specifically for first year students
on degree courses in engineering. Each book covers one of the core subjects required
by electrical, mechanical, civil or general engineering students, and the contents have
been designed to match the first year requirements of most universities and
polytechnics.
The layout of the texts is based on that of the well-known text, Engineering
Mathematics by K. Stroud (first published by Macmillan in 1970, and now in its
third edition). The remarkable success of this book owes much to the skill of its
author, but it also shows that students greatly appreciate a book which aims primarily
to help them to learn their chosen subjects at their own pace. The authors of this
present series acknowledge their debt to Mr Stroud, and hope that by adapting his
style and methods to their own subjects they have produced equally helpful and
popular texts.
Before publication of each text the comments of a class of first year students, of
some recent engineering graduates and of some lecturers in the field have been obtained.
These helped to identify any points which were particularly difficult or obscure to
the average reader or which were technically inaccurate or misleading. Subsequent
revisions have eliminated the difficulties which were highlighted at this stage, but it
is likely that, despite these efforts, a few may have passed unnoticed. For this the
authors and publishers apologise, and would welcome criticisms and suggestions from
readers.
Readers should bear in mind that mastering any engineering subject requires
considerable effort. The aim of these texts is to present the material as simply as
possible and in a way which enables students to learn at their own pace, to gain
confidence and to check their understanding. The responsibility for learning is,
however, still very much their own.

G.E. Drabble

VII
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book is one of a series which has been designed to help you in learning the basic
subjects of a first-year course in Engineering. You may have seen similar texts before,
but if not, then you need to understand that they are all written in short sections,
called frames. Each frame normally contains just one or two facts that you need to
understand or to apply, before going further. So the texts are designed to be read
one frame at a time, in order, without skipping. Frequently, a frame will finish with
a question, or a short exercise, to test that you have understood the work up to that
point. You should always attempt the appropriate response to such endings: answer
the question asked; undertake the exercise; write down your version of the formula
or theory asked for, and so on. When your response is incorrect, find out why as soon as
you can, either by re-reading the previous work, or by getting help from someone
else. If you cannot do this immediately, make a note, and do so as soon as you have
the opportunity.
A note on accuracy. The margin of error of most engineering calculations is of the
order of I%, and some calculations may have a margin of error nearer to 5%. One
reason for this is that the data available are often not known to greater accuracy,
and it is impossible for the accuracy of a calculation to be higher than that of the
data used. Normally, three-figure accuracy is sufficient for most engineering calculations.
But the purpose of this text is to help you to learn engineering theory. If, in the text,
a wheel reaction force on a car is given as 2127.5 N, this does not mean that the
answer is accurate to that extent. But if you check the calculations yourself (as you
should frequently do), you will know you are doing them correctly if you arrive at
the same answer. Of course, you cannot always expect to reach exactly the same
answer; the order in which the operations are performed, and even the make of
calculator, may result in small variations.

IX
Programme 1

REVISION
 DYNAMICS

1
In this first programme, we deal with the simple treatment of vectors, the basic
laws of statics, elementary kinematics, and elementary kinetics. You may have covered
this work before, but look through the contents of it quickly, even if you do not work
through all the examples and problems, so that if there are any points about which
you are not sure, you have a chance to brush them up a little. Begin by writing down
the definitions of vector, statics, kinematics and kinetics. Remember: always try to
answer the questions asked before referring to the answers given, which are usually
in the following frame.

2
A vector quantity is one which possesses both magnitude and direction.
Statics is the general study of force systems.
Kinematics is the study of motion without regard to the forces which
cause it.
Kinetics is the study of forces, and their relation to motion.

You may have defined Statics as 'The study of bodies at rest' or something similar.
You were not far wrong, but as you will see, we often have to use the techniques of
Statics when dealing with moving bodies as well as stationary ones. More of this
later. We shall now look at Vectors. Write down four physical quantities which must
be expressed as vectors. If you can't think of four, write down as many as you can.

3
Displacement is a vector.
Velocity is a vector.
Acceleration is a vector.
Force is a vector.

You may have thought of several not on the list, particularly if you are keener on
electrical theory than on mechanical. But these are the four that we shall be most
concerned with in this book. We shall eventually need to add vectors together-forces,
velocities, and accelerations. This will not be difficult, but we have to stick to the
rules. What is the principle to be observed when we add vectors?

2
 REVISION

4
Vectors must be added graphically

The vectors must be drawn, end-to-end, correct as to length and direction, the arrows
on them all running the same way. This, of course, is to take account of the direction
of the vector as well as its magnitude. What would be the result of adding a
displacement of 3 km north to a displacement of 4 km west?

5
5 km in direction 53.1 deg. west of north

The solution is shown below; both diagrams (a) and (b) are correct; the vectors may
be taken in either order. The resultant vector is shown as a chain-line, to distinguish
it from the component vectors, and the arrow on this vector opposes the direction
of those on the components. Diagram (c) shows how not to add the two vectors; the
arrows are not running the same way.

4kN 4kN
~-------. 3 kN 3 kN
3kN

(b) (c)

4kN

When the diagram is very simple, as here, we obtain the result by calculation. We
need only to sketch the diagram, and not to draw it accurately. We used the words
'resultant' and 'component' above. When a number of vectors are added together,
the answer is called the resultant: each of the vectors is called a component of the result.

6
We now turn to Statics and recall how to find the resultant of forces acting at a
point. Here is a simple problem. Try to solve it before turning over.
Example. A body is subjected to two forces, both of magnitude t 0 Nand the second
at 45 deg. to the first. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force?
The answer to the first part (the magnitude) can be calculated. Just sketch the vector
diagram, and do not try to draw it accurately.

3
 DYNAMICS

7
118.48 N midway between the two forces

Here is the sketch. (a) shows the two forces, and (b) is the vector diagram.

10 N

/
(a) (b)
k__.10N

If we draw the perpendicular from the apex of the isosceles triangle, it is then easy
to see that R = 2 x 10 cos 22to = 18.48 N. (Or you can use the Cosine formula. We
shall look at this in Frame 14.)

8
It is always more accurate to calculate than to draw and measure. This brings us to
force resolution. This consists of replacing a single force by two components, acting
in two directions mutually at right-angles. In the figure below, the single force F is
expressed as the two components F x and F Y in the x and y directions shown. The
magnitudes of the two components are:

Fx= F cosO; Fy = F sine

Some people find this difficult to remember; they become confused as to which
component is which. It might help to remember that the COS component is ClOSe
to the angle (the sine component being on the opposite side of the triangle).

/~;-r Fx
So, to find the resultant of a number of forces acting at a point, we choose an arbitrary
set of x- and y-axes, calculate the x and y components of every force, add all the
x components, add all they components, and finally, calculate the resultant of the two
final components. For practice, solve the problem of Frame 6 again, using this
technique of resolution. The answer is, of course, the same as before: 18.48 Nat 22t 0 •
You can choose any set of x- and y-axes you want, of course, but it is clearly simpler
to choose directions which will make for the easiest calculation. This means that you
choose either horizontal and vertical axes or axes at 45° to the horizontal and vertical.
In the solution following, we have chosen horizontal and vertical axes.

4
 REVISION

9
Here is the diagram: (a) shows the two forces; (b) shows x- andy-axes, arbitrarily
horizontal and vertical; (c) shows the x andy components; and (d) the vector diagram.

R
7·07N

1
10 sin 45°
(a) /10N

--
(c) (d)

&_:___
10 N 10 10 cos 45° 17 · 07 N

The resultant x and y components, F x and F Y are given by:

F,. = 10 sin 45° = 7.07 N

The resultant, R, of these components is calculated from the triangle in (d):

R = J { (17.07) 2 + (7.07) 2 } = 18.48 N

and angle e from:

e=tan -l (7.07 117.07) = 22.50°

10
Here are three statements concerning the Polygon of Forces.
l. If a number of co-planar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they may be
represented, in magnitude and direction, by the sides of a closed polygon.
2. If a number of co-planar forces acting at a point are not in equilibrium, the single
extra force required to produce equilibrium (the equilibrant) may be found from
the single vector needed to close the polygon.
3. If a number of co-planar forces acting at a point are not in equilibrium, the resultant
force is the force which is equal in magnitude to the equilibrant but opposite in
direction.
The example solved in Frame 7 makes use of the third statement. Any system of
co-planar forces acting at a point may be solved by means of a force polygon. But
drawing is time-consuming, and can be inaccurate, and it is usually preferable to use
the technique of force resolution. There are some occasions, however, where a force
polygon solution is preferable. You will find one in the problems which follow in
Frame 16.

5
 DYNAMICS

11
The principle of the Parallelogram of Forces establishes that the resultant of two
forces acting at a point may be represented vectorially by the diagonal of the
parallelogram of which the two forces are represented by two adjacent sides.
The principle of the Triangle of Forces established that when three co-planar forces
acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented vectorially by the three
sides of a triangle.
But you don't need to bother about these two principles, because the Polygon of
Forces is a more general statement which includes both of them, and which covers
any number of co-planar forces acting at point, whether in equilibrium or not. Force
resolution is a method of mathematically analysing the geometry of a force polygon.
Sometimes, although rarely, it may be desirable to draw the polygon accurately. and
solve by actual measurement.

12
Solution of Statics problems, and indeed, of all problems in engineering theory,
requires a certain fluency in mathematics. You have probably discovered yourself
that if you fail to get the 'book' answer to a problem, the reason is often a
mathematical slip. The only final answer to this is, practice, and more practice, but
the following suggestions may be of some help.
1. Keep work neat, even if working a problem in 'rough'. Experience shows a high
correlation between untidy scribbling and mathematical slips. Perform your
procedures steadily and carefully, and set down your work neatly and clearly.
2. If you fail to obtain the correct answer, begin the solution again, on a fresh sheet,
not referring to your first attempt at all. If possible, look for an alternative way
of solving. (If you come up again with the same answer, there is always the
possibility that the 'book' answer may be wrong.).
3. Fractions are traps for the careless worker. Example: A car travels at 15.6 m s- 1.
To travel 12m takes (15.6/12)= 1.3 seconds! If you used this calculation to
determine the time to travel I metre, the incorrect answer of 15.6 seconds would
most probably be obvious, but in this case, it could easily be overlooked.
We mentioned the Cosine formula in Frame 7. This, with the Sine formula, is
valuable in solving triangles, that is, determining the lengths of all sides and values
of all angles. Frames 13 and 14 are devoted to a statement of the trigonometric
formulae you are most likely to encounter in this book.

6
 REVISION

13

sin()= ajc; cos()= b/c; tan()= ajb

This may seem rather basic, but many students get them wrong. It may help to think
that COS() is calculated by taking side b of the triangle ClOSe to the angle, while
sin() uses the side which iS IN front of e.
It is easily seen from the triangle that:

sin()= cos(90°- ());cos()= sin(90°- ());tan()= sin ()jcos ()

Some special values (found by analysing 30-60-90 and 45-45-90 triangles):

sin 30° =cos 60° =!;sin 60° =cos 30° = -!J3 = 0.866
tan 30° = 1J 3 = 0.5774; tan 60° = J 3 = 1.732
sin45°=Cos45°=-!J2=0.707; tan45°= 1

Other special values:

sin oo = 0; cos oo = 1; tan oo = 0

sin 90° = l; cos 90° = 0; tan 90° = oo (infinity)
sin 180° = 0; cos 180° = -1
sin( 180°- ())=sin(); cos( 180°- ()) = -cos()

The angle-summation identities:

sin( A+ B)= sin A cos B +cos A sin B

sin( A- B)= sin A cos B- cos A sin B
cos( A+ B)= cos A cos B- sin A sin B
cos( A- B)= cos A cos B +sin A sin B
tan A+ tan B tan A - tan B
tan(A +B)= 1 A B; tan (A - B) = - - - - - -
-tan tan 1 +tan A tan B

The sine and cosine formulae are given in the following frame, but try and write them
down yourself first.

7
 DYNAMICS

14

We use a special notation of the triangle for the sine and cosine formulae. The sine
formula:

a b c
sin A sin B sin C

The cosine formula:

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 - 2ca cos B
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C

15
Here is a summary of the work so far.
1. Force is a vector quantity, having magnitude and direction.
2. Most systems of co-planar forces acting at a point may be analysed by the method
of resolution:
(a) Choose a set of x- andy-axes at right-angles.
(b) Calculate the x and y components of all forces.
(c) Calculate the algebraic sum of the x and y components, F x and F Y.
(d) For a system in equilibrium, both these will be zero.
(e) For a non-equilibrium system, the sums of (c) will be the components of the
resultant, R, directed at an angle e to the x-axis. Then:

3. When resolution does not give a ready solution, the geometry of the polygon may
provide an alternative analytical solution. The Sine and Cosine formulae may be
found helpful.

8
 REVISION

16
PROBLEMS

SN
9·72 N 24· 31 N

20N

30N
1. Diagram (a) shows forces of 20 N, 8 N, 16 Nand 30 N acting at a single point in
relative directions of0°, 70°, 150° and 225°. Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant of the four forces. [Ans. 13.59 Nat 204.8°.]
2. Five forces acting at the same point are shown in diagram (b) above. Given that
the forces are in equilibrium, determine the magnitude of the force F, and the value
of the angle e. [Ans. 21.95 N; 15.63°.]
Hint: write equilibrium equations along horizontal and vertical, giving F cos eand
F sin e. Divide one by the other to get tan e and hence e. Substitute in either
equation to find F.

12 kN

F,

8 kg
(c)

3. Diagram (c) shows a joint of a roof member, with a vertical load of 12 kN acting
on it. The force in the lower inclined member is 16 kN compressive. Evaluate the
magnitudes of the two forces F 1 and F 2 • [Ans. 10.0 kN, 10.39 kN.]
Hints: the forces at the joint are in equilibrium. Do not resolve along horizontal
and vertical directions, but along, and perpendicular to the slope. One equation
will give F 1 , and the second, F 2 .
4. Three hanging weights are connected by strings so that two strings pass over
pulleys, while the third hangs free as shown in diagram (d) above. The masses of
the weights are shown. Assuming the pulleys frictionless, determine the inclinations,
a and {3, of the strings to the vertical. [Ans. 28.96°, 46.5r.]
Hint: sketch the polygon of the three forces acting at the string junction, and use
the cosine rule to determine the angles. (See Frame 14.)

9
 DYNAMICS

17
If you have a system of forces, all of which are parallel, you cannot use the methods
we have set down for forces acting at a point; you cannot draw a polygon with lines
all of which are parallel. So we have to make use of the principle of moments. First,
we define the term 'moment'. Then we set down the rules for analysing a system of
parallel forces. You can probably do these things yourself. Write down your definition
of the moment of a force. Then check your version with the answer in Frame 18.

18
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the
force, and the perpendicular distance from the point to the
line of action of the force.

The moment of a force is an indication of its turning effect; a given force acting at a
greater distance will produce a greater turning effect. Pushing a door open at the
edge is easier than pushing it at a point close to the hinges. The principle of moments
allows us to make two statements about parallel forces. The first is about parallel
forces which are not in equilibrium, and the second is about parallel forces which are
in equilibrium. The second statement is a special case of the first. These statements
follow in Frame 19, but try and write your version of them first before reading on.

19
The moment of the resultant of a number of parallel forces
with respect to a point is the same as the algebraic sum of
the moments of the individual forces.
When a number of parallel forces are in equilibrium, the
total moment of the forces about any point will be zero.

The word 'algebraic' is a reminder that moments, like forces, must be accorded a
sign when writing a moment equation. Some forces will tend to turn one way, and
others the other way. One may choose the point about which moments are taken. It
is often convenient, with a system of parallel forces, to let the point lie on the line of
action of one of the unknown forces.

10
 REVISION

20
Here is a revision example. When solving it, read the final sentence of the previous
frame.
Example. A light horizontal beam rests on a rigid support at B and is also supported
by a vertical wire at E. Various vertical loads are carried at A, C, D and F, as
indicated in the figure. Calculate the support reaction force at B and the wire
tension force at E.

This is a simple problem, so you should be able to solve it without further help. If
you have trouble, the solution follows.

21
The force system is of course in equilibrium. We write a moment equilibrium equation,
taking point E as our reference point. The reaction force at B is designated by R.
The equation is:

(2 X 7)-(R X 5-!-)+(1-!- X 3!)+(4 X 1-!-)-(3 X 1)=0

In the equation, an anti-clockwise moment about E has been taken as positive. The
equation can be arranged and simplified:

R X 51 = 14 + 5 t +6- 3 = 22 t
R =4.045 kN

A similar moment equilibrium equation is now written with B as the reference point.
Call the wire tension force T; it clearly acts upwards.

(2 X lt)-(1-!- X 2)-(4 X 4)+(T X 5-!-)-(3 X 6-!-)=0

which simplifies to

r x st = t9t + t6 + 3-3 = 351

T=6.455 kN

The sum of R and T is seen to be 101 kN which is the sum of the external loads.

11
 DYNAMICS

22
When parallel forces are not in equilibrium, two things are needed to define the
resultant force: the magnitude, and the line of action. The magnitude of the resultant
is determined by algebraically adding the forces in one direction-the term
'algebraically' reminding us that some forces may be directed one way and some
another, and a sign convention will be needed. The line of action is determined by
applying the first of the two statements of Frame 19.
Example. The diagram below shows two simple systems of parallel forces. Find the
magnitude, and line of action, of the resultant for each case.

--~12kN -4kN

-akN
(a) (b)

--~6kN -5kN

When a force system is in equilibrium, and one or more of the forces is unknown,
we usually choose a point on the line of action of one of the unknown forces about
which to take moments, as in Frame 21. But in these examples, there is no guide
pointing to a suitable fulcrum, so any point may be chosen. In order that you can
check your working, choose in each case a point 2 m below the lowest force; this
will agree with the solutions which follow in Frame 23.
Your answers should be, for (a), 26 kN on a line 0.23 m above the 8 kN force:
and for (b), 3 kN to left, on a line 0.333 m above the 4 kN force.

23
Example (a) R = 12 + 8 + 6 = 26 kN to the right

Height above datum, his given by:

R X h=(6 X 2)+(8 X 5)+(12 X 7)= 136

h = 136/26 = 5.23 m

Example (b) R = 12-4-5 = 3 kN to the left (taking left as +ve)

Height h above datum (taking anti-clockwise moments as + ve):

R X h=(12 X 5)-(5 X 2)-(4 X 7)=22

h = 22/3 = 7.333 m

12
 REVISION

24
In solving the example of the previous frame, there is, of course, no obligation to
choose the reference point stated for moments; the working would indeed be slightly
simpler by choosing, say, a line through the lowest force, and you can solve the
problems alternatively this way if you prefer. There will be a few more problems to
practise on in Frame 29.
The example also shows that you don't have to adopt a rigid and arbitrary sign
convention for directions of forces or moments. In part (a), we chose 'left-to-right is
positive' simply because all the forces are in that direction; in part (b) we chose the
opposite convention, i.e. 'right-to-left is positive', because a very quick check shows
that the resultant will be in that direction. In regard to moments, since we take
moments about a point below all forces, the convention 'clockwise is positive' is
obvious for part (a), but in part (b), because the force of 12 kN has an anti-clockwise
moment about the chosen point, we have arbitrarily chosen to use 'anti-clockwise is
positive'. But part (b) can be solved just as simply using the first moment convention.
Each of the four moment terms will simply change sign, resulting in the same answer.

25
When dealing with systems of parallel forces, sometimes a system reduces to two
equal forces, acting in opposite directions, but not in the same line. Such a system is
called a couple. The magnitude of the couple is the resultant moment of the force
system about any point, and this will be found to be constant. Its 'sense' (i.e. clockwise
or anti-clockwise) must also be stated. As an example, let us take part b of the example
of Frame 22, just completed, but replace the 12 kN force by a force of 9 kN. The
solution now will be:

R=9-4-5=0

Taking moments of the three forces about the same point as before, 2 m below the
lowest force, and again taking anti-clockwise moments as + ve:

Moment= (9 x 5)- (4 x 7)- (5 x 2) = + 7 kN m (i.e. anti-clockwise)

and you can show for yourself that you will always get this answer, whichever point
you choose to take moments about.
Problem 2 of Frame 29 offers another example of a couple.

13
 DYNAMICS

26
A common case of parallel forces is that of the weights of a system of masses. If you
imagine a number of small concentrated masses arranged along a horizontal bar, the
weights of all masses will act vertically and will thus be all parallel. The resultant of
these weights will pass through a point which is called the centre of gravity of the
system.

6m 1
+ x, J6m 1g ~6m291 ~ 6m39
x2 _I .
x3 +R
x _I
I

In the diagram above, we can say:

R = t5m 1 g + t5m 2 g + t5m 3 g etc.

Rx x = bm 1 gx 1 + t5m 2 gx 2 + t5m 3 gx 3 etc.

So, in general, the x co-ordinate of the centre of gravity of a system of masses is given
by the expression:

_ 1:(t5mgx) 1:(t5mx)
X = = -=---=--,-:-
1;((jmg) 1:(t5m)

where t5m is a 'mass element' (t5m 1 , t5m 2 , etc.). In the above expression, g is seen to
cancel out; the location of the point G is thus seen to be independent of actual weight.
The term centre of mass or mass centre, is therefore preferable to 'centre of gravity'.
For two-dimensional bodies, such as flat non-symmetrical sheets, two co-ordinates
x and ji, are necessary to locate G, and for three-dimensional bodies, three co-ordinates,
.x, ji and z.
When the mass of a body is distributed non-uniformly and continuously, the 1:
(sigma) terms are replaced by integral signs, the t5m is replaced by the differential dm,
and we have to determine x by integration, instead of a simple arithmetical calculation.
An example is given in Frame 28.

14
 REVISION

27
We shall work through two examples before the next set of problems. The first is an
application of the formula of Frame 26, comprising simple arithmetical work, while
the second shows the use of the calculus. Here is the first example.
z

All dimensions in em

Example. The figure shows a composite solid body comprising a cuboid 4 em by

5 em by 2 em with a cylindrical projecting column l i em diameter. Calculate the
co-ordinates of the mass centre G with respect to the x-y-z co-ordinate framework
shown.
We use the formula of Frame 26. There are two mass 'elements' with mass centres
at their respective geometric centres. We call the material density, p.

X= p(4 X 5 X 2) X 2 + p((nj4)(l l) 2 X 3) X l = 80 + 7.216 = l.S 47 em

p(4 X 5 X 2)+p((nj4)(1i 2 X 3) 40+7.216

-= p(4 X 5 X 2) X 2! +p((nj4)(1i) 2 X 3) X 3! = 100+25.255 = 2.653 em

y p(4 X 5 X 2) + p((n/4)(1 i) 2 X 3) 40 + 7.216

z=p(4 X5 X 2) X 1 +p((nj4)(1i) 2 X 3) X 3! = 40+25.255 = 1.382 em

p(4 X 5 X 2) + p((nj4)( 1l) 2 X 3) 40 + 7.216

You see that p cancels out. This simple arithmetical method can be used for any
body which can be divided into regular symmetrical 'elements'. In the case of such
a body with a hole in it, you treat the hole as a negative mass. Observe that the
bottom line in every instance is the same as the top line with the co-ordinates of the
mass centres of the elements excluded.
In Frame 28 we shall determine the location of the mass centre of a regular cone
by the use of calculus.

15
 DYNAMICS

28
8

The figure shows a uniform solid cone of material density p, base radius R, length
of axis H. A co-ordinate axis o-x coincides with the cone axis. We require the location
of G, the mass centre, shown a distance .X from the apex o. We examine an 'element'
distant x from o and of thickness Dx. Such an element is a thin disc of radius y. The
mass of such an element, Dm, is calculated from:
Dm = p x ny 2 x Dx
_ L( Dmx) L(pny 2Dx )x
Then X - - -------=---,-----
- L(Dm) - L(pny 2Dx)

The similar triangles OAB, OCD show that y = x x R/ H. Substituting:

_ L(pnx 2(R/ H) 2 Dx)x
X = -=-c------;;-,----,------,.-::--c-
L(pnx2(Rj H) Dx) 2

which reduces on cancelling to:

_ L(x 3 Dx)
X= =-c-----;;-::-
L(X2Dx)

Expressed as an integral, with limits of x from 0 to H:

-_
x-IH
I
H
o
(x3 dx)
- H-13-4H
_
[l 4]H
4X
1 3
o _
lH4
4 _ 3

o (x2 dx) [Jx Jo 3H

We can use this result to locate the mass centre of a truncated cone-a tapered
shaft, for example-without having to have recourse to integration again. We just
treat the truncated cone as a combination of two whole cones, one of them being
'negative'. (See Problem 4 in Frame 29.)
A summary of work on parallel forces before the next set of problems:
1. The magnitude of the resultant of a number of parallel forces is the algebraic sum
of the forces.
2. The moment of the resultant of a number of parallel forces about a point is the
algebraic sum of the moments of the individual forces about the same point.

16
 REVISION

29
PROBLEMS

l. 10 N 6N 2N 5 kN 7 kN 3 kN SkN 12 kN 4kN

~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ t ~
I.0·4m,l?·3~~ I.
1m
.I.
1% m
.I I.
4m 4m
.I
(a) (b)
·'·
(c)

Calculate the magnitude of the resultants of the three force systems shown. Find
also the location of the lines of action. [ Ans. (a) 18 N; 0.2ll m from left. (b) 5 kN;
2.9 mfrom left. (c) 3 kN; 5.333 mfrom left.]
2. 4kN 2 kN 10 kN 4kN

!I. !.I. l !
2m 3m 2m
·I
·'·
Evaluate the resultant of the system of parallel forces shown. [Ans. A couple,
18 kN m anti-clockwise.]
3. 3% kN 4kN 2 kN 2 kN

l !
* * f
1..1.
Y.m
2m
.I. 3m
.I. 2m .1. xm .I
A loaded horizontal beam rests on two supports and carries four loads, as shown.
Determine the value of distance x, i.e. the overhang of the right-hand load of
2 kN so that the two support reaction forces should be equal. [Ans. 2.6875 m.]
Hint: each reaction force will be half the total downward load. Take moments
about left-hand end.
4. A solid steel shaft is 1.8 m long and tapers uniformly from 10 em diameter at one
end to 5 em diameter at the other end. Locate the mass centre. [Ans. 70.71 em.
from end.]
Hint: see Frame 28. Treat as two complete cones, one negative.

17
 DYNAMICS

30
We must define the term centroid.

X v y

oL---------------~--------L-~----x

The figure above shows any closed area, set in a co-ordinate frame of reference o-x- y.
The point C is defined as the centroid of the area. It is located by the co-ordinates x
and y, which in turn are defined by the expressions:

_ :E(JAx) - :E(JAy)
X= :E(JA); y= :E(JA)

where JA is any element of area having co-ordinates x and y as shown.

These expressions are similar to those of Frame 26 which define the mass centre
of a body. This is why 'centroid' is sometimes confused with 'mass centre'. Remember
the following:
I. Mass centre is an indication of the distribution of mass of a solid body. Centroid is
an indication of the distribution of area of a shape, or enclosed figure.
2. :E(Jmx) is the product of a mass and a length: dimensions are thus ML.
:E(bax) is the product of an area and a length: dimensions are thus L 3 .
For symmetrical figures, the centroid always lies on an axis of symmetry. You should
be able to recall how to locate the centroid of a triangle. Try to do so, and then read
the answer in the next frame.

31
The centroid of a triangle lies on the intersection of the
medians; i.e. the lines joining an apex to the mid-point of
the opposite side.

The centroid of a figure consisting of a composite of regular figures, such as rectangles,

circles, triangles, etc. is located by taking 'moments' of each sub-area about
appropriate axes; thus, the formulae above may be modified to:

18
 REVISION

32
yl
I
CDI ®
80cm
c,+ oj c2+ ct- X

I
I·
I
x
.I
100cm

Example. Determine x, the location of the centroid C of the composite figure shown.
Use the formula at the end of Frame 31. The figure is already divided into three
'sub-areas', and the co-ordinate axes shown. Take care with the following.
1. Remember that the medians of a triangle intersect at one-third their length.
2. The centroid of a semi-circle is 4R/3n from the centre, where R is the radius.
3. Because the semi-circle is on the opposite side of they-axis, I:( bAx) will be negative.
You should get 44.4 7 em for your answer. The solution follows.

33
Adapting the formula of Frame 31:

- Alxl + A2x2 + A3x3

X = ---=----=----=---=-----=----=-
Al+A2+A3
(tn( 40) 2 )( -4 X 40/3n) + (80 X 100)50 + (t X 80 X 40)( 100 + 40/3)
tn(40) 2 + (80 X 100) + (t X 80 X 40)
-42666.7 + 400000 + 18133.3
2513.3 + 8000 + 1600
538 666.6
=44.47 em
12113.3
Identify your mistakes, if any. Notice that although I:( JAx) for the semi-circle was
negative, the actual area (I:( bA)) is positive. You can, if you prefer, re-calculate the
problem, using another y-axis. For example, they-axis could be a tangent to the top
of the semi-circle. Then all the figure would be to the right of the axis, and all the
I:(JAx) terms would then be positive.

19
 DYNAMICS

34
Friction is a phenomenon which crops up in Statics, and also in kinetics. It is a term
which is frequently misused. A friction force occurs when one surface slides across
another, or tends to slide. When this happens, slight roughnesses and irregularities
on the surfaces in contact interfere, and cause resistance to the sliding motion.
Friction can be reduced by attention to the contacting surfaces; a smooth polished
surface will offer less resistance to sliding than a rough one. Much engineering
production work is concerned with producing surfaces which will slide across each
other with minimum friction.
Think of a few examples of engineering devices where surfaces slide together.

35
A piston in a cylinder.
A shaft in a bearing.

These two are probably the commonest of many possible examples.

Now if two metal surfaces slide together, and there is a resisting force, work will
be done, and this will produce heat. In the early days of industrial machinery, this
was not such a serious problem as it is now, because speeds of machines were then
much slower, and the heat generated by friction forces often could be dissipated. But
as speeds increased, friction became much more serious; a shaft running in a bearing
could get so hot that the bearing surface actually melted, and the bearing and shaft
fused together, or 'seized up'.
What is done to try to prevent seizing up when surfaces slide together?

36
The surfaces are lubricated

Oil is fed to the surfaces, which has the effect of reducing the friction force.
In fact, oil or grease has the function of separating the surfaces. When a shaft runs
in a bearing, the surfaces are, for the most part, separated by a very thin film of oil.
Oil has another function. What is this?

20
 REVISION

37
I It dissipates heat I
Although oil reduces friction force, and thus reduces heat, some heat is produced,
and in a modern engine, oil is pumped through the system, so that heat is conducted
away as it is produced. The oil is then cooled before being re-circulated.

38
When unlubricated surfaces slide together, the friction force may be determined
approximately according to certain laws which are called the Laws of Dry Friction.
These are:
1. The friction force opposes, or tends to oppose, the relative motion.
2. The friction force is proportional to the normal reaction force between the two
surfaces. ('Normal' means, perpendicular to the surface.)
3. The friction force is independent of the surface area in contact.
4. Friction force is independent of speed of sliding.
You should understand that these laws are based on experiment only, and cannot
be proved. They are what are called empirical laws. For this reason, calculation of
friction forces is always approximate only. Let us look at some of the implications
of the three laws.
The first law is clear. Whichever way you move, or try to move one surface across
another, the friction force will act against you. It is a reaction force.
The second law may be considered invariable for our purposes, but in practice,
two surfaces could be pressed together with such force that one of them could be
damaged: a steel block on a wooden surface could cut through the surface, for example,
and this law would then cease to be valid.
The third law also has a limitation. You may have performed an experiment with
a wood block on a wood surface, showing that changing the surface area does not
change the friction force. But if you were to place spiked feet on the block, these
could cut the surface, and again, the law would not be valid.
Engineers have found by experience that certain materials in surface contact exhibit
less friction force than others. For example, it was found that a steel shaft would run
in a brass bearing with low friction. This friction would become even less when the
bearing had been 'run in' for some time, so that the surface became polished by the
continuous rubbing.

21
 DYNAMICS

39
Experimental work based on the second Law of Dry Friction allows us to define the
coefficient of friction. This is defined as the ratio of friction force to normal reaction
force. For a friction force F, and a normal reaction force N:

F=J1N

and 11 (Greek mu) is called the coefficient of friction, or friction coefficient for the
two surfaces in contact. Values of 11 taken from textbooks and data books must be
treated with caution, as it is not possible to define accurately either the materials or
the states of the surfaces. A friction force can be determined accurately only by
performing a test on the actual components.
This formula should be used with care. The force F is the resisting force offered by
the surfaces when they are actually sliding across each other. But the friction force can
be less than this value. If a body is at rest on a surface, and is subjected to a sideways
force, and does not move, then the friction force will be exactly equal to the force,
whatever value this has. Only when the force reaches the limiting value, determined
by the formula above, will the body begin to move. So remember that the friction
formula applies only when there is actual sliding between surfaces, or when sliding
is just about to take place.
There is a further complication. It is found experimentally that if the sideways force
is steadily increased until motion begins, the limiting force is greater than the resisting
friction force when the body is actually sliding. Thus, you have to exert a greater pull
to get the body moving than you need to keep it moving. Thus, static friction
(sometimes abbreviated engagingly to 'sticktion') is greater than dynamic, or sliding
friction. But whenever friction forces are referred to without qualification, it may be
assumed that sliding friction is referred to.

40
Here is an example. You should be able to solve this yourself.
Example. A block of weight 150 N rests on a slope of 20° to the horizontal. The
coefficient of friction between block and plane is 0.45. Calculate the least force,
directed along the plane, to move the block (a) up the plane; (b) down the plane.
The two answers are 114.73 Nand 12.13 N. The working follows in the next frame.

22
 REVISION

41
N

\ ~F
~,....
t\20°
(a) (b)

p.N,..........
mg mg

The diagrams show the four forces acting on the block in each of the two cases. These
are called free-body diagrams; they show the body and the forces and nothing else.
Note that the friction force acts down the plane for the first part, and up the plane
for the second, that is, in each case, opposite to the direction of motion. Both cases
are examples of equilibrium; although the block will just begin to move, there will
be no acceleration.
Resultant force perpendicular to plane= 0 (both cases)

N - 150 cos 20 o = 0
N = 150 cos 20°

Parallel to plane: Part (a):

F = J1.N + 150 sin 20 o

F = 0.45 x 150 cos 20° + 150 sin 20o
= 63.43 + 51.30
= 114.73 N

Parallel to plane: Part (b):

F + 150 sin 20 o = Jl.N

F = 0.45 x 150 cos 20o- 150 sin 20o
= 63.43 - 51.30
= 12.13 N

A second example.
Example. A body is at rest on an inclined plane the angle of which can be varied.
If the plane is set at an angle () such that the body just begins to slide down,
determine () in terms of the mass of the body, m, and the friction coefficient, Jl..
You might already know the answer to this simple question. In this case, rather than
writing equations, it may help just to sketch the triangle of forces.

23
 DYNAMICS

42
N N

\ /"'

(a)
<R
mg
(b)
mg

(c)

(a), (b) and (c) show the mass on the plane at angle e, the free-body diagram showing
three forces, and the triangle of forces, which is seen to be a right-angled triangle.
From this last, it is immediately seen that:

tan e= J1N IN = J1

Thus the required angle e is given by:

e= tan- 1 p,

This particular value of e is called the angle of friction.

43
The term friction is used somewhat loosely. When dealing with the motion of bodies
through the air, or through water, or other fluids, it is common to speak of the friction
of the air, or of the water. While it is true that such fluids offer resistance to motion,
the nature of the resisting force is quite different, and does not conform to the same
laws. Air or fluid resistance is not independent of velocity. The resistance to the motion
of a vehicle offered by the air increases to very high values at high speed. When
dealing with such forces, they should be called resistance forces, and not friction forces.
Friction has tended to gain a reputation as an 'enemy', because it offers resistance
to motion, and efforts have to be made to minimise its effects. There are cases, however,
where friction is an asset, rather than a liability. In a car, there are three components
where friction is necessary for correct and efficient functioning. Can you think what
these components are?

24
 REVISION

44

The tyres: the brakes: the clutch

We shall discuss these components in the following frame.

45
The actual driving force on a powered wheeled vehicle is the friction force between
wheels and track: the driven wheels thrust backwards on to the track, which reacts
with an equal forward force. This is called the tractive force. No matter how powerful
the engine, this force can never exceed the maximum friction force between wheels
and road. Beyond this limit, the wheels just skid. Tyres have a high friction coefficient,
so that the maximum tractive force is much greater than would be possible with
wheels without tyres. Vehicles designed for arduous conditions, such as slippery roads,
are equipped with four-wheel drive; this enables the tractive force to be considerably
increased.
Brakes are used to stop motion. They consist essentially of friction pads which
press on part of the wheels of the vehicle-the rims, in the case of an old-style bicycle,
or the inside of a drum, or a disc, in the case of a car. If you have ever examined a
brake disc, you may have been surprised to see how smooth it is. While it is true that
a rough surface would produce a greater braking torque, such a surface would also
cause the friction pad (the shoe) to wear out very quickly. Brake design is a compromise
between good braking force and long brake life. Like tractive force, the real braking
force on a vehicle is the friction force between wheels and road. No matter how
efficient your brakes are, you can never retard a car with a force greater than this
friction force. Thus, when driving along icy roads, application of the brakes may
result in the car proceeding forwards at the same rate, with the four wheels locked.
The clutch is the connection between a car engine and the driving wheels. It is
somewhat like a disc brake in reverse: the gearbox (or driven) shaft, which connects
to the car driving wheels, carries a circular plate on which pads of friction material
are fixed. This plate can be gripped between a pair of plates attached to the driving
shaft, which connects to the engine. Depressing the clutch pedal releases these plates
from the friction plate, thus isolating the engine from the drive.
It is significant that these three components are those which usually suffer the
greatest wear, and are the most frequent in needing attention and replacement.

25
 DYNAMICS

46
Now some revision work on kinematics. Write definitions of velocity, speed and
acceleration, and also the calculus versions of velocity and acceleration.

47
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement
Speed is the magnitude of velocity
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity
dx dv d 2 x
v=- a=-=--
dt dt dt 2

We know that displacement, velocity and acceleration are all vector quantities. Speed
is just the magnitude of velocity, and as such, is not a vector. In mathematical terms,
speed is the modulus of velocity.
If we consider motion in a straight line, and with a constant acceleration, we can
derive four equations which relate time, t, displacement, x, acceleration, a, initial
velocity, v0 , and final velocity v. Write down as many of these four equations as you
can remember. You have probably used u and sin place of v0 and x in your earlier work.

48
x=}(v 0 +v)t (1)
v = v0 +at (2)
x=v 0 t+}at 2 (3)
v2 = v6 + 2ax (4)

The first equation simply states, mathematically, that displacement is average

velocity x time, while the second tells us that the increase of velocity is acceleration x
time. The remaining two can be derived from these first two. You should notice that
of the five variables listed in the previous frame, each equation leaves out one of these
variables. Thus:

Equation ( 1) does not include a

Equation (2) does not include x
Equation ( 3) does not include v
Equation (4) does not include t

26
 REVISION

49
Note these points when using the four equations in Frame 48.
1. Before using any of the equations, ALWAYS make sure that you are dealing with
CONSTANT acceleration.
2. Adopt a sign convention.
3. List the data given, and the data required, and find the equation which relates these.
4. Sketching a velocity-time graph is frequently helpful.
5. The area under such a graph = displacement.
6. For simple problems of bodies falling under gravity, the acceleration will always
beg (9.81 m s- 2 ) and will always be directed downwards.
Here is an example to illustrate the application of the equations.
Example. A body has an initial velocity of80 m s- 1 and suffers a constant retardation
of 4.5 m s - 2 . Determine (a) the displacement in 10 s; (b) the time to travel400 m;
(c) the time to come to rest; (d) the distance covered in coming to rest.
This is of course four problems, not one. Point 1 on the list above is verified; the
retardation is constant. Point 2: the acceleration is actually a retardation, i.e. a negative
acceleration. So we shall assume that the initial velocity is positive. The acceleration
is thus negative.
Part (a) Go through check-point 3 yourself; list the data given and required, and
select the appropriate equation.

50
We are given: v0 ( +80 m s- 1 ); a ( -4.5 m s- 2 ); t (10 s)
We require: x
So the required equation is ( 3 ).

Substitute the data in the equation, and solve for x.

51
x = v 0 t + !at 2 = 80 x 10 + !( -4.5)( 10) 2 = 575 m
Part (b): Check-point 3 again: the equation to use is ...

27
 DYNAMICS

52
Equation (3) again

(We are given: v0 ( + 80 m s- 1 ); a ( -4.5 m s - 2 ); x (400 m) and we require: t.)

Substitute the data in the equation again. Notice that you finish with a quadratic,
which means two answers. Calculate these, and at the same time, ask yourself why
there are two answers to this equation. If you can't think of the reason straight away,
it might help to refer to check-point 4 in Frame 49.

53
x = v 0 t + !at 2
4oo = 80t + H -4.5)t 2

Re-arrange, and divide throughout by the coefficient of t 2 :

t2 - 35.56t + 177.78 = 0
t = ( 1 j2a)( -b ± J {(b 2 - 4ac)} = !{35.56 ± J {(35.56) 2 - 4 x 177.78}
= 17.78 ±! J { (1264.5- 711.1)}
= 17.78 ± ! X 23.52
= 17.78 ±I 1.76
= 6.02 s and 29.54 s

Because the body has a constant retardation, it is slowing down all the time. This
means that it will eventually come to rest, and start moving backwards. If you sketched
the velocity-time graph, you can see that the velocity falls uniformly to zero and
then goes negative. So that eventually, it must return to the displacement of
400 mm from the starting-point. This explains the two answers; it takes 29.54 seconds
to shoot past the 400 m point, slow down and stop, and return to the same point.
Part (c) The equation you need this time is ...

54
Equation (2)

(v 0 , a and v are given (v = 0); tis required.) Solve fort.

28
 REVISION

55
v = v0 +at
0=80+(-4.5)t
t = 80/4.5 = 17.78 s

This answer is incidentally seen to be the first part of the solution of the quadratic
in Frame 53.
Part (d) Which equation this time?

56
Equation ( 4)

(Given: v0 , a, v. Required: x.)

Now you could argue that equation ( 1) or equation ( 3) could be used for this part,
because we have now calculated tin part (c). This is true, but both of the equations
require the value oft= 17.78 s calculated in part (c), and if a mistake had been made
in the calculation, then the answer to part (d) would also be wrong. It is good practice,
therefore, to calculate your answers from the data given when possible, rather than
from answers you have calculated. So complete the exercise by using equation ( 4 ).

57
v2 = v6 + 2ax
0 = (80) 2 + 2( -4.5)x
x = 6400/9 = 711.1 m

Things are not quite so easy when the motion consists of more than one part.
Example. A vehicle is capable of a maximum acceleration of 5.2 m s- 2 and a
maximum retardation of 7.2 m s- 2 . Calculate the maximum distance it can travel
in 10 seconds, starting from rest, and finishing at rest, assuming there is no upper
limit to its speed.
Begin with a velocity-time graph. (Point 5 in the list in Frame 49.) The vehicle
accelerates at 5.2 m s- 2 up to a maximum velocity which we don't know: call it vmax·
It will take an unknown time to reach this speed; call this time t 1 • It will then take
another unknown time to come to rest: call this t 2 .

29
 DYNAMICS

58
v

Now we need some equations relating the three unknown quantities vmax• t 1 and t 2 •
Two of these come from equation (2) of Frame 48. And a third comes from the fact
that we know the total time taken. Write the three equations, and check in the next
frame.

59
v = v 0 +at Vmax = 0 + 5.2t 1 (1)
and 0=vmax+(-7.2)t2 (2)
t 1 +t 2 =10 (3)

We can use the first two equations to obtain t 1 and t 2 in terms of vmax• and substitute
these into the third equation.
From ( 1): t 1 = Vmax/ 5.2; From (2): t 2 = Vmax/7.2
Substituting in (3): Vmax/5.2 + Vmax/7.2 = 10
Vmax(O.l923+0.1389)= 10
10 -1
Vmax = 0. 3312 = 30.19 m S

which gives: t 1 =30.19/5.2=5.806 s; t 2 =30.19/7.2=4.193 s

and from these times, the two distances are calculated. We use equation (1) of
Frame 48. It can be seen that in doing so, we are also calculating the triangular areas
under the graph.

x=!(v 0 +v)t x 1 = !(O + 30.19)5.806 = 87.64 m

and x 2 = !(30.19 + 0)4.193 = 63.29 m

The total distance travelled is the sum of these: x = 150.93 m.

The following frame contains some problems on this topic. Do not be discouraged
if you don't find them all simple; the example above shows that frequently, a lot of
thought is necessary. Never look for 'standard' solutions to problems of this type,
and almost always, sketch the velocity-time graph.

30
 REVISION

60
Here is a summary of the work from Frame 46.
1. For straight-line motion with constant acceleration, the equations are:

2. A sign convention should be used.

3. Displacement= area under the velocity-time graph.

PROBLEMS

1. A body is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 60 m s- 1 .

Determine (a) the time to reach a height of 100m; (b) the velocity at this height;
(c) the height after 5 s; (d) the maximum height; (e) the time to reach maximum
height. Neglect air resistance and assume g to be 9.81 m s- 2 . [Ans. 1.991 sand
10.241 s. ±40.47 m s- 1• 177.4 m. 183.5 m. 6.116 s.]
Hint: similar to exercise of Frame 49 et seq.
2. A missile is projected in a straight line from a point with an initial velocity of 40
m s- 1 and a retardation of 5 m s- 2 . Exactly 1 second later, a second missile is
projected along the same path with initial velocity of 50 m s- 1 and the same
retardation. Calculate the distance travelled when the second one catches up with
the first, and the time taken for this to happen. [Ans. 109.38 m; 3.5 s.]
Hints: call distance x, and times t and (t- 1). Use equation (3) (Frame 48) twice,
eliminate x and solve for t.
3. Two vehicles, A and B, are 5000 m apart on a straight track. They start from rest
at the same instant and travel towards each other, A with constant acceleration
1.2 m s - 2 and B with constant acceleration 1.6 m s - 2 . At what point do they meet,
and after what time? [Ans. 2143 m ( 2857 m); 59.76 s.]
Hints: use equation (3) (Frame 48) for two displacements x 1 ,x 2 . Sum of these is
5000 m. This gives an equation in t.
4. A vehicle travels with constant retardation along a straight level track. It passes
three points, A, B and C. AB = BC = 100 m. The time to travel from A to B is
4 s and from B to C, 5 !s. Calculate the retardation, and the speeds at A, B and
C. [Ans. 1.44 m s- 2 ; 27.88 m s- 1, 22.12 m s- 1, 14.24 m s- 1.]
Hints: sketch the v-t graph. Obtain two equations in v A• v8 and Vc by equating
areas to distances travelled. (See Frame 49, point 5.) Use Equation (2) (Frame 48)
twice; eliminate a, thus getting another equation in v A• v8 , Vc. Use the first two
equations to substitute for vA and vc; hence find v8 •

31
 DYNAMICS

61
Do not be disheartened if you found some of the problems rather difficult. And do
not fall into the error of assuming, because of the hints given, that there is only one
way of solving these problems. There may be several ways, and any method which
leads to the correct answer is the 'right' method. Of course, the shortest way is the
best, and only practice will enable you to learn how to find this. One way of getting
practice is to try other ways of solving these problems.
Now to deal with angular motion. What is the unit of angular displacement? And
how is it defined?

62

The unit of angular displacement is the radian

I radian is the angular displacement subtending an arc
equal to the radius
. I revolution
Or: 1 radian= ~ 57.3 degrees
2n

It follows that angular velocity is measured in radians per second, and angular
acceleration is measured in radians per second per second.
We normally use the Greek letters() (theta), w (omega) and a (alpha) for angular
displacement, velocity and acceleration. Thus:

()=angular displacement in radians (rad)

w =angular velocity in radians per second (rad s -t)
a= angular acceleration in radians per second per second ( rad s- 2 )

When bodies move in a circular path, there is a relation between the linear distance
travelled along the path, and the corresponding angular displacement. There is a
similar relation between linear and angular velocity, and linear and angular
acceleration. State these three relationships.

32
 REVISION

63
For a body moving along a circular path of radius R with
tangential displacement x, velocity v and acceleration a:
x=8R
v=wR
a=:xR

and you should not need to be reminded that these three equations are valid only
when all angular quantities are expressed in terms of radians and derivatives. Since the
radian is fundamental to kinematics, but less common in practice, write down the
connection between angular velocity co in radians per second, and angular velocity
N in revolutions per minute (rev /min).

64

Problems of angular kinematics can be treated with four equations exactly analogous
to the four equations of Frame 48. You don't have to remember these: just re-write
the equations, substituting the angular terms for the linear in each case. The four
equations are:

8=1(w 0 +w)t ( 1)
co= W 0 + IY.t (2)
8 =COot+ !:xt 2 (3)
w 2 =col+ 2:x8 (4)

There is one thing that you must be sure of before using any of these four equations.
What is this? If you have difficulty recalling it, look back to Frame 49, check-point 1.

65
Before using any of the equations, ALWAYS make sure that
the angular acceleration is CONSTANT.

Problems of angular motion are usually simpler than those of linear motion, which
as we have seen, can be quite difficult. A single example will be sufficient. This is set
out in the next frame.

33
 DYNAMICS

66
Example. A rotor can be accelerated from rest at a maximum rate of 15 rad s- 2 ,
and can be brought to rest at a rate of 24 rad s- 2 • It has a maximum permissible
speed of 1950 rev /min. Calculate the maximum number of revolutions it can make
in 30 s, starting, and finishing at rest.
A sketch of angular velocity against time will be helpful.

Begin by using equation (2) of the previous frame to calculate the time t 1 for the
acceleration phase and t 3 , the time for retardation. You should find t 1 = 13.6 s and
t 3 = 8.51 s. Check in the following frame.

67
Wmax = 1950 X 2nj60 = 204.2 rad S- 1

w = w0 + o:t; 204.2 = 0 + 1St 1

t 1 = 13.6 s
and 0 = 204.2 + ( - 24) t 3
t3=8.51 s

Since total time is given, t 2 is simply calculated. The three angular displacements
must then be calculated. To find () 1 and () 3 you could use equation (1) or equation (3)
of Frame 64. But this would mean using the values of t 1 and t 3 just calculated.
Remember the warning in Frame 56. It is better to use equation ( 4 ). The displacement
during phase 2 is simply calculated as the product of wand t 2 . The calculations are
completed in Frame 68.

34
 REVISION

68
(204.2) 2 = 0 + 2 X 1581
81 = 1389.9 rad
and 0 = (204.2) 2 + 2 X ( -24)83
8 3 = 868.7 rad
82 = wt 2 = 204.2(30- 13.6- 8.51)
= 1611.1 rad
Total displacement= 3869.7 rad
= 615.9 rev

It is sound practice, where possible, to have checks on your calculations. One check,
which is left for you to make, is to calculate the values of 8 using the times calculated.
This has the additional advantage of checking that the values oft 1 and t 3 must then
also be correct.
We now consider the acceleration of a point moving along a circular path. You
are reminded that such a point, even though it is moving along the path at constant
speed, will nevertheless be accelerating. Acceleration means change of velocity, and
this is true for change of direction as well as change of magnitude. There are three
things to be said about this acceleration.
1. What is it called?
2. In which direction does it act?
3. What is its magnitude.
The answers to these follow in Frame 69 but try and answer them yourself.

69
The acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
It is always directed towards the centre of the circular path.
It is calculated from either of the formulae:

or

where w is the angular velocity of the circular motion,

v is the linear velocity along the circular path,
R is the radius of the path.

35
 DYNAMICS

70
Here is a simple example of the use of the first formula.
Example. The crank of an automobile engine has a radius of 5.4 em. Calculate the
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration of the crankpin when the engine is turning
at 5600 rev /min.
We require a direct substitution in the formula, remembering to convert angular
speed to radians per second, and radius to metres.

2n 2n
w = 6o X N = 60 X 5600 = 586.43 rad s- 1

ac = w 2 R = (586.43) 2 x 0.054 = 18571 m s- 2

from which it is easily seen that high-speed rotating machinery is sometimes subjected
to very high accelerations, with corresponding forces.

71
An example of the use of the second formula:
Example. The maximum permissible centripetal acceleration of a car travelling
round a circular bend is 5.6 m s- 2 • Calculate its maximum permissible speed, if the
radius of the bend is 35 m.
Re-arranging the second formula of Frame 69:

or approximately 50 km per hour, a modest speed. But attempts to take bends at

high speed may result in side-slipping, or more likely, turning the car over.
Do this next example yourself. You will need to refer to the formulae of Frame 63.
Be careful not to confuse track radius with wheel radius.
Example. A vehicle having wheels of radius 0.35 m travels at a steady speed of
65 km per hour around a curved track of radius 90 m. Determine the value of the
centripetal acceleration of the vehicle, and also the centripetal acceleration of a point
on the rim of one of the wheels, relative to the wheel centre.
The solution follows, but try it yourself first.

36
 REVISION

72
v=65000j(60) 2 = 18.06 m s- 1

- zC- ( -3.624 ms -2
a - - 18.06)2 -
c R 90

v 18.06
For wheel: w=--=--=51.6 m s- 2
Rwheel 0.35
ac = w 2 Rwheel = ( 51.6 )2 X 0.35 = 931.9 m s - 2

73
Here is a summary of work on angular motion and motion in a circle.
1. The unit of angular displacement is the radian, i.e. ( 1 j2n) revolution.
2. When a point moves along a circular path, the linear displacement, velocity and
acceleration, x, v and a, are related to corresponding angular displacement, velocity
and acceleration, e, w and ll. by:

x=8R; v=wR; a=aR

where R is the path radius.

3. Angular speed, w, in radians per second, and angular speed, N, in revolutions per
minute, are related by the formula:

2n
w=-xN
60

4. For angular motion with constant angular acceleration, the following equations
apply.

8=!(w 0 +w)t w=w 0 +at

8=w 0 t+!at 2 w 2 =w6 + 2a8

5. A point moving along a circular path of radius R with linear velocity v and angular
velocity w has a centripetal acceleration ac given by:

Centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the centre of the circular path.

37
 DYNAMICS

74
PROBLEMS

1. A car has a wheel radius of 0.32 m. The wheel speed increases uniformly from
15 rad s - 1 to 60 rad s - 1 in 5 seconds. Calculate the initial and final speeds of the
car, its linear acceleration, and the distance travelled during the 5-second period.
Assume a straight level track and no wheel slip. [Ans. 4.8 m s- 1, 19.2 m s- 1, 2.88
m s- 2, 60 m.]
Hints: find e and r:t. from equations (1) and (2) Frame (64). Then use equations of
Frame 63 to find x, a, v1 and v2 •
2. A motor takes 7 t seconds to reach full speed of 1450 rev /min starting from rest
with constant acceleration. What is its acceleration? How many revolutions does
it make? A brake is then applied, bringing it uniformly to rest in 285 revolutions.
Calculate the retardation and the time to come to rest. [Ans. 20.246 rad s- 2 ;
90.625 rev. 6.438 rad s- 2 ; 23.59 s.]
Hints: calculate w (Frame 64). Use equations (1) and (2) (Frame 64) for r:t. and e.
For braking, use equations ( 1) and (4) to find t and r:t..
3. A winding drum of a hoist has a diameter of 1.3 m. It can accelerate at a maximum
rate of 1.8 rad s- 2 and has a maximum permissible speed of 40 rev /min. Calculate
the least time for it to raise a load through a vertical distance of 6 m. [Ans. 3.367 s
( 2.327 s + 1.040 s ).]
Hints: see Frame 64. Use equations (2) and (4) to find timet 1 to reach maximum
speed, and corresponding 8 1 . Total 8 = xj R. Hence find 8 2 • Time t 2 at maximum
speed= 8 2 /w.

75
Now we turn our attention to kinetics. We can elaborate slightly on that earlier
definition, which we gave in Frame 2, and state that kinetics is the application of
Newton's Laws of Motion to moving bodies.
As we did with kinematics, we shall begin by considering the motion of bodies
along straight paths. Later, we consider rotating bodies. We shall also examine the
concepts of work, energy and power, and the principle of momentum.
In the following frame will be found a statement of Newton's three Laws of Motion.
There is no single absolutely correct way of stating the laws (which were in any case,
originally formulated in Latin). There is no merit in just remembering the laws. To
understand kinetics, and to be competent at solving problems, it is necessary that
you understand them. So following a statement of them, we shall discuss them in
some detail.

38
 REVISION

76
The first law:
Bodies continue in a state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line except when
acted upon by a force.
The second law:
Acceleration of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting upon it, and
is in the same direction.
And the third:
A force on any one body is always accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction
on another body.
The first law defines force, as that which causes, or tends to cause, acceleration.
The second law can be written as an equation of motion; thus:

r.(F) =rna

and you must be clear as to the meanings of all the terms in it-including the r.. So
give this some thought before reading on.

77
The r. reminds us that when using the Second Law, we must consider all the forces
acting on a body: that is to say, the resultant force. This may appear simple, but
many mistakes in applying this formula arise from failure to take all forces into
account, or from inclusion of a force which has no existence in fact.
To establish a strict discipline in considering all forces acting on a body, we make
use of the device called the free-body diagram. We draw a diagram of the body,
isolated in space (hence the word 'free'). For example, if the body is a vehicle on a
road, we do not include the road. We then indicate on the diagram all the forces
which we know to be acting on the body, from the data provided. If we know the
line of action of the acceleration, this also is included. For example, we know that
the acceleration of a car on a road must be parallel to the road. If we also know its
direction, we include this. If this is not known, we assume it, and if the assumption
is incorrect, the subsequent calculation will produce a negative answer.

39
 DYNAMICS

78
To emphasise this matter of the free-body diagram, here is a simple example for you
to try. There is a small catch in it, so think carefully.
Example. A bullet fired vertically upwards from a gun has a mass of 0.1 kg. When
in the barrel of the gun, it is subjected to an average propelling force of 32 kN.
Determine the acceleration of the bullet just after it leaves the gun barrel. Neglect
resistance of the air.
Follow the method outlined in the previous frame. Draw a sketch of the bullet,
showing all the forces which must be acting on it, and then apply the equation.

79

D
!
mg

The only force acting on the bullet is its weight, and this acts downwards. So the
resulting acceleration is 9.81 m s- 2 downwards. The mass of the bullet, and the
propelling force are not required. This was the catch.
Do not confuse velocity with acceleration. It is a mistake to assume that because
something is moving very fast, it must have a forward acceleration.
Here is a check-list of forces which might be acting on a body.
1. Weight-always acts vertically downwards.
2. Pull of a flexible rope or chain attached to the body.
3. Pull or push of a stiff bar attached to the body.
4. Normal reaction force of surface on which body stands. ('Normal' means
perpendicular to the surface.)
5. Sideways friction force of surface on which body stands.
6. Tractive force of a powered vehicle.
7. Fluid resisting force, or fluid pressure.
Regarding points 2 and 3, the only effect of a flexible rope on a body can be a pull.
You can pull a boat towards you with a rope, but you can't push it away. With a
boat-hook, though, you can do either.
A reminder about units. State the units in which F, m and a must be expressed.

40
 REVISION

80
Force must always be expressed in newtons
Mass must always be expressed in kilograms
Acceleration must always be expressed in metres per second per second

The second law is used to define the newton, which is the force to accelerate a mass
of1 kg at 1 ms- 2 •
The third law is vital to the full understanding of forces. Remember this very
important principle: forces always exist in pairs. A force cannot exist in abstract: it
is always a reaction between two bodies. Think of the following.
Your body presses downward on the ground; the ground pushes upwards with
equal force. If you step on a tack, it is driven upwards into your foot.
A locomotive pulls a train forwards; the train pulls backwards on the locomotive.
(Imagine yourself as the connection between the two, in place of the steel draw-bar.
What will you be doing?)
The earth attracts the moon with a gravitational pull; the moon pulls at the earth
with an equal force.
A magnet attracts a block of iron; the iron pulls the magnet with equal force.
A car is propelled forwards along the road because its driving wheels exert a
backward frictional force upon the road surface.
Many mistakes in dynamics arise because of an imperfect understanding of this
principle. The problem is, that we apply the second law to a single body, and therefore
have to consider only the force acting on the body, and not its equal and opposite
reaction. This is why a free-body diagram is so important. It forces your attention
on the actual body you are analysing. Consider, for example, a crate on the floor of
a truck.

+mg
---1
n ~D
tR
l~
I
0 0 0 0

If you draw truck and crate together, you are likely to be confused about the
reaction force and the friction force between truck and crate. But if you draw them
separately, it becomes much clearer what is happening.

41
 DYNAMICS

81
The first diagram at the end of Frame 80 shows the two bodies together. But when
you separate them, as in the second diagram, it becomes clear that the truck is pushing
the crate upwards, and the friction force is driving it forwards. When you consider
the truck, the opposite is true: the reaction force pushes downwards, and the friction
exerts a retarding force on the truck. Note particularly that the downward force on
the truck is not the weight of the crate, but the reaction force between crate and truck
(although, of course, it might have the same value as the weight).
When drawing a free-body diagram, never include a force that cannot be justified
in terms of an actual physical force on the body-a pull or push from a rod or string;
a reaction or friction force from a surface, or a weight. This may appear obvious, but
it is sometimes tempting to include a force 'because of the acceleration'. The
commonest instance of this occurs in motion in a circular path, when learners
sometimes have an irresistible urge to include a force pulling outwards from the
centre. Now it must be said that this is not actually wrong, but it is an alternative
method of approach, and an example of what is called d'Alembert's Principle,
concerning which we shall have more to say later. Being an alternative approach, it
must NOT be used when applying the second law in the form we have stated it in
Frame 76.

82
Example. Two masses are connected by a string. The mass of 24 kg lies on a rough
plane of slope 40° and the mass of 18 kg hangs freely. The friction coefficient between
mass and plane is 0.2. The 24 kg mass is moving down the plane. Calculate the
acceleration of the two masses.

Begin by drawing the two free-body diagrams. You should identify four forces on
the 24 kg mass and two on the other. The direction of acceleration is not stated.
Assume that the 24 kg mass accelerates down the plane. This determines which way
the other mass must be assumed to accelerate. Both accelerations have the same value.

42
 REVISION

83
T

~ ~~ l a

Dl
,/~ (24g)
!
(18 g)
I

The string tension is shown as T. This is the same force on both bodies, because the
pulley is assumed to have negligible mass. A common error is to assume that this
tension is equal to the value of the hanging weight. This could be so only if there
were no acceleration. Note that the friction force must act up the plane if the mass
is moving downwards, as stated.
Now write the two equations of motion. For each one, take the direction of the
acceleration as positive.

84
24g sin 40° - 11N - T = 24a ( 1)
N = 24g cos 40° (2)
T-18g = 18a (3)

The second equation is an equilibrium equation of the 24 kg mass, in the direction

perpendicular to that of the acceleration.
Check any mistakes carefully, and try and make sure you know where you went
wrong. Then complete the solution by solving the three equations. Use (2) and (3)
to substitute for R and T in ( 1).

85
24g sin 40°- 0.2(24g cos 40°)- ( 18a + 18g) = 24a
24g sin 40°- 0.2(24g cos 40°)- 18g = a(24 + 18)
151.3-36.1- 176.6 = 42a
a= -1.462 m s - l

The negative answer means that the acceleration is directed up the plane instead of
downwards, as assumed. Thus, although the 24 kg mass is moving down the plane,
it is being slowed down, and will eventually come to rest. It will not then begin to
move the other way. Why not?

43
 DYNAMICS

86
Motion up the plane will be resisted by the friction force, which
will change direction when the system comes to rest. The string
tension T is then insufficient to overcome both the weight
component and the friction.

Here is an example which needs to be thought out carefully.

~-
,,~\\\\\
Example. A rough inclined plane of slope 15° is arranged so that it can move
horizontally. A block of mass m = 2 kg rests on the plane, and the coefficient of
friction between block and plane is 0.3. Determine the required linear acceleration
of the inclined plane (a) to the right, just sufficient to cause the block to move down
the plane; (b) to the left, just sufficient to cause it to move up the plane.
We shall draw the free-body diagram of the block only. Try and answer these questions
before reading on.
1. How many forces act on the block?
2. What are they?
3. What will be the direction of acceleration of the block?
And be particularly careful with question 3.

87
There will be three forces: weight, friction, normal reaction.
The block acceleration will be horizontal.

Actually, friction and normal reaction are two components of a single force. Regarding
the second statement, remember the condition is that the block is just about to move:
therefore, it will have the same acceleration as the plane. It is about to begin slipping
down, but is not actually moving relative to the plane.
The free-body diagrams for the two cases appear in the following frame.

44
 REVISION

88

a
---..
(a)
--- 8

(b)
mg mg

(a) shows the block about to slide down the plane as the plane moves from left to
right. (b) shows it about to slide up, as the plane moves right to left. Note particularly
the direction of the friction force in each case. It acts opposite to the direction the
block is trying to move.
Now write the two equations for case (a) first. One is the equation of motion
(L(F) =rna) taking the direction of acceleration as positive, and the second will be
an equation of equilibrium in the direction perpendicular to the acceleration. Check
your equations in the next frame before continuing.

89
In direction of a: pN cos e- N sin e= rna
and perpendicular to plane: pN sin e+ N cos e= rng
Eliminate N by dividing one equation by the other.

pN cos e- N sin e rna

pN sin e+ N cos 8 rng
{l cos e- sin e a
Cancel:
{l sin e+ cos e g
0.3 cos 15°- sin 15°)
a=g (
0.3 sin 15° +cos 15°
a= 9_81 x 0.2898-0.2588
0.0776 + 0.9659
=0.291 m s- 2
The important feature of this example is to resist the temptation always to write
equations parallel to, and perpendicular to the line of the plane. Always choose the
two directions, parallel to, and perpendicular to the acceleration. You can choose
other directions, but this would mean resolving the acceleration as well, and the
algebra would be more difficult.

45
 DYNAMICS

90
The calculations for part (b) are similar.
In direction of a: J1N cos (} + N sin (} = rna
and perpendicular to plane: N cos (} - J1N sin (} = mg
The treatment is the same, leading to:

sin 15° + 0.3 cos 15°)

a=g (
cos 15°-0.3 sin 15°
0.2588 + 0.2898
= 9·81 X 0.9659-0.0776
= 6.059 m s- 2

Frame 91 contains a few problems.

91
PROBLEMS

1. A body of mass 45 kg rests on a horizontal flat surface, the coefficient of friction

between body and surface being 0.15. It is pulled along by a rope inclined at an
angle of 35o above the horizontal. What tensile force in the rope will cause the
body to have an acceleration of 2m s- 2 ? [Ans. 172.58 N.]
2. A mass of 4 kg rests on an inclined plane of angle 32°. A light string is attached
to the mass, and passes over a light frictionless pulley at the top of the plane. A
second mass m attached to the other end of the string hangs freely. Determine
what value of m will cause the first mass to accelerate up the plane at 1.4 m s- 2 :
(a) if the plane is smooth; (b) if the coefficient of friction is 0.12. [Ans. (a) 3.138 kg.
(b) 3.613 kg.]
Hint: solve algebraically, and solve part (b) first. (See example in Frame 82.) For
part (a), let 11 = 0.
3. A crate rests on the flat floor of a truck. The coefficient of friction between crate
and floor is 0.4. Calculate the maximum forward acceleration for the truck when
it ascends a slope of go in order that the crate shall not slip backwards. [Ans.
2.521 m s- 2 .]
Hint: the problem is similar to the example in Frame 86 part (a) except that the
direction of acceleration of the block will be at 8 o upwards, i.e. the same as the truck.

46
 REVISION

92
The kinetic analysis of a body moving in a circular path is simple, provided you
remember the characteristics of centripetal acceleration. These were set down in
Frame 69; you should be able to recall them without looking back. They are repeated
in the next frame, but try and write down (a) the formulae for the acceleration (there
are two of them), and (b) its direction.

93
Centripetal acceleration ac = v2 / R = w2R

where v and w are the linear and angular velocities of motion, and R is the
path radius.
The acceleration is directed towards the centre of curvature of the path.

94
Here are some rules for the solution of kinetic problems.
l. Examine the body to be analysed, and draw a free-body diagram, i.e. a diagram
showing the body 'in space', with all the forces shown that can be deduced to be
acting on it. In seeking these, refer to the list in Frame 79.
2. Include on the diagram, the direction of the acceleration, if known. If the direction
is not known, assume it. Indicate the acceleration by an arrow different from the
arrows used to indicate force.
3. Resolve all forces along two directions, one of which is that of the acceleration
(known or assumed), the other perpendicular to this.
4. Write an equation of motion, i.e. I:( F)= rna, taking the direction of the acceleration,
known or assumed, as positive.
5. Write an equation of equilibrium in the direction perpendicular to that of 4.
6. Solve these equations for unknown terms.
There are occasions where acceleration may exist in two directions. In such a case,
rule 5 would require modification. We shall deal with such cases as they arise. For
the examples that follow, these rules will suffice.

47
 DYNAMICS

95
Let us see how to apply the rules of Frame 94 in this example.
Example. A car having a mass of 1150 kg travels around a curved track of mean
radius 45 m at a speed of 75 km per hour. Calculate the sideways friction force
between wheels and road if the track is inclined at 12 o inwards towards the centre
of the turn.
Now for the free-body diagram. We are concerned with sideways motion, not forward.
Our diagram will therefore show a rear view of the car, turning to the right as it
rounds the bend.
List all the forces that you think must be acting on it. The list in Frame 79 may
help. It is repeated here, in abbreviated form.
(1) Weight. (2) Pull of rope or chain. (3) Pull or push of bar.
(4) Surface reaction force. ( 5) Sideways friction force.
(6) Tractive force. (7) Fluid resistance or pressure.
You should identify three forces.

96
The forces are: weight; surface reaction; friction.

Tractive force acts on the car but does not affect its sideways motion. Air resistance
also acts, but no details are given, so assume this to be negligible.
The free-body diagram also includes the acceleration. Here is the diagram.

All the data are shown as symbols rather than figures. The reaction force is shown
as N. The friction force F is shown acting down the slope. We do not know this to
be correct. For a track banked at a very steep angle, friction could act the other way.
Wherever the direction of a force is uncertain, assume it. If wrong, this will appear
as a negative answer.

48
 REVISION

97
Applying rule 4 (Frame 94), we write 1:(F) = ma taking direction left to right as
positive (because this is the direction of the acceleration):

F cos e+ N sin e= ma = mv 2 / R (1)

Rule 5 gives us:

F sin e+ mg = N cos e (2)

All values are given except F and N. Since F is required, we can eliminate N from
these two equations. Re-arranging and dividing ( 1) by ( 2):

N sine = tan e= mv R - F cos e

2/

N cos e F sin e+ mg

e
F sine tan + mg tan e= mv 2 / R- F cos e
e
F sine tan + F cos e= mv 2 / R- mg tan e
75000 -1
v = ( 60) 2 = 20.83 m s

v2 = (20.83)2 = 9.642 m s -2
R 45

Substituting:

F(sin 12° tan 12o +cos 12°) = 1150(9.642- 9.81 tan 12°)
1.022F = 1150(9.642- 2.085)
F=8503.5 N

98
Try this next example. The working is given later, if you need it.
Example. The friction coefficient between wheels and road for the car of the example
of Frame 95 is 0.55. Calculate the maximum speed at which it may travel round the
curved track without slipping.
The free-body diagram will be as before, except that the friction force can now be
written as Ji.N. Eliminating N from the two equations will yield v.

49
 DYNAMICS

99
A new free-body diagram is unnecessary. We re-write equations ( 1) and (2) from the
last frame, replacing F by 11N:

f.1N cos (J + N sin (J = mv 2 / R

f.lN sin (J + mg = N cos (J

Collecting theN-terms to one side and dividing the equations:

N(f.l cos (J +sin 8) mv 2

N(cos0-11 sinO) mgR

Substituting values and cancelling:

0.55 cos 12° +sin 12° v2

cos 12o- 0.55 sin 12° 45g

v 2 = 45 X 9.81 X 0.8635
v = 19.52 m s- 1 = 70.27 km per hour

100
PROBLEMS

1. A small weight of mass 0.4 kg is attached to the end of a rod of negligible mass
of length 1.6 m. The other end of the rod is connected to a shaft which turns at
30 rev /min so that rod and weight move in a vertical plane. Calculate the tension
force in the rod when the weight is (a) at the top of its path; (b) at the bottom of
its path. [Ans. (a) 2.3925 N, (b) 10.2405 N.]
2. A small weight of mass 0.3 kg is attached to a light string of length 0.95 m. The
upper end of the string is attached to a fixed point. The weight can then move at
constant angular speed in a horizontal circular path, the string then tracing out
the slant side of a cone, the apex of which is the fixed point. Such a device is called
a conical pendulum. Find the circle radius, and the tension in the string when the
weight moves at 35 rev /min. [Ans. 0.6076 m. 3.829 N.]

50
 REVISION

101
Here are a few revision notes on work, energy and power.
Work is said to be done when a force moves its point of application along the direction
of the force. When motion is in any direction other than that of the force, only the
component along the force line must be considered.
When a force acts on a body and motion of the body is in the direction of the applied
force, work is done on the body. When motion is in the opposite direction, work is
done by the body.
Work is defined quantitatively as the product of force (in newtons) and distance
moved (in metres). The unit of work is the joule, which is the work done by a force
of 1 newton moving a distance of 1 metre.
So for a force F moving a distance of x:

work done= (F x x) joules

Energy is what is gained or lost by a body or a system when work is done.

When work is done on a body or system, energy is gained.
When work is done by a body or system, energy is lost.
Energy is measured in the same unit as work, i.e. in joules.
In Engineering Dynamics, we are concerned with mechanical energy. This can be
manifested in three forms. List these if you can. If you have difficulty, it might help
to think of a hydro-electric power station, a wind-driven generator, and a bow and
arrow. These are examples of the three types of energy.

102
Potential energy; kinetic energy; strain energy

Potential energy: energy by virtue of height above a datum

Kinetic energy: energy by virtue of acquired velocity
Strain energy: energy by virtue of work done in straining a body

Write down expressions for (a) the potential energy of a mass mat height h above
a datum; (b) the kinetic energy of a mass m moving at velocity v.

51
 DYNAMICS

103
Epot = mgh;

Remember that h is the vertical height above a datum. A generating station may be
four kilometres from the dam supplying it, but the vertical height of the dam above
the station may be only 100 metres.
Example. A dam is situated a vertical height above a generating station of 100m.
Water passes down to the station at a rate of 56 cubic metres per second. Calculate
the energy available per second.
Complete this simple calculation for potential energy. By way of a reminder, the
density of water is 1000 kg per cubic metre. The solution is in Frame 104.

104
mass of water/ s = volume x density = 56 000 kg s- 1
potential energy /s = m x g x h
= 56000 X 9.81 X 100
= 54.9 x 10 6 joules per second
Now a calculation of kinetic energy.
Example. A locomotive and train has a total mass of 265 tonnes. How much work
must be done to bring the train up to a speed of 120 kilometres per hour from rest?
This is again a simple calculation with no catch. The solution follows. You may need
reminding that 1 tonne = 1000 kg.

105
120 X 1000 ) 2
E . = .lmv 2 =.! X 265 X 10 3 ( = 147 2 X 10 6 J
km 2 2 60 X 60 •

This is the kinetic energy possessed by the train, and therefore this is the work that
must be done to impart this energy to the train.
Rotating bodies also possess energy. We shall develop the expression for kinetic
energy of rotation later in this programme. The calculation of strain energy will be
left until Programme 7.

52
 REVISION

106
The principle of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed. It is always accountable. Thus, if energy is known to be lost from some
part of a system, it must be gained by some other part-it cannot just disappear. It
may be 'lost' to the part of the system that you are particularly interested in. If you
leave a door open in winter, heat may be 'lost' from your house. But the air outside
must be warmer by the amount lost.
This principle offers a useful alternative approach to the solution of some problems
of kinetics. Take this simple example.
Example. A simple pendulum consists of a mass m of negligible size at the end of
a string of length 0.75 m. It swings through a half-angle of 24°. What will be the
maximum speed of the mass? Neglect air resistance.

I
The figure shows the mass at the extreme of swing, where it has maximum potential
energy, and at the lowest point, where it has maximum kinetic energy. Because it is
not being pushed, and because it loses no energy due to air resistance, we can say
that the total kinetic energy at the bottom is the total potential energy at the top. If
we call the vertical height h:

From the simple geometry of the figure:

h = L- L cos()= 0.75(1- cos 24°) = 0.0648 m

v = J(2gh) = J(2 x 9.81 x 0.0648) = 1.128 m s- 1

The example is interesting because a calculation of the velocity by applying the

equation of motion and determining the acceleration would be extremely complex.
On the other hand, the analysis using an energy equation cannot reveal the time
required for the mass to travel the quarter-swing.

53
 DYNAMICS

107
A general energy equation for a system may be written:

Initial energy + work done on system - energy loss = final energy

The example following is an application of this.

Example. A truck having a mass of 2400 kg is driven up a slope of 5° by a tractive
force of 2250 N. There is a wind resistance equivalent to a constant force of
350 N. If the speed at the beginning of the slope is 25 m per second, what will be
the speed after it has moved 100m up the slope?
Do this yourself. Always draw a diagram when using an energy equation. The initial
energy will be kinetic. Work is done on the system by the tractive force, and energy
is lost because of work done against friction. There is a gain of potential energy.

108

Calling the initial speed v0 , the final speed v, the tractive force F, the wind resistance R,
the distance travelled x, and the vertical height h:

Initial Ekin +W.O. by tractive force- W.O. against friction= final Ekin + Epot

1mv6 + Fx- Rx = 1mv 2 + mgh

his seen to be x sin B = 100 sin 5°= 8.716 m.

Re-arranging and substituting values:

1 X 2400v 2 = 1 X 2400(25) 2 + 100(2250- 350)- 2400 X 9.81 X 8.716

= 750000 + 190000-205 210
= 734 790
v = J612.33 = 24.75 m s- 1

Unlike the first example, this could also be solved relatively simply by writing the
equation of motion, calculating the acceleration (actually, a retardation) and using
the kinematic equations to determine the final velocity. If you need practice, do it
this way, and compare the two solutions.

54
 REVISION

109

Imagine a body comprising three small concentrated masses, bm 1 , Jm 2 and Jm 3

attached to light rods of different radii, r 1 , etc. all rotating about a fixed centre 0,
at angular speed was shown. The system will have kinetic energy. The linear velocity
of mass Jm 1 is given by:

The kinetic energy of the mass is Hm 1 vf = t Jm 1 w 2 ri.

The energy of the other masses is similarly calculated. So the total kinetic energy of
the system is given by:

and, more generally, for any system consisting of a number of rotating 'elements':

The '~' term at the end is called the moment of inertia of the rotating system, and
is given the symbol /. The expression for kinetic energy is seen to be analogous to
that for a mass m moving at speed v. Angular velocity w takes the place of linear
velocity v, and mass is replaced by moment of inertia, /. I is seen to be a rotating
equivalent of mass, i.e. that which resists acceleration. We can write the above
equation:

The next stage is to obtain an equation of motion for a rotating body, in terms of
force and acceleration. When accelerating a rotating body, although force is applied,
another factor to be considered is the radius at which the force acts. A force at a large
radius has a greater accelerating effect than the same force at a small radius. It is not
just the force, therefore, but the moment of the force, M, which is to be taken into
account. First, we require an expression for the work done by a moment. This we
derive in the next frame.

55
 DYNAMICS

110
YQ
X

VR
A force F is shown, moving a distance x along a circular path. The work done is
(Fx). The moment M of the force about the path centre is (FR). Also, we can say:

x= (}R
work done= Fx = (M / R)( (}R) = M(}

and this is seen to be analogous to linear work, moment taking the place of force. Thus:

work done = moment x angular displacement

111
A torque is a moment acting on a rotating body. Consider a torque M acting on a
rotating body of moment of inertia/. From energy conservation:

work done = gain of kinetic energy

M(} = !/(w 2 - w~)

where w 0 and w are the angular speeds before and after M acts. But (}, w and w 0
are kinematically related (see Frame 64 ):

Substituting:

M(} = !J(2a8)
M=la

and this is our fundamental equation of angular motion-Newton's Second Law

applied to a rotating body. Again, it is analogous to the linear law, :E(F) = ma, force
being replaced by torque, mass by moment of inertia, and linear acceleration by
angular acceleration. We add a sigma to the left-hand side to remind us that the total
torque is required for the law to apply.

I:(M) = Ia.

56
 REVISION

112
Example. A wheel is mounted on a horizontal shaft of diameter 45 mm. A string
is wound round the shaft and a constant force of 5 N is applied to the string. The
wheel reaches a speed of 2.5 rev s- 1 in 6 seconds. What is the moment of inertia of
the wheel? Neglect any frictional resistance.
The equation l:(M) = Irx applies. The force of 5 N acts at a radius of 221 mm.

M = 5 x 22.5 x 10- 3 = 0.1125 N m

w = w0 + rxt
2.5 X 2n = 0 + IX X 6
rx=2.618 rad s- 2
l:(M) = Irx
0.1125 =I X 2.618
I= 0.043 kg m 2

Moment of inertia is sometimes expressed in terms of radius of gyration, k. This is

the radius at which all the mass of the rotating body would have to be concentrated
for the rotor to have the same moment of inertia. k, is an equivalent, or effective
radius. From the definition:

113
The Parallel Axis theorem is useful for calculating moments of inertia of bodies about
one axis when given its value about another.
Theorem. If I 0 is the moment of inertia of a rotating body of mass m about an axis
through the mass centre, and I. is the moment of inertia with respect to any other
axis parallel to the axis through the mass centre, then:

where h is the perpendicular distance between the two axes.

Example. For a thin uniform rod rotating about one end, I= !mL2 , Show that I
about a transverse axis through the rod centre is / 2 mL2 •
The distance between the two axes is t L. Substituting values:

!mL2 =I a+ m(!L) 2
I a= m( t L2 - ( t L) 2 ) = mL2 ( t- t) = / 2 mL 2

57
 DYNAMICS

114
Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of release of energy. It is therefore energy
per unit time. The unit is the watt:

1 watt = 1 joule per second

Power is also measured in multiples of watts:

1 kilowatt= 10 3 watts 1 megawatt= 10 6 watts

For a force F, power= force x distance moved per second

= force x velocity
=Fv.
For a torque M, power= torque x angular displacement per second
=torque x angular velocity
= Mw.

115
PROBLEMS

1. A body of mass 16 kg is projected vertically upwards with initial velocity of

200m s -I. Calculate the maximum height it ascends, and the velocity with which it
strikes the ground on return. Assume a constant resisting force due to the air of
30 N. [1711.6 m; 164.81 m s- 1.]
Hint: for second part, loss of K.E. = resistance x 2 x maximum height.
2. A flywheel is mounted on a horizontal shaft of diameter 50 mm. A string is attached
to the shaft, and wound round it, and a weight of 20 N hangs vertically on the
other end of the string. The weight is released from rest, and after it has descended
4 m, the wheel is turning at 3.35 revolutions per second. Calculate the moment of
inertia of the wheel. Neglect friction and air resistance. [Ans. 0.3598 kg m 2.]
Hint: loss of P.E. of weight= gain of K.E. of wheel plus K.E. of weight.
3. A wheel has a mass of 450 kg, an outside diameter of 1.25 m and a radius of
gyration of 0.54 m. It rolls without slip along a horizontal rail, at a speed of
15m s- 1. Calculate its kinetic energy. [Ans. 88.416 kJ.]
Hint: the wheel has kinetic energy due to rotation (about its own axis) and
translation (i.e. it moves with linear velocity along the rail). v = wR.

58
 REVISION

116

Momentum is defined as (mass x velocity). It has also been defined, with less precision,
as 'quantity of motion'. We may state Newton's Second Law in an alternative form
in terms of momentum. Thus:

F=mxa
v- v0
But a=--
t

v-v 0 ) mv-mv 0
F=m ( - - =----
t t

This means that force may be defined as rate of change of momentum. This alternative
form is useful when dealing with problems of dynamics where the mass cannot be
clearly defined, such as the force exerted by a fluid jet on a surface.
The Conservation of Momentum follows directly from Newton's Second Law. It
states that the total momentum of a body or of a system of bodies may be altered
only by the application of an external force. An internal force may alter the momentum
of parts of the system, but not the whole. For example, a shell fired from a gun is a
system. The force firing the sheel is an internal force, and therefore cannot change
the momentum of (shell+ gun). So any momentum in one direction gained by the
shell must be balanced by equal momentum gained by the gun in the opposite
direction. Momentum, being a function of velocity, is a vector quantity.
Conservation of Momentum is not to be confused with Conservation of Energy.
In dealing with the dynamics of colliding bodies, energy will be found frequently to
be lost to the system, although we know that it is not lost absolutely. For example,
if a bullet is fired into a sandbag hanging by a cord, the Conservation of Momentum
will reveal the combined velocity of bullet+ sandbag. But much of the initial energy
of the bullet will be expended in ploughing through the sand, and thus heating it. So
the final kinetic energy of the system will be very much less than the initial kinetic
energy of the bullet.
A bullet hitting a sandbag is a useful example to demonstrate momentum
conservation, as this device can actually be used, to determine the speed of a bullet.
Such a device is called a ballistic pendulum. Assuming that the sandbag retains the
bullet (i.e. that the bullet does not go right through it and out the other side), the
sideways movement of the sandbag may be measured, and used to calculate the bullet
speed. An example follows in the next frame.

59
 DYNAMICS

117
,,,
'" ',
~',, ''
' ... ''
'' ''
''
' 'r..... ----:..,
E
I I
h ~ I c=~· I
~

I I
L_______ J
-'-

+G

Example. A box full of sand has a mass of 40 kg. It hangs by four equal strings of
length 1.8 m, so that when displaced sideways, the box is raised but does not turn,
as shown dotted in the diagram. A bullet of mass 0.025 kg is fired horizontally into
the box and remains within it. The impact causes the box to swing sideways so that
the strings make a maximum angle to the vertical of 19°. Estimate the speed of the
bullet, and the loss of kinetic energy.
In fact, the box begins to move the instant the bullet strikes, and has actually moved
some distance by the time the bullet comes to rest (relative to the box) inside. A
strictly accurate analysis of the situation is difficult, and we simplify the situation
considerably, without any noticeable sacrifice of accuracy, by assuming the change
of speed of the box to take place instantaneously.
The force exerted on the box by the bullet causes the box to suffer an increase of
forward momentum. The reaction force of box on bullet causes a decrease of the
forward momentum of the bullet. Since the two forces are equal, the momentum gain
of the box equals the momentum loss of the bullet. Thus, the total momentum of
box and bullet is conserved. Calling the masses of bullet and box m 1 and m2 , the
initial velocities u 1 and u 2 , and the final velocities v1 and v 2 , write your version of
the equation of conservation of momentum.

118

Given (a) that the box is initially at rest, and (b) that the final velocity of the bullet
equals that of the box, first simplify this equation accordingly, and then substitute
the values given for the masses.

60
 REVISION

119
0.025 u 1 = 40.025 vI

To determine vi, we use an energy balance equation. Notice that we may do this
after the impact. (We may assume resistance of the air to be negligible, as we are not
given information about it.) Write the simple energy equation in words.

120
loss of Ekin of bullet+ box= gain of Epot of bullet+ box

!(mi + m 2 )vi = (mi + m 2 )gh

VI= .j(2gh)

The diagram in Frame 117 clearly shows that h is given by:

h = 1.8- 1.8 cos 19°

= 0.0981 m
VI= .j(2 X 9.81 X 0.0981)
= 1.387 m s - I

Substituting in the momentum equation in Frame 119:

UI = (40.025 X 1.387)/0.025
= 2220.6 m s- 1

The loss of kinetic energy is simply calculated.

loss of Ekin =initial Ekin of bullet- final Ekin of bullet and box
= !{0.025)(2220.6) 2 - !( 40.025)( 1.387) 2
= 61 638.3- 38.5
=61599.8 J

and the discrepancy between initial and final values of energy demonstrates how
wrong it would be to write an energy balance equation for the impact itself. It is seen
that practically all of the initial kinetic energy of the bullet has disappeared. Where
has it gone to?

61
 DYNAMICS

121
Mostly converted to heat energy in the sand

Try to complete this next example yourself.

Example. A fence post standing vertically in the ground has a mass of 12 kg. It is
struck by a 'beetle' (a large wooden hammer) which has a mass of 5 kg. When the
beetle strikes, its velocity is 5 m s - 1 . Assuming the blow drives the post 4 mm into
the ground, estimate the average resistance of the ground to the post, and calculate
the loss of kinetic energy on impact. Assume that the beetle head does not rebound
on striking.
The calculations will be similar to the previous example. Here are a few points to
guide you.
1. If the beetle head does not rebound, it will have the same final velocity after impact
as the post; hence v1 = v 2 as before.
2. When applying the energy balance equation after impact, don't forget that there
will also be a loss of potential energy.
You should find that the common velocity after impact is 1.471 m s -1, the energy
loss is 44.1 1 and the average ground resistance is 4765 N. A short version of the
solution follows in Frame 122.

122
m 1 u 1 +0=(m 1 +m 2 )v
5 x 5 = 17v
v = 1.471 m s- 1
Loss of Ekin=-!- x 5 x 5 2 --!- x 17 x (1.471) 2
= 44.1 J
Initial Ekin + Epot =work done against resistance
-!- X 17 X ( 1.4 71 )2 + I 7g X 0.004 = R X 0.004
R =4765 N

62
 REVISION

123
You should appreciate that specifying the condition that two bodies remain in contact
after colliding, or impacting, makes for the simplest solution to the problem. This is
not to say that problems are just invented, for easy solution by students. It is a fact
that when a hammer is used to strike a body, the rebound of the hammer-head is
usually negligible. Even when a heavy weight is dropped on to a steel 'pile', there is
very little rebound. This device is called a pile driver, and you may have seen it in
operation on large building-sites. Piles are long steel rods or plates which are driven
vertically into the ground, usually to support a building to be constructed above
them, when the ground itself would be insufficiently hard to support the weight.
When bodies separate after impact, a momentum equation is insufficient to predict
the result, as there are two unknown velocities. We require some information about
the energy lost, or concerning how the bodies rebound from each other. This will be
examined in Programme 8, although one example will be found in the following frame
of three problems. A final frame of eight problems covering the work of the whole
programme brings this programme to an end.

124
PROBLEMS

1. Bullets are fired horizontally from a machine-gun into a coal-truck of mass

1500 kg which is on a horizontal frictionless rail. If a bullet has a mass of 0.022
kg, and its speed is 1450 m s -1, how many bullets would be needed to start the
truck moving at 0.5 m s- 1 ? [Ans. 24.]
2. A pile-driver has a mass of 1200 kg. It falls from rest through a height of 4 m on
to the top of a pile of mass 450 kg which stands vertically in the ground. Assuming
the resistance of the ground to be a constant force of 1.75 MN, determine how
far into the ground this pile is driven by one blow. Calculate the energy lost to
the system by the blow. Assume the pile-driver does not rebound on striking. [Ans.
19.75 mm.]
Hint: solve as Frame 122.
3. Two wagons move on a single horizontal rail. A moves towards B at 4 m s- 1 and
B towards A at 3 m s- 1• The mass of A is 1200 kg and that of B, 600 kg. If they
collide without loss of kinetic energy, determine the two final velocities. [Ans.
-i m s- 1 (i.e. reversed) and +6! m s- 1.]
Hint: write an energy conservation equation as well as a momentum conservation
equation. The two simultaneous equations result in a quadratic. Use the formula,
and reject the solution which obviously cannot apply.

63
 DYNAMICS

125
FURTHER PROBLEMS

B==~=~B

I·
3.6m
.I
(a) (b) (c)

1. Three forces, A, B and C act at a point at respective angles of oo, 120° and 280°
as shown in (a) above. The magnitude of A is 200 N. Determine the magnitudes
of Band C. [Ans. B = 575.9 N; C = 506.4 N.]
Hint: sketch the force triangle and use the sine formula (Frame 14 ).
2. A steel bar has a constant thickness throughout, and tapers uniformly in width
from 40 mm at one end to 80 mm at the other end. The bar is 1.2 m long. Locate
the mass centre of the bar. [Ans. 0.667 mfrom 40 mm end.]
Hint: as problem 4, Frame 29, except treat as +ve and -ve triangles, instead of
cones. Or treat as two triangles, 40 mm base and 80 mm base.
3. The figure at (b) above shows an area enclosed by a parabola, a vertical ordinate
and the x-axis. The vertex of the parabola is o, the origin, and the axis coincides
with the y-axis. Show (a) that the area of the enclosed figure is ! BH, and (b) that
the centroid is distance i- B from the origin o.
Hints: use expression of Frame 30 except use integral instead of~. The parabola
is defined by y = kx 2 for the conditions stated. Find k by substituting x = B and
y = H in expression.
4. A large trapdoor is 3.6 m long and weights 2400 N. It is hinged at one end and is
raised by a force F on a cable which is attached to the end of the door and passes
over a pulley 2.8 m vertically above the hinge, as shown in the diagram at (c)
above. Calculate the force F to raise the door (a) in the position shown, and
(b) when the door has been raised 30°. [Ans. (a) 1954.6 N; (b) 1403 N.]
Hints: (b) Solve triangle ABC using sine and cosine formulae. You should get
angle at B = 47.79°. Take moments about hinge of component ofF perpendicular
to door.

64
 REVISION

5. Vehicle A starts from rest from a point on a straight level track with a constant
acceleration of 0.75 m s- 2 , reaching a maximum speed of 24m s- 1 . Vehicle B
starts from the same point at the same instant with constant acceleration of
0.6 m s- 2 , reaching a maximum speed of 31 m s - 1 . How long does it take for B
to catch up on A, and how far have they travelled? [Ans. 59.57 s; 1045.7 m.]
Hints: calculate times (tA, ta) and distances for A and B to attain maximum speed.
Sketch v-t graphs; areas are the same (i.e. distances travelled), giving one equation
in tA, ta. Total times are the same, giving a second equation.
6. A wheel of rim diameter 0.42 m starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a
maximum speed of 1440 rev/min in 8 seconds. Calculate (a) the angular
acceleration; (b) the rim velocity at maximum speed; (c) the centripetal acceleration
of a point on the rim at maximum speed; (d) the total revolutions turned through
in reaching maximum speed; (e) the revolutions turned through in successive
2-second intervals from rest. [Ans. (a) 18.85 rad s- 2 , (b) 31.67 m s- 1,
(c) 4775.3 m s- 2 , (d) 96 rev, (e) 6, 18,30 and 42 rev.]
Hints: equations of Frames 63 and 64.
7.

Two bodies resting on two inclined planes are connected by a light string as shown.
Body A has a mass of 4 kg and B a mass of 7 kg. p, between body and plane is
0.2 for both bodies. Calculate the acceleration of the two masses. Assume A to
move up the plane. [Ans. 1.767 m s- 2.]
Hint: both bodies have same acceleration. The string tension T will be the same
on both bodies.
8. A horizontal shaft of diameter 36 mm running in bearings which may be assumed
frictionless carries a large rotor. (A rotor is anything designed to be rotated on a
shaft-for example, an electric motor armature.) A string is attached to the shaft,
and wound round it several times. A weight of mass 2 kg attached to the other
end of the string hangs vertically. The weight is released from rest, and takes 3.5
seconds to descend 1 metre. Use an energy equation to estimate the moment of
inertia of the rotor. [Ans. 0.0383 kg m 2 .]
Hints: Frame 48, equation (1) to find final velocity of weight, v. Frame 63 to
calculate w. Then loss of P.E. =gain of K.E. of wheel (Frame 109) +gain of K.E.
of weight (Frame 103).

65
 Programme 2

KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS:
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

67
 DYNAMICS

1
This programme describes a graphical method of analysing mechanical devices, in
order to determine the velocities of the various parts. Such analysis might be needed
by the designer of a machine tool, who may need to know how the speed of the
cutting-tool varies during its stroke, when the driving motor turns at a certain speed.
Graphical methods have the disadvantage that they are slow, and not always very
accurate. For some simple devices it is possible to determine velocity by calculation,
and this is the subject of Programme 4. In recent times, velocity analysis of more
complex machines has become possible by the use of computers. But engineers are
still required to know the principles of the graphical analysis of machines.
A graphical method clearly requires accuracy of drawing if an accurate result is to
be obtained. The programme therefore begins with some suggestions to help you
towards developing a good drawing technique. Then, because velocity, along with
displacement and acceleration, is a vector, we discuss the properties of vectors, and
establish a system of notation. We then discuss the concept of Relative Velocity. By
Frame 10, we shall then be able to attempt an actual problem.

2
You will need the following things to see you through this programme:
l. A4 paper, preferably unlined. 5. A fairly large set-square.
2. A good hard pencil, well-sharpened. 6. Compasses.
3. A ruler, or draughtsman' s scale 7. Dividers.
4. A protractor.
A small drawing-board is an asset, but not essential.
In drawing ruled lines, remember that the ruler, scale or set-square is not always
infinitely thin at the edge. So you should cultivate the technique of tucking the point
of the pencil up to the bottom of the edge~the part touching the paper~if you
want to be sure of a line that is truly straight.
When you have to draw a line through a point on the paper, it is more accurate
to put the pencil on the point and move the edge of the ruler or set-square up to the
pencil than to set the edge to the point on the paper.
To measure the distance between two points on the paper, it is more accurate to
set the dividers to the points and transfer the dividers to the scale, than to measure
directly from the paper with the scale.
You will need frequently to draw lines parallel to, and perpendicular to, other lines,
and this is described in Frame 3.

68
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

3
The following is a method for drawing parallel and perpendicular lines.
A
a

d
If you require lines parallel to, or perpendicular to the line AB on the paper, set
one edge of the set-square to the line; set the ruler to the edge of the set-square, and
then, holding the ruler firmly on the paper, slide the set-square along the ruler until
the appropriate edge coincides with the point through which the line must pass
(P or Q in the figure). The line ab is parallel to AB; the line cd is perpendicular to AB.

4
A vector needs both magnitude and direction to define it. To state that Birmingham
is 110 miles from London does not completely locate Birmingham; you must also
state the direction. A line, drawn in the correct direction and to a suitable scale, is a
displacement vector.
Birmingham B B
+
~c
~L
Cambridge
+
+london
l

The vector L- B 'read' in that order, represents the displacement of Birmingham

relative to London. If we 'read' the vector in the reverse order, B-L, this is the
displacement of London relative to Birmingham. Vectors frequently have arrows on
them, indicating the direction of the quantity-particularly force vectors. You will
have found examples in Programme 1. But vectors representing relative velocity,
which can be 'read' in either direction, should not have arrows on them.
Vectors may be added. We may, if we wish, travel to Birmingham via Cambridge.
This is shown on the third diagram above. The vector LB is then said to be the
resultant of the two component vectors LC and CB. This may be written:
LB =LC +CB
The lines across the tops are important. They indicate that the quantities are vectors,
and therefore must be added vectorially, in other words, graphically.

69
 DYNAMICS

5
The rules for velocity vectors are the same as for displacement.
c

b
The vector a-c, read in that order, represents the velocity of a point c relative to a
point a; a-b similarly represents the velocity of b relative to a. We can actually write
six equations from this diagram:

ab = ac + cb; be= ba + ac; ca = cb + ba

ba =be+ ca; cb = ca + ab; ac = ab +be
and these equations serve to emphasise that vector addition is definitely not the same
as algebraic addition. The above diagram illustrates three vectors, but of course the
same rules continue to apply for as many vectors as are needed.
Example. A light aircraft capable of an air speed of 90 km/h travels in a wind
blowing at 30 km/h from East to West. (a) If the plane is directed due North, what
will be its actual direction of flight, and its speed relative to earth? (b) To what
direction should the plane be directed in order to travel due North, and what then
will its speed be relative to earth?
We adopt the letters e, a and p to indicate earth, air and plane. The vector diagrams
are shown.
p
p

0
m
(a) (b)

a 30 e a 30 e
(a) Diagram (a) shows that the direction of the plane relative to earth (ep) will be
at an angle of()= tan - 1 (30/90) = 18.43 degrees West of North. The true speed,
relative to earth, will be J(30 2 + 90 2 ) = 94.87 km/h.
(b) Diagram (b) shows the true speed of the plane relative to earth to be due North.
The required direction is that of vector ap, the plane velocity relative to air. The
magnitude of this is, of course, still 90 km/h. The required heading is at an angle
of()= sin - 1 (30/90) = 19.47 degrees East of North, and the speed relative to earth
now is J(90 2 - 30 2 ) = 84.85 km/h.
We have used the term 'relative' several times in this exercise. We shall discuss it
in more detail in the next frame.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

6
Relative velocity is simply, the velocity of a point relative to some other point. It is
not difficult to see that all velocity must be relative; velocity ceases to have meaning
if you have no datum by which to measure it. In this programme, you should think
of relative velocity as the velocity of one point, relative to some other point, which
is assumed to be fixed, even though the second point may clearly be moving. The
plane in part (b) of the example of Frame 5 travels due North relative to earth, and
an observer on the earth would see the plane moving away to the North. But the
pilot would see the observer disappearing away to the South at 84.85 km per hour,
and this would be the velocity of the earth relative to the plane. In this programme,
we shall frequently refer to 'fixed points'. There are actually no such things; the earth
moves beneath us as it rotates; the earth also moves around the sun, which itself
moves within the galaxy. But from the point of view of engineering analysis, we may
assume the earth to be a fixed point. This really means that the movement of the
earth is not relevant to the problem. When engineers design machines such as motor
cars, lathes, electrical generators, typewriters, pumps, tractors and so on, the movement
of the earth has a negligible effect on calculations of stress, dynamics, fluid or
aerodynamics, thermodynamics, and other engineering disciplines which may be
relevant to the design and operation of such devices. Of course, the design of a rocket
launcher aiming to land a body on the moon would need to take earth movement
into account. But in the problems we shall solve in this book, we may assume that
the earth is fixed.

7
AB=0.1 m
BC=0.25 m
9=30°
w=2rads-1

Here is a diagram of a crank, connecting-rod, cylinder and piston mechanism, called

the slider-crank mechanism. It is used in car engines and many other devices. All
bars, cranks and levers are shown just as lines; they are called links. Cross-hatching
indicates points or surfaces which are assumed to be fixed; thus, the crankshaft turns
about the fixed point A, and the cylinder wall, or slider, is also fixed. It is assumed
that links do not deform, and that pin-joints between links such as A, Band C, permit
turning only, and no lateral movement. In the language of engineering, the system
has no backlash. These assumptions mean that we can now define a mechanism as
a system of links so arranged that the motion of any one point defines the motions of
all other points in the mechanism.
We shall construct the velocity vector diagram for this mechanism.

71
 DYNAMICS

8
The drawing of velocity vector diagrams for mechanisms is made easier when you
understand one basic principle. This concerns the relative velocities of two points on
as single link. In diagram (a) below is a single link with two points A and Bon it.

Relative velocity vectors,

tangential to path

(a) (b)
Circular path
of B about A
A
Suppose we need to know the velocity of B relative to point A. (We may assume that
the link is restricted to motion in the plane of the paper.)
When considering the motion of one point relative to another, you will find it
helpful to imagine yourself attached to the second point. So imagine the link to be
very large, moving randomly through space, with a seat bolted to the end A, in which
you are firmly strapped. This is shown in diagram (b). Now no matter what the link
as a whole is doing, there is one definite statement that you can make about the
point B. Can you think what it is?

9
It must always remain the same distance from A (you)

This must be so, because the link is rigid: thus, AB is always a constant length. It
follows that the motion of B relative to A is restricted to a circular path about A. If
a point moves in a circular path, the direction of its velocity at any instant must be
along the tangent to the circular path. And because a tangent is perpendicular to the
radius at that point, this means that the velocity of B relative to A must be
perpendicular to the line AB. So the principle you need to understand can be stated:
The velocity of a point on a rigid link at any instant relative to any other point on
the link is perpendicular to the straight line joining the two points at that instant
and you will find that you need to apply this to all the problems in this programme.
Notice that the argument applies even if the link is not straight. The link could be
curved, as shown by the broken lines in diagram (b).

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

10
To draw the velocity diagram for the mechanism shown in Frame 7, we first calculate
the velocity of the crank-pin, B. The magnitude is given by:
v = wR = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2 m s- 1
The direction of the velocity must be tangential to the circular path along which B
moves around A, that is, it must be perpendicular to AB, and in an 'up-left' direction.
But in order to draw a perpendicular to AB, we need an accurate drawing of the
mechanism itself. This is called the configuration diagram.
Begin your solution of this problem by drawing the configuration diagram of the
=
mechanism on a sheet of A4 paper. Adopt a scale of 4 em 0.1 m. Begin with a
horizontal line about 5 em from the top of the paper, and mark point A on it. When
you have completed the drawing, draw the vector ab, in the middle of the space below
the configuration diagram. Use the method described in Frame 3 to ensure that ab
=
is perpendicular to AB. Adopt a scale of 5 em 0.1 m s - 1 .

11
Your sheet should look something like this, although the diagram here is not to the
scale suggested above.
B

A~ 1 c

a
The steps in drawing the configuration diagram are:
1. Draw horizontal line and mark point A.
2. Draw line through A at 30°.
3. Measure 0.1 m along this line to locate B.
4. Centre B, draw arc, radius 0.25 m to intersect horizontal, to locate C.
As a check on your drawing, the angle ACB should be approximately 11 to.
Now consider the velocity of C relative to B. At any instant, the direction of the
velocity of C must be perpendicular to the path radius, BC. If this is not immediately
obvious to you, re-read Frames 8 and 9.
So draw a line of indefinite length through b, perpendicular to line BC, again using
the method of Frame 3; c must lie somewhere on this line.
Finally, the point C is constrained to move along the horizontal slider. So relative
to A, C must move horizontally. Complete the diagram by drawing a line through a
parallel to AC. It intersects the second vector at c.

73
 DYNAMICS

12
Your completed solution should look like this.
B

A~,c I

Scaling from the velocity diagram, you should find that ac scales 0.135 m s -1 and
that be scales 0.177 m s- 1 . Do not be too concerned if your figures are slightly different
from these; drawing must always involve some error. However, your error in this
example should not be more than about 3%.
The vector be is the velocity of C relative to B. Knowing this enables us to calculate
the angular velocity of the link BC. Thus:

w8 c = v/ R = V8 c/BC = 0.177/0.25 = 0.708 rad s-•

Be sure you are clear about everything in this solution. Then draw the configuration
and velocity diagrams for the same mechanism, with crank AB moving at the same
speed, but now with angle e= 135°. The steps are exactly as before, but of course
the diagrams will be different.

13
Your diagrams should look like this.
B

~c
p.::,,
b

As a check on your configuration diagram, the angle ACB should be approximately

16t On the velocity diagram, ac should scale 0.100 m s - 1 and be should scale
0
•

0.147 m s- 1.
Now draw the corresponding diagrams for (a) e = 90° and (b) e = 180°.

74
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

14
Here are the two sets of diagrams.

·~,c B A c
A

T
a

b
For 8 = 90°, draw ab as usual, 0.2 m s- l in length. The velocity of C relative to
B is perpendicular to BC; so draw a line through b perpendicular to BC. But relative
to A, the velocity of Cis horizontal. This means that cis concurrent with b, so (b,c)
is one point. So vector be is of zero length, which means that the angular velocity of
link BC at this particular configuration is zero. The slider velocity is the length of
vector ac which is 2 m s- 1 .
Following the same procedure for diagram (b) when 8 = 180°, you find that c must
lie on a line through b perpendicular to BC, and also on a horizontal through a;
thus, point a is concurrent with c. So ( a,c) is a single point, or a vector of zero length,
and the slider velocity at this instant is zero.
It is not unusual for two points on a velocity diagram to be concurrent; it means
simply that the relative velocity of the two points is zero.

Example. Draw the velocity diagram for the four-bar chain shown. AB = 0.1 m;
15
BC = 0.16 ,m; CD= 0.2 m; AD= 0.3 m. Angle 8 is 60° and link AB is turning
clockwise at 5 rad s- 1 •
... --- ... B

c
A system of three links connected to two fixed points is called a four-bar chain. The
fourth 'bar' is the link AB, which is a fixed link.
Begin by drawing the configuration diagram, at the top of an A4 sheet, using a
=
scale of 4 em 0.1 m as for the last example. As a check, you should find that CD
is 18° below the horizontal. Draw the velocity diagram if you can, but if you have
trouble, the solution follows.

75
 DYNAMICS

16
Your solution should look like this.

The steps in drawing the configuration diagram are:

(1) Draw horizontal, mark A, and mark D (AD= 0.3 m).
(2) Draw line through A at 60°.
(3) Mark off AB = 0.1 m along this line.
(4) With centre B, draw an arc of radius BC = 0.16 m.
(5) With centreD, draw an arc of radius DC= 0.2 m to intersect the first arc at C.
(You may notice that the two arcs could intersect at two points. But it is clear from
the original diagram that C is below the line AB.)
The velocity of B relative to A is calculated

v = wR = w( AB) = 5 x 0.1 = 0.5 m s - 1

Vector ab is perpendicular to AB (see Frames 8 and 9). AB rotates clockwise; the
direction of ab is therefore 'down-right' as shown. Vector be must be perpendicular
to link BC, so a line is drawn through b of indefinite length.
To locate the point d, we recognise that relative to A, point D has zero velocity,
because they are both fixed points. Thus, (a,d) is a single point on the velocity diagram.
The rest is simple. Vector de must be perpendicular to DC; this intersects the other
vector at c.
If your drawing was correct, you will find that ac scales 0.395 m s - 1 and be scales
0.335 m s - 1. The angular velocities of BC and CD are then:

w 8 c = vj R = bcjBC = 0.335/0.16 = 2.094 rad s- 1

Wco = vj R = cd/CD = 0.395/0.2 = 1.975 rad s- 1

The diagram shows that relative to B, Cis moving left; thus, w 8 c is clockwise. Similarly,
Wco is anti-clockwise.
Now, for this same mechanism, and with the same configuration, i.e. AB at 60° to
the horizontal, determine the angular velocities of links BC and CD if the speed of
AB is (a) 250 rev /min clockwise; (b) 8 rad s - 1 anti-clockwise.

76
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

17
(a) First convert 250 rev /min to rad s -J:

w = 2nN /60 = 2n x 250/60 = 26.18 rad s - 1

If you take the trouble to go through the whole procedure again, you will of course
have the same configuration diagram, but the velocity diagram will be bigger (or
perhaps smaller, if you change the scale). But it will be geometrically similar to the
first one. So there is no need to draw another diagram. All velocities will be directly
proportional to the angular speed of AB; you can use the same velocity diagram, and
in effect, just change the scale. The calculations follow.

Woe= 2.094 x 26.18/5 = 10.96 rad s- 1 clockwise

Weo = 1.975 x 26.18/5 = 10.34 rad s- 1 anti-clockwise

If the direction of rotation is changed, it is true that the velocity diagram will then
be different, but the lengths of the vectors will be the same, if the speed of AB remains
the same. So it is still not necessary to re-draw the diagram. The magnitude is again
proportional to the angular speed of AB, and reversing direction reverses direction
of all the vectors, and the angular velocities of all the links. So for (b):
Woe = 2.094 x 8/5 = 3.35 rad s -t anti-clockwise
Weo = 1.975 x 8/5 = 3.16 rad s- 1 clockwise
So remember: only ONE velocity diagram is necessary for a given configuration of a
mechanism, for all values of speed and for either direction of motion.

18
The figure below shows the dimensions of a single link. It turns about a pivot at the
point A at 1 rad s- 1 . Draw the velocity diagram for the whole link. Begin with the
vector ab; then draw the vector ac, and finally, draw ad, remembering that ad must
be perpendicular to AD-even though there is no actual direct link AD. This must
be so, because D moves in a circular path around A.

AB=1m
BC=0.4m
CD=0.3 m
ACD=50°
8=30°

77
 DYNAMICS

19
The velocity of B relative to A is given by:
v = wR = 1 x 1 = 1 m s- 1
The configuration and velocity diagrams should look like this.
a
B

b
ab is perpendicular to AB and its length is 1 m s - 1 . To draw ac, we know that ac
must be perpendicular to link AC because C turns about A. And because Cis at a
smaller radius than B, its velocity is reduced in proportion. So ac = ab(AC/ AB).
Because D turns in a circular path about A, ad is perpendicular to AD, and because
D turns about C, cd is perpendicular to CD; thus d is located.
Because all the vectors are perpendicular to the corresponding links, the resulting
vector diagram is geometrically similar in all respects to the corifiguration diagram.
Such a vector diagram representing various points on a single link is called the velocity
image of the link. Once we have obtained a velocity vector relating two points on a
link, we can extend the vector to include any other points, by drawing the velocity
image of the link. This will be found to result in some saving of time in some of the
examples following.
This next example makes use of the velocity image principle.

AB=0.4 m
BC=0.3m
80=0.5 m
DE=0.2 m

0.8m

Example. Sliders A and C move in horizontal and vertical guides. CD is a single

link with AB attached to it by a pin-joint at B. At the instant shown, the crank DE
is at 45o to the horizontal, and slider A is moving at 0.1 m s - 1 right to left. Determine
the corresponding angular speed of DE.
=
Begin with the configuration diagram, with a scale of 1 em 0.1 m. Start by locating
point E, and the horizontal and vertical lines for the slider guides.

78
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

20
Do not be misled by the lettering of a diagram. The correct order of drawing the
configuration diagram is to begin with the crank DE. The complete procedure follows.
1. Locate E.
2. Draw the horizontal line 0.2 m above E.
3. Draw the vertical line 0.8 m to the left of E.
4. Draw a line through E at 45°.
5. Step off ED = 0.2 m along this line to locate D.
6. With centre D, draw an arc of radius DC= 0.8 m to intersect the vertical line;
thus locate C.
7. Step off CD = 0.3 m along CD to locate B.
8. With centre B, draw an arc of radius BA = 0.4 m to intersect the horizontal line;
thus locate A.
Check that your diagram is correct. AB and CD should make angles of approximately
59° and 35° with the horizontal.
Now try to draw the velocity diagram.

21
Because the velocity of the slider at A is given, you might well expect to begin the
velocity diagram by drawing this vector. Point E is a fixed point, and so this vector
would be labelled ea from right to left, scaled proportionately to a length of 0.1 m s- 1 .
You can then draw a line through a perpendicular to the link AB; point b must
lie along this line somewhere.

a ~ms-1 e

/
But from here on, you are in trouble; you can go no further. The correct procedure
is to begin with vector ed. Because the magnitude of the velocity of D is unknown,
you make this vector any convenient length. You do not even know whether ED
rotates clockwise or anti-clockwise. So assume that it turns clockwise, and make the
vector ed a length of 2 em. You can then draw de, knowing that C moves vertically
relative to the fixed point E. Then draw the velocity image of line DBC; just divide
de in the ratio 5:3. This may be done either by measuring de, or by a simple geometrical
subdivision. Finally, ba can be drawn.
The procedure is set out in detail in Frame 22, with completed diagrams. It is
interesting to note that you actually draw the complete velocity diagram without
using any stated value of velocity.

79
 DYNAMICS

22
The steps in drawing the velocity diagram follow.
1. Fix the starting-point, e.
2. Draw ed = 2 em perpendicular to ED, in an 'up-right' direction, i.e. assuming a
clockwise rotation of ED.
3. Draw a vector through d perpendicular to DC of indefinite length; point c must
lie on this line.
4. Draw a vertical through e to locate point c. (The velocity of C relative to E is
vertical.)
5. Divide the vector de at b such that the ratio db: be is the same as the ratio DB:BC
which is 5:3.
6. Draw a vector through b perpendicular to BA of indefinite length; point a must
lie on this line.
7. Draw a horizontal through e to locate point a. (The velocity of A relative to E is
horizontal.)
This completes the diagram, which is reproduced below. You should find that the
vector ea scales approximately 4.03 em.

d
c

The information given in the question can now be used. The length of the vector
ea must represent a velocity of 0.1 m s- 1. With this information, we can now establish
a scale for the diagram, and then calculate any other velocities required. The question
asks for the angular velocity of ED, which requires the linear velocity ed. This was
drawn 2 em long. Taking the length of ea as 4.03 em, we can say:

velocity of D = 2 x (0.1/4.03) = 0.0496 m s -1

wEo = v/ R = 0.0496/0.2 = 0.248 rad s- 1

The direction of vector ea indicates that slider A moves right-to-left. Therefore, the
rotation of ED was correctly assumed to be clockwise.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

23
Here are a few suggestions which might be helpful.
1. Do not draw diagrams too small, because they will not be very accurate.
2. But do not draw them too large, because you might find yourself running out of
paper half-way through your solution!
3. Use a complete sheet of A4 paper for each problem, and arrange for the
configuration to occupy about one-third to one-half of the sheet. This should leave
adequate space for a velocity diagram of reasonable size.
4. Make a rough preliminary sketch of the velocity diagram on a separate sheet. This
can be done quite quickly, will give you good practice, and will also help you to
choose a convenient scale, and to determine whereabouts in the available space
to begin the diagram.
5. Finally, do not decide on a complicated scale simply in order to fill your paper.
A scale for a configuration diagram of 13! em to 1 m will be no more accurate
than, say, 10 em to 1 m, and will be less simple to draw.

24
PROBLEMS

1. E

0.25m 0.2m

The figure illustrates a double-pump mechanism. The crank AB turns clockwise

at 45 revolutions per minute and operates the two pump pistons at E and H. BC
and DG are both single links, with pin-joints at intermediate points D and F.
Lengths are: AB = 0.12 m; BC = 0.3 m; BD = 0.2 m; DG = 0.45 m; DF = 0.3 m;
CE = 0.3 m; GH = 0.2 m. Dimensions relating fixed pivots and sliders are shown.
Determine the speeds of the two sliders when AB is at angle (} = 45° to the
horizontal. [Ans. E: 0.032 m s- 1 ; H: 0.21 m s- 1.]
Hints: begin velocity diagram with 'fixed' point (a,f). Construct in the order ab,
bd/fd; image d-f-g; gh; image b-d-c; ce.

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DYNAMICS

2.
c

E
N
ci

0.4m

The diagram shows details of a simple press. A and D are fixed pivots, about
which crank AB and link DC turn. The slider at E is the actual press. The lengths
of the links are: AB = 0.05 m; BC = 0.25 m; DC= 0.4 m; CE = 0.3 m.
(a) For the configuration shown, AB is at 30° to the horizontal. Determine the
angular speed of AB when the slider E is moving at 0.02 m s- 1 .
(b) Determine the speed of the slider at E, assuming the same angular speed of
AB, after it has turned 120o clockwise from the position shown.
[Ans. (a) 1.067 rad s- 1 ; (b) 0.]
Hints: for (a), begin the velocity diagram with vector ab; see Frame 21. For (b)
it is necessary only to sketch the velocity diagram.
3.
0.2m

The figure above shows the mechanism of a pump. Crank AB turns clockwise
about the fixed pivot at A. The link BC connects the crank to a single link CDE
which is right-angled, and which pivots about the fixed point D. The connecting-rod
EF connects this link to the pump plunger at F which is constrained to move
along the fixed horizontal cylinder. Dimensions of the links are: AB = 0.1 m;
BC = 0.2 m; CD= 0.2 m; DE= 0.1 m; EF = 0.2 m. Other dimensions are shown
in the figure.
(a) With the crank AB in the position shown, determine the crank speed
corresponding to a plunger speed of 0.05 m s- 1•
(b) Assuming the same crank speed, what will be the speed of the plunger when
the crank has turned through an additional 45° from the position shown?
[Ans. (a) 2.5 rad s- 1 ; (b) 0.0175 m s- 1.]
Hints: begin with vector ab. The velocity image of link CDE will be required.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

25
Sometimes, links are connected so that one link slides along another.
B
B

(a) A

In diagram (a), a block is fitted to slide easily along the link AB. The end of the
other link CD is forked and fits on two pins attached to the sliding block. Diagram (b)
is similar, except that the sliding block is smaller, and link AB is made with a
slot in which the block slides. Diagram (c) shows how this arrangement is normally
illustrated.
This calls for a particular treatment when a velocity diagram is required.

26
D

Example. In the diagram, crank AB, 0.2 m long, turns anti-clockwise at 8 rad s- 1
about the fixed point A. End B is attached by a pin to a block which slides freely
along the link CD which pivots about the fixed point C, so that as the crank rotates,
the link oscillates up and down. Calculate the angular speed of the link CD when
angle e is (a) 60°; (b) oo; (c) 120°.
Begin your solution by drawing the configuration diagram for 8 = 60°, adopting a
scale of 1 em= 0.1 m. You should find that CD is at 13.9° to the horizontal.
Now calculate the velocity of B relative to A. Draw the vector ab, perpendicular
to AB.
At this point we must recognise that B is the block at the end of crank AB. Link
CD passes through this block and we need a letter to define the point on CD
corresponding to the position of the block at this instant. Call this point BL (BuNKl·
What is the direction of the velocity of B relative to BL?

83
 DYNAMICS

27
Relative to the link, the block can move only up or down the link.

The direction of the link relative to the block must be along the same line, although
opposite in direction. So draw a vector through b parallel to link CD of indefinite
length: bL must lie somewhere on this line.
Now since BL is turning about C, the direction of the vector cbL must be
perpendicular to CBL. And if you have not yet located c on the velocity diagram,
you should be able to do so, and complete the diagram.

28
For the configuration diagram:
1. Draw CA = 0.6 m.
2. Draw AB = 0.2 m at 60°.
3. Join CB and extend.
Velocity of B relative to A= wR = 8 x 0.2 = 1.6 m s - 1 .
Steps for the velocity diagram:
1. Draw ab = 1.6 m s - 1 perpendicular to AB, 'up-left' (for ajc rotation).
2. Draw vector bbL of indefinite length through b parallel to CD.
3. A and Care both fixed; so (a,c) is a single point on the velocity diagram.
4. Draw vector cbL perpendicular to CD; thus locate bL.
And here are the diagrams.

c A
(a,c)

From the velocity diagram, cbL scales 1.109 m s- 1 and bL b scales 1.153 m s- 1 • For
link CD, angular velocity w = vj R = cbL/CBL. From the configuration diagram, CB
scales 0. 721 m.

Wco = 1.109/0.721 = 1.538 rad s- 1

Vector bLb, the sliding velocity of block relative to link, is 1.153 m s- 1•

Now solve part (b) of the exercise (i.e. when(}= 0°).

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

29
b

c BL
----------------+---~
A B
(a,c)

For the case when f)= 0°, the configuration diagram is a straight line. Vector ab is
1.6 m s- 1 as before but now vertically upwards. Point bL lies on the intersection of
the line through b parallel to CBL and the line through c perpendicular to CBL. This
means that bbL is a single point. The length of CBL is seen to be (0.6 + 0.2) = 0.8 m.

The sliding velocity of the block along the link is seen to be zero.
Now complete the exercise by drawing the diagrams for case (c), with f)= 120°.
Avoid referring to the solution following if you can. The answer should be
Wco = 0.571 rad s - 1.

30
The configuration diagram and the velocity diagram for f)= 120a are below.

C ~ A b

The steps in drawing are the same as listed in Frame 28, allowing for the different
angle. As a check on your work, the angle ACB on the configuration diagram should
be approximately 19°, the length of CB should be approximately 0.529 m and the
length of velocity vector cbL should be approximately 0.302 m s- 1, giving:

Wco = cbL/CBL = 0.302/0.529 = 0.571 rad S -I

You should note that in this case, the direction of vector cbL has now reversed; the
swinging link CD is now moving back towards the centre. Can you deduce the
necessary condition for the angular velocity of the link to be zero?

85
 DYNAMICS

31
The link CD will be instantaneously at rest, at the outermost
part of its travel, when AB is at right-angles to the link CD

It is easy to show that this corresponds to an angle of()= 109.5 °. The velocity diagram
then becomes a single line. Point bL will coincide with point ( ac) and the block will
slide along the link at the maximum speed of 1.6 m s - 1 .
So as the crank turns from()= oo to 180°, link CD moves one way for 109.5° and
moves the other way for the remaining 70.5°. For a whole cycle of motion from oo
to 360°, it can be seen that for 219 degrees of crank travel, link CD will move one
way, while for the remaining 141 degrees, it moves the other way. This means that
the time to travel in one direction is approximately two-thirds the time it takes to
travel back again. For this reason, the mechanism is called the 'quick-return
mechanism'.
Notice that on the velocity diagrams for both cases (a) and (c), the angle bbLc is
a right-angle. This is a frequent feature of diagrams of mechanisms involving
slider-blocks on links.

32
Example. Details of part of a mechanism are shown below. A crank AB turns about
a fixed pivot A. A block pinned to end B is arranged to slide along a second link
CD which pivots about the fixed point C. Link DE is pinned to D and end E
carries a slider which is constrained to move in the horizontal guide. A and C lie
on the centre-line of the guide. AB = 1.2 m; CD= 3m; DE= 2m. Determine the
velocity of slider E at an instant when angle () is 30° and AB has an angular speed
of 10 rad s- 1 anti-clockwise.

Links AB and CD form the same mechanism as the previous example. A scale of
2 em= 1 m is satisfactory for the configuration diagram. As a guide, you should find
that DE makes an angle of 52.6° with the horizontal. After completing the velocity
diagram for AB and CBL, you then need to draw the velocity image of link CBLD.
For this, you will need to measure CBL accurately from the configuration diagram.
It should be approximately 1.13 m. Adopt a scale of 1 em = 2 m s- 1 for the velocity
diagram.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

33

Steps for the configuration diagram:

1. Locate point C. Draw horizontal through C.
2. Measure CA = 2 m to locate A.
3. Draw line at 30° at A.
4. Measure AB = 1.2 m to locate B.
5. Join CB and extend to D (CD= 3 m).
6. Centre D, radius DE= 2 m, draw arc to intersect horizontal at E.
7. Define point BL on CD coincident with B.
Velocity of B relative to A= wR = 10 x 1.2 = 12 m s - 1 .
Steps for the velocity diagram:
1. Draw ab= 12 m s- 1 perpendicular to AB: 'down right' (corresponding to
anti-clockwise rotation).
2. Draw 'sliding velocity' vector bbL through b parallel to CD of indefinite length.
3. Draw tangential velocity vector cbL perpendicular to CBL to intersect sliding vector
at bL (points a and c are one point on diagram).
4. Measure CB on configuration diagram.
5. Extend cbL to din ratio cbL:cd::CBL:CD (velocity image).
6. Draw vector de of indefinite length perpendicular to DE.
7. Draw horizontal through ( a,c) to intersect vector at e (velocity of e relative to A,
C is horizontal).
From the diagram the velocity of E (vector ae) scales 24.5 m s- 1•

87
 DYNAMICS

34
Although this programme is titled Kinematics, we shall introduce kinetics at this
point, because an understanding of mechanisms must include their function as
machines. Regarding a mechanism as an actual machine, through which force or
torque is transmitted, or converted, the engineer needs to know the relationship
between the input to such a machine, and the corresponding output.
Look at the slider-crank mechanism and its velocity diagram, illustrated in
Frames 7 and 12. Suppose that a force of 4 kN opposes the motion of the piston at
the particular configuration shown. We wish to determine the corresponding
torque required at the crankshaft at A to move the piston against this force. Can you
think of a way this can be done? It may help to refer to Programme 7.

35
We make use of the principle of Conservation of Energy.

During a given time, we argue that the work put into the machine (at the crankshaft)
must be equal to the work done by the machine (at the piston).
Work per unit time is called power. For a shaft turning at angular speed w, with
torque M, the power input is (Mw ). For a piston moving with linear velocity v against
a force F, the power is (Fv). Assuming no energy loss in the machine:

Fv=Mw

v is found from the velocity diagram (Frame 12). So go ahead and calculate M.

36
From Frame 12, v = 0.135 m s- l
Fv=Mw
M = Fvjw = 4000 x 0.135/2 = 270 N m

This calculation assumes no loss of energy. No real machine delivers the same power
at the output as the power input; there is always loss due to friction, heat dissipation,
and other causes. The ratio of output power to input power is called efficiency. It is
usually given the Greek letter 11 (eta):

11 = output power I input power

Look at the diagram in Frame 19. If the piston at A is opposed by a force of 21 kN

and the one at C by 3 kN, what input torque will be required at the shaft at E if the
mechanism has an efficiency of 65 %?

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

37
Output power = input power x 0.65

Here, there are two power output points. From the velocity diagram in Frame 22,
the vector ec scales 3.45 em. Vector ea, which scaled 4.03 em, represents a velocity
of slider A of 0.1 m s - 1. To this scale, ec represents a velocity of 0.856 m s- 1• The
angular velocity of ED was found in Frame 22 to be 0.248 rad s- 1 . Substituting
values in the power equation:

2500 X 0.1 + 3000 X 0.0856 = M (JJ = M X 0.248 X 0.65

giving: M =3142.7 N m

38
This completes the programme except for a summary and problems.
It has to be said that the graphical solution to a kinematic problem has
disadvantages. It is relatively slow, and can be inaccurate, particularly in cases where
the value of velocity required is very small in comparison with other velocities. For
example, if you were to evaluate the piston velocity for the slider-crank mechanism
of Frame 7, for a crank angle of 178°, adopting the same scale of 5 em= 0.1 m s - 1,
a careful drawing would probably give a sliding velocity vector 2 mm long, indicating
a piston velocity of 0.004 m s- 1 . An accurate calculation of the velocity gives a value
of0.004 198m s - 1. Thus, even a very careful drawing results in an error of about 4.7 %.
A second disadvantage is that considerable work is required to obtain values for
a single configuration. Again referring to the slider-crank mechanism, if we were
required to produce a graph of slider velocity against the crank angle (), we should
have to draw complete graphical solutions for at least six different configurations of
the mechanism. At the present state of technology this would be impractical, as simple
computer methods could be devised for such a project. Moreover, simple mechanisms
can be analysed mathematically, as we shall see in Programme 4.
Yet another disadvantage of this method of analysis is that we have to assume
rigid links and perfect joints for the graphical work to be valid. There are many
examples of quite complex link mechanisms in, for example, printing and textile
machinery, in which the actual rods, bars, slides, pin-joints, etc. do allow movement
which is not taken into account in the analysis of a theoretically perfect mechanism.
You will have more chances to practise drawing velocity diagrams in the following
programme on Acceleration Diagrams.

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 DYNAMICS

39
There follows a summary of the procedure for drawing velocity diagrams.
1. Draw a configuration diagram to a suitable scale.
2. Make a rough sketch of the velocity diagram to ascertain the approximate shape
and size. (See Frame 23, item 4.)
3. Use the rough sketch to decide on a suitable scale for the velocity diagram.
4. Draw the velocity diagram accurately.
(a) The velocity of one point on a link relative to another point on the same link
is a vector perpendicular to the line joining the two points.
(b) All 'fixed' points on the configuration diagram are represented on the velocity
diagram by a single point.
(c) The velocity of a slider moving in a fixed guide, relative to fixed points, is a
vector parallel to the direction of the guide.
(d) When a block slides on a moving link, define a point on the link coincident
with the position of the block at the instant. The sliding velocity of the block
relative to the point on the link will be a vector parallel to the direction of the
link at the instant.
(e) When a velocity vector is defined for any two points on a single link, the vector
for any other points on the same link can be determined by extending the
vector in geometric ratio to the corresponding points on the link. The resulting
extended vector is called the velocity image of the link.
(f) When necessary, begin the velocity diagram with a vector of arbitrary length.
When the diagram is complete, define the scale by reference to the information
given.
5. Do not draw more than one velocity diagram for any one configuration. Values
of velocity for other conditions vary in proportion to the velocity of any one element,
both as to magnitude and direction.
6. Scale all velocities required from the diagram. Calculate any angular velocities
required. For a single link defined by any two points, A and B, with a corresponding
velocity vector ab, the angular velocity of the link, w AB is given by:

WA 8 =ab/AB

7. Calculate all forces and torques required.

Output power = input power x efficiency

Power = force x velocity
Power = torque x angular velocity

When force opposes the motion of a point, the work done by the machine is
positive. When force acts in the same direction as the motion, the work done by
the machine is negative, i.e. work is being done on the machine.

90
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: VELOCITY DIAGRAMS

40
PROBLEMS

~F, D

(a) (b) (c)

!. In diagram (a) above, AB, 100 mm long, is pinned at B to CD, D moving in a

vertical slideway. CD is 250 mm and BC is 120 mm. CE is 150 mm long and E
moves in the horizontal slideway. When{) is 40°, E is moving to the left at 0.2 m s- 1 •
Find the angular speed of AB, and the velocity of D. Find the torque at crank AB
assuming no energy loss, if forces F 1 = 2 kN and F 2 = 3! kN act in the directions
shown. [Ans. 1.734 rad s- 1 ; 0.214 m s- 1 ; 157.7 N m.]
Hints: begin with vector ab; see Frame 21. Work at D will be negative (see Frame 39,
item 7).
2. Diagram (b) above shows a quick-return mechanism. AB = 0.25 m; CD= 1 m;
DE= 1 m. Pivot A lies on the horizontal line of the slideway at E, and pivot C is
vertically below pivot A. At the instant shown, angle {) is 75° and the crank AB
is turning clockwise at 30 rev /min. Determine the sliding velocity of the slider at
E, and the angular velocities of links CD and DE. If the motion of E is opposed
by a force of 450 N, calculate the torque required at the crank AB, if the machine
efficiency is 85%. [ Ans. 0.86 m s- I ; 0. 783 rad s -I clock.; 0.345 rad s -J anti-clock.;
144.9 N m.]
3. The mechanism shown at (c) above comprises a crank AB, a sliding swivel-block
at B and a single link CDE which has a right-angled bend at D. AB = 0.14 m;
CD= 0.4 m; DE= 0.2 m. E is vertically below A. At the instant shown, the angle
{) is 55° and AB is turning anti-clockwise at 2 rad s - 1 . Determine the angular
velocity of the bent link CDE and the linear velocity of point C. [ Ans. 0.579 rad s -I;
0.258 m s- 1.]
Hints: Conf. diag.: locate points A and E and draw AB. Draw semi-circle on BE
as diameter and draw arc radius ED centre E to intersect (the angle in a semi-circle
is a right-angle). Vel. diag.: BL relative to B is parallel to CD; BL relative toE is
perpendicular to the line BE. WcoE = ebL/EBL. Construct the image of E-C-D.

91
 Programme 3

KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS:
ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

93
 DYNAMICS

1
In this programme, we continue with the analysis of mechanisms, begun in Programme 2,
extending the graphical technique to include acceleration. To a design engineer,
acceleration is more important than velocity, as it is directly related to force. Much
modern machinery operates at very high speeds; the ordinary automobile engine is
a typical example, and the moving parts undergo accelerations of a very high order.
If such machinery is to operate without breaking apart due to internal stresses, the
designer must be able to predict the inertial forces accurately, and allow for them.
It must be made clear that in order to draw the vector diagram of acceleration of
a mechanism, it is necessary first to draw the velocity diagram. So do not attempt to
begin this programme unless you have worked through Programme 2, and can draw
a velocity diagram for a simple mechanism.

2
Here is a diagram of a single link, AB, turning about a fixed pivot at A.

What can you state regarding the acceleration of the point B relative to A? There
are four statements you should be able to make. Two refer to acceleration magnitude,
and two to direction. Write down as many statements as you can. It might be helpful
to look back to Programme 1, Frames 63 and 69.

3
1. There is a centripetal acceleration of B relative to A, of
magnitude (w 2 AB) where w is the angular velocity of AB.
2. The centripetal acceleration of B relative to A is in the
direction B to A.
3. If AB has an angular acceleration IX, there will be a tangential
component of acceleration of B relative to A, of magnitude (1XAB).
4. The line of action of the tangential acceleration component will be
perpendicular to AB.

Thus, in the general case of the acceleration of one point on a single rigid link relative
to another point, the acceleration will comprise a centripetal component, and a
tangential component.

94
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

4
Work through this simple example yourself.
Example. The link AB (Frame 2) is 0.75 m long. Determine the total acceleration
of B relative to A for the following cases.
(a) w = 2 rad s- 1 ; ex = 4 rad s- 2 clockwise.
(b) w = 1 rad s- 1 ; ex= 2 rad s- 2 anti-clockwise.
The answers are: (a) 4.245 m s- 2 at 45° to AB; (b) 1.677 m s- 2 at 63.4° to AB. The
first is worked out in Frame 5 for you, but do the second yourself.

5
For case (a):
Centripetal acceleration, component ac = w 2 R = 2 2 x 0.75 = 3.00 rad s - 2
Tangential acceleration, component a1 = exR = 4 x 0.75 = 3.00 rad s -2

.fJ'
The figure shows the simple vector addition of the components.

A~B
b
The vector sum, ab = .j(a; +an= .j(3 2 + 32 ) = 4.243 m s- 2
Angle 8 = tan - 1 ( 3I 3) = 45 o
Since ac is parallel to AB, the resultant vector makes this angle with AB.
The notation is the same as we used on velocity vector diagrams. a-b, read in that
order, is the total acceleration of B relative to A. Similarly b-a, in that order, is the
acceleration of A relative to B.

6
If the angular velocity of a link is known, or if the velocity of one point relative to
another point on the link is known, the centripetal acceleration of the one point
relative to the other can be calculated. This is why the first procedure is to draw the
velocity diagram for the mechanism. When this is done, all the relevant centripetal
acceleration components can be calculated.
We begin with a four-bar chain. Details are set out in the following frame, and
you should go through the procedure yourself. Begin by taking a blank sheet of A4
paper, and construct the configuration and velocity diagrams. This time, dispose the
space so that you have enough room to draw an acceleration diagram also; all three
diagrams must be on the one sheet. Very roughly, allow about one-third of the sheet
for each diagram.

95
 DYNAMICS

7
Example. Details of a simple four-bar chain are shown in the diagram.

),..-------......c
', B

'
"
AB = 1 m; BC = 1.5 m; CD= 0.8 m; AD= 2.5 m. () = 45°. Determine the angular
accelerations of the links BC and CD when AB is turning clockwise at 5 rad s- 1
and has an angular acceleration of 10 rad s- 2 anti-clockwise.
Choose your own scales for the configuration and velocity diagrams, referring if
necessary to the remarks in Programme 2, Frame 23, and leaving space to draw an
acceleration diagram. As a check on the configuration diagram, link CD should make
an angle of 68.5° to AD. The lengths of the velocity vectors be and de should be
4.88 m s- 1 and 3.67 m s- 1 .
Now calculate all the centripetal acceleration components, and also the tangential
component of B relative to A. The calculations appear in Frame 8, but if your own
values of velocities vary slightly from the ones given here, use your own values.

8
Centripetal acceleration of B relative to A= w 2 R =5 2 x 1 = 25 m s- 2
Tangential acceleration of B relative to A= cxR = 10 x 1 =10m s - 2
Cent. ace. of C rel. to B = v2 I R = (bc) 2 /BC = 4.88 2 j 1.5 = 15.88 m s- 2
Cent. ace. of C rel. to D = v 2 j R = (cd) 2 jCD = 3.67 2 /0.8 = 16.84 m s- 2

Your configuration and velocity diagrams should look like this.

(a ,d)

The acceleration diagram is drawn completely in the following frame, with explanatory
notes, but of course, it must actually be drawn on the same sheet as the configuration
diagram, in order that the vectors may be drawn parallel to, or perpendicular to the
links themselves. The configuration diagram is repeated in Frame 9 for this purpose.

96
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

9
Here is a 'repeat' of the configuration diagram, with the acceleration diagram. The
vectors are numbered in the order in which they have been drawn.
(a,d)

cent. b

A
®
D

This is the procedure for drawing the acceleration diagram.

1. Draw the centripetal vector from (a,d) in the direction B to A, length 25m s- 2 .
2. Draw the tangential vector from the end of this perpendicular to AB, in the 'up-left'
direction (corresponding to anti-clockwise angular acceleration), length 10 m s- 2 .
This locates point b.
3. Draw the centripetal vector from b in the direction C to B, length 15.88 m s- 2 .
This is the centripetal acceleration of C relative to B.
4. Draw the tangential acceleration component from the end of this perpendicular
to BC, of indefinite length: c must lie on this line.
5. Draw the centripetal vector from (a,d) in the direction C to D of length
16.84 m s- 2 . This is the centripetal acceleration of C relative to D.
6. Draw the tangential acceleration component from the end of this perpendicular
to CD. c must lie on this line, c is located where the line intersects the line drawn
under 4 above.
To complete the exercise, measure the two tangential vectors (C rei. to B (4) and
C rei. to D (6)). These should scale respectively approximately 23.2 m s - 2 and 50 m s - 2 ,
although small errors of drawing could result in possibly 5% variation on these
values. From these values, the angular accelerations of the respective links are
calculated:

aBc= atan/ R = 23.2/1.5 = 15.47 rad s- 2

Gtco =a tan/ R = 50.0/0.8 = 62.5 rad s - 2

To gain practice in this work, repeat this whole exercise, with the velocity and
acceleration of AB the same, but with the angle e now 30° instead of 45°. Complete
details are not given, but small diagrams are shown in Frame 10 with some figures
for you to check your own work. The procedure listed above is exactly the same.

97
 DYNAMICS

10
The three diagrams, (a), (b) and (c) are respectively the configuration, velocity and
acceleration diagrams.

(a,d)

(c)
b

Here are a few values for you to check your own attempt.
In the configuration diagram, link CD should make an angle of 78.4 o with AD.
In the velocity diagram, you should obtain values of 4. 75 m s - 1 and I.64 m s - 1 for
the vectors be and de respectively.
In the acceleration diagram, the tangential component for C relative to D should
scale approximately 41.8 m s- 2 • The tangential component for C relative to B should
scale approximately 5.25 m s -z.
You should consider the stated velocity values as accurate, and if you are not close
to these values, examine your work carefully and see if you can find any errors. The
values for acceleration cannot be considered so accurate, and you can allow an error
of 5% either way on the stated values.
To complete the exercise, use your own values of tangential acceleration components
to calculate the angular accelerations of the links BC and CD, as was done in the
previous frame for the other configuration. For the values given above, you can check
that the accelerations will be oc 8 c = 3.5 rad s - 2 and occo = 52.19 rad s - 2 .
Before we work through the next example, we must establish the concept of the
acceleration image. If you understood the velocity image in Programme 2, then you
will have no difficulty with the acceleration image. The principle can be stated as
follows.
When an acceleration vector is defined for any two points on a single link, the
vector for any other points on the same link can be determined by extending the
vector in geometric ratio of the corresponding points on the link. The resulting
extended vector is called the acceleration image of the link.
If you refer back to Frame 39 of Programme 2, item (e), you will find that exactly
the same wording was used for defining the velocity image. The only additional point
which you have to remember is, that before you construct an image, you require the
total accelerations of points, that is, both centripetal and tangential components. The
example in Frame II should make this clear.

98
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

11
Example. The diagram shows a mechanism of four links. AB is 0.1 m, BC is 0.3 m;
BD is 0.2 m; DE is 0.14 m; GC is 0.12 m; EF is 0.3 m. BCDE is a single rigid link
with a right-angled branch DE. The slider is horizontal and the line passes through
the pivot A. At the instant shown, AB is turning clockwise at 4 rad s - 1 and also
has a clockwise angular acceleration of 12 rad s - 2 . The angle() between AB and
the horizontal is 20°. For this configuration, determine the sliding acceleration of
the slider at F, and the angular accelerations of all the links.

E
N
0

The drawing of the configuration diagram should not present many problems.
Remember first that your sheet will have to take all three diagrams, so leave adequate
space. A scale of 2 em= 0.1 m is satisfactory. Do not be misled by the lettering;
construct the four-bar chain A-B-C-G first of all, and then D-E-F. You would
be unable to construct in the order A-B-C-D-E- F because this part by itself would
not constitute a mechanism, whereas A-B-C-G would. Check the angles made to
the horizontal by BC and GC; they should be respectively 7.3° and 86°.
A suggested scale for the velocity diagram is 2 em = 0.1 m s- 1 . The diagram is
reproduced for you in the following frame over the page, with notes, and refer to
these if you have difficulty. If you wish to complete your diagram without referring
to them, here are some of the values you should obtain.

Vector be should scale approximately 0.375 m s- 1

Vector cg should scale approximately 0.085 m s -1
Vector ef should scale approximately 0.107 m s -1
Vector af should scale approximately 0.250 m s -1

Remember, you may not arrive at exactly these values, as there must always be some
error in a graphical solution, but if your values vary from these by more than about
2%, you should check your work carefully and ensure that you have not made any
serious mistake.

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 DYNAMICS

12
Here is the configuration diagram and the velocity diagram.

Details of the construction for the configuration diagram should not be necessary.
The steps for the velocity diagram follow.
1. Define the 'fixed' points (a,g).
2. Draw vector ab perpendicular to AB, of length v = wR = 4 x 0.1 = 0.4 m s- 1 ,
'down-right' (i.e. corresponding to clockwise rotation of AB).
3. Draw vector be of indefinite length perpendicular to BC; c must lie on this line.
4. Draw vector gc perpendicular to GC, to intersect the above at c.
5. Measure be and calculate two-thirds of the length (BD is two-thirds of BC).
Measure this distance along be to locate d.
6. Draw line at d perpendicular to be.
7. Measure de= be x DE/BC along this line to locate e. This completes the velocity
image of BCDE.
8. Draw vector ef of indefinite length perpendicular to EF.
9. Draw horizontal through (a,g) to intersect above at f. (Velocity of slider at F must
be horizontal.)
When drawing the branch de, make sure that your velocity image is a correct one,
and not a mirror-image.
Now the various accelerations are calculated. Here, the velocities scaled from the
velocity diagram are used. If your values differ, you should of course calculate using
your own values, although they should not vary much from the values used here.

Centripetal acceleration of AB = w 2 R = 4 2 x 0.1 = 1.6 m s- 2

Tangential acceleration of AB = aR = 12 x 0.1 = 1.2 m s - 2
Centripetal acceleration of BC = v 2 / R = (bc) 2 /BC = (0.375) 2 /0.3 = 0.469 m s -2
Centripetal acceleration of CG = v 2 / R = (cg) 2 /CG = (0.085) 2 /0.12 = 0.0602 m s -2
Centripetal acceleration of EF = v2 / R = (ef) 2 /EF = (0.107) 2 /0.3 = 0.0382 m s- 2

100
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

13
Here follows a step-by-step set of instructions for drawing the acceleration diagram.
=
A scale of 1 em 0.2 m s- 2 will be found to result in a diagram approximately
10 em by 10 em.
1. Locate the starting-point ( a,g) representing the two fixed points, A and G.
2. Draw the vector from (a,g) for the centripetal acceleration of B relative to A of
magnitude 1.6 m s- 2 , and in the direction B to A.
3. From the end of the above, draw the tangential acceleration vector forB relative
to A, of magnitude 1.2 m s- 2 , and perpendicular to AB in the 'down-right'
direction consistent with clockwise angular acceleration of AB. This fixes the
point b on the diagram.
4. From point b, draw the centripetal acceleration vector for C relative to B, of
magnitude 0.469 m s- 2 and in the direction C to B.
5. From the end of this, draw the tangential acceleration vector for C relative to B,
of indefinite length, perpendicular to BC. The point c must lie on this line.
6. From point (a,g), draw the centripetal acceleration vector for C relative toG, of
magnitude 0.0602 m s- 2 and in the direction G to C.
7. From the end of this, draw the tangential acceleration vector for C relative to G.
The length is unknown, but c is found where this vector intersects the one drawn
at 5 above.
8. Join the points b and c. Measure be.
9. Divide be at d such that bc:cd is the same as BC:CD, i.e. 3:1.
10. Draw a line at d perpendicular to be to construct the image of DE. Take care
that the line is drawn to the correct side of be, i.e. to the right when looking from
b to c.
11. Mark point e on this line such that de:bc is the same as DE:BC, i.e. 0.14:0.3.
b-e-d-e is then the acceleration image of B-C-D-E.
12. From point e, draw the centripetal acceleration vector for F relative to E, of
magnitude 0.0382 m s- 2 and in the direction F to E.
13. From the end of this, draw the tangential acceleration vector for F relative to E,
of indefinite length, perpendicular to EF. Point f must lie on this line.
14. Draw a vector through point (a,g) parallel to slider at F, i.e. horizontal. Because
the acceleration of F relative to A is horizontal, f lies on this line. f is located
where the line intersects the vector drawn at 13 above.
The diagram is reproduced in the following frame. You should of course use your
own values for the calculated accelerations. You will find that the magnitudes of some
of the acceleration components from 12 onwards in the above sequence are extremely
small. Note particularly in the construction that the acceleration image is constructed
only after the total acceleration of B relative to C has been determined.

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 DYNAMICS

14

The complete acceleration diagram for the example of Frame 11 is drawn below,
along with a 'repeat' of the configuration diagram.

~----------------,G

The tangential acceleration components for links BCDE, CG and EF are given
below; values from your solution may of course differ slightly from these.

For BCDE: tangential component (brei. to c) scales 1.96 m s - 2

For CG: tangential component (g rei. to c) scales 1.85 m s- 2
For EF: tangential component (e rei. to f) scales 0.09 m s- 2

The last of these measurements must be considered speculative. The vector is only
approximately 4t mm long, and in such circumstances, very high percentage errors
are possible. For example, if your version gave a length of 5 mm, which could be
quite probably, as t mm is not a large amount to allow for drawing error, the
percentage error could be 11 %. The angular accelerations are calculated in the next
frame. Work them out yourself first.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

Angular acceleration of BCDE: 1X 8 c = 1.96/0.3 = 6.53 rad s - 2

15
Angular acceleration of CG: 1Xca = 1.85/0.12 = 15.42 rad s- 2
Angular acceleration of EF: IXEF = 0.09/0.3 = 0.30 rad s - 2
Sliding acceleration ofF: af scales 0.776 m s- 2

16
PROBLEMS

A
E
N
LO
0

I• 0.4m
(a) 8 (c)

1. Diagram (a) above shows a simple slider-crank mechanism. AB = 0.2 m; BC = 0.6 m.

G represents the mass centre of the link BC and BG = 0.2 m. Determine the
acceleration of the slider at C and the acceleration of the point G, for values of
the angle e of 0°, 45°, 90° and 180° when the crank AB turns anti-clockwise at a
constant rate of 200 rev min- 1• [Ans. 0°: 116.98 m s- 2 ; 97.58 m s- 2 • 45°: 62.03
m s- 2 ; 74.7 m s- 2 • 90°: 31.02 m s- 2 ; 59.34 m s- 2 . 180°: 58.48 m s- 2 ; 77.98
m s- 2.]
Hint: diagrams for oo and 180° need to be sketched only.
2. In the mechanism shown in diagram (b) above, the ends of the link AB move in
vertical and horizontal guides. Link CD is pinned to the link AB and D is
constrained by a horizontal slideway. AB = 0.8 m; AC = 0.5 m; CD= 0.4 m.
Determine the velocities and accelerations of ends B and D when the angle e is
60° and when A is moving downwards with a constant velocity of 2 m s- 1 . [ Ans.
B: 3.464 m s- 1 ; 40 m s- 2 • D: 1.77 m s- 1 ; 27.52 m s- 2.]
Hint: the velocity and acceleration of B can be calculated from the trigonometry
of the velocity and acceleration diagrams which will be right-angled triangles.
3. In the mechanism shown in diagram (c) above, AB = 0.2 m, BC = 0.45 m,
CD = 0.28 m, EF = 0.27 m and BE = 0.32 m; BC is a single rigid link to which EF is
pinned at E. Determine the acceleration of the slider at F when the angle fJ is 50° and
AB turns at a constant speed of 36 rev min -J clockwise. [Ans. 2.32 m s- 2.]
Hints: centripetal acceleration ofF relative to E is very small, and e and fare
practically coincident points on the diagram.

103
 DYNAMICS

17
So far, we have avoided the problem of a block sliding along a link which is itself
turning. This involves a new component of acceleration called the Coriolis component.
There is no particular mystery attached to the Coriolis component, once you clearly
understand that acceleration is a change of velocity, and that velocity, being a vector,
changes when its direction changes, as well as its magnitude.
Look carefully at the situation shown in the figure.

A point P is moving along a line with a velocity v; the line itself is rotating at angular
velocity w. There are two results of this combined motion.
1. Because the line is turning, the direction of the sliding velocity vector is being
continually changed.
2. Because the radius is continually increasing, the magnitude of the tangential velocity,
wr, is continually being increased.
Both of these effects are the result of the combination of turning and sliding. If either
w or v were zero, neither would occur.
Before deriving the simple expression for the Coriolis acceleration, we may mention
some simple illustrations of its effects. The rotation of the earth means that lines of
longitude are rotating, so that a body following a line of longitude suffers a Coriolis
acceleration. Thus, an air current which, on a stationary globe, might blow from
North to South, cannot do so on the turning earth, as no force can act upon it. The
result is that the air currents tend to get 'left behind', so to speak, by the spinning
earth, and the prevailing wind directions are normally oblique to the lines of
longitude.
Another illustration of the Coriolis acceleration is that of a disc spinning at high
speed. If the spinning disc is turned about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis, a
simple analysis shows that elements of the disc are subject to a Coriolis acceleration,
the result of which is that, in order to turn the disc about the required axis, you have
to apply a torque about an axis perpendicular to this axis. The required torque is
called the gyroscopic torque. Thus, if you hold a spinning bicycle wheel in your hands
by its axle, so that it spins in a vertical plane, a clockwise twist on the axle, up with
the left hand and down with the right, will have the surprising result that the wheel
will twist about a vertical axis.
The effect was discovered and analysed by the French physicist G. Coriolis as
recently as 1835.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

18

\ p -:;?'V ov wr

0
(a)

Diagram (a) shows a link pivoted at 0, with a sliding block P moving outwards
along it at velocity v. We shall consider the two effects mentioned in the previous
frame separately.
First, the change of direction of the sliding velocity vector. Diagram (b) shows a
vector 1 of length v, and a vector 2, also of length v, after an increment of time bt.
In that time, the link will rotate through an angle ( wbt) and this will be the angle
between the two vectors. The change of velocity, bv (for a very small angle), will be
( vwbt ). The rate of change of velocity, that is, the acceleration, will thus be ( vw) and
in the limit, this is seen to be in the direction perpendicular to the direction of sliding.
Diagram (c) shows a vector representing the tangential velocity at an instant. This
will have magnitude (wr) at an instant. But after a time lapse &, the radius will
increase by an amount ( vbt) so that the tangential velocity will increase in magnitude
by an amount ( wvbt ). The resulting acceleration, or rate of change, will be ( vw ), as
before, and will also be in the same direction.
Thus, the total acceleration arising out of this condition is 2vw. This is the magnitude
of the Coriolis component of acceleration.

19
We may summarise the Coriolis component of acceleration:
When a body moves with a velocity v along a path which is turning with an angular
velocity w, it is subjected to a Coriolis acceleration of magnitude 2vw.
The direction of the Coriolis component is the direction of the sliding velocity, advanced
90° in the direction of the rotation.
You are reminded that this acceleration has been shown to exist on a link turning
at a constant speed, with a block sliding along it at constant speed. If these speeds
are not constant, there will be in addition, a tangential acceleration component, and
a sliding acceleration component. And, of course, there is also the centripetal
acceleration component.

105
 DYNAMICS

20
Example. A link turns about a fixed pivot with a clockwise angular velocity of
2 rad s- 1 and an anti-clockwise angular acceleration of 3 rad s- 2 . A particle
P moves along the link and at a certain instant, it is at a radius of 2 m, with an
inward velocity of 1.5 m s - 1 and an outward acceleration of 2m s - 2 . Determine
the total acceleration of P relative to the pivot.
Having already drawn velocity diagrams for mechanisms with blocks sliding on
turning links, we recall that we have to allocate separate letters to the point P and
to the point on the link coincident with it. We shall call the point on the link PL.
We begin by calculating the centripetal and tangential acceleration components of
acceleration of PL relative to the plot, which we shall call 0.

Centripetal acceleration ac = w 2 r = 2 2 x 2 = 8 m s- 2
Tangential acceleration a 1 = rxr = 3 x 2 = 6 m s- 2

The sliding component of acceleration of the block along the link is given. We calculate
the magnitude of the Coriolis component from the formula just derived.
Sliding acceleration a.= 2m s - 2 (given)
Coriolis acceleration a cor = 2vw = 2 X 1.5 X 2 = 6 m s- 2

The diagram can now be drawn, and is shown here, the vectors drawn in the order
calculated. The 'configuration diagram' of the line and point P are also shown.

The magnitude of the total acceleration of P relative to 0 (vector op.) is 13.42 m s - 2.

In this particular example, we could have begun by drawing the tangential
component before the centripetal. But when analysing mechanisms, the magnitude
of the centripetal component is usually known, and therefore is drawn first.
The direction of the Corio lis component is determined by the rule given. The sliding
velocity vector is directed radially inwards; this is 'advanced' 90° in the direction of
rotation of OP, which in this case is clockwise.
If you are sure you understand how the diagram has been constructed, make an
attempt at drawing the diagram yourself, for the case when all four quantities, v, w,
A. and rx are in the reverse direction to those shown.

106
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

21
Here is the diagram for the previous example, with velocities and accelerations all
reversed in direction. The magnitudes of all four vectors remain the same.
0

The diagram is seen to be quite different. Of course, the centripetal vector is in the
same direction as before: centripetal acceleration is always directed towards the centre
of rotation. The direction of the tangential component is in the reverse direction, and
so is the sliding acceleration component, a •. Perhaps surprisingly, the direction of
the Coriolis component has not changed. This is because both sliding velocity, and
direction of angular velocity have both changed, leaving the Corio lis vector unaltered.
The magnitude of the total acceleration is seen to be 10 m s- 2•

22
PROBLEMS

1. A horizontal pipe oflength 8 m is mounted on a central pivot so that it can turn

in a horizontal plane at a speed of 30 rev min- 1 . Water is directed into the pipe
at the central pivot and flows radially outwards. The pipe bore is 5 em diameter
and the flow rate is 1.2 m 3 per minute. Calculate the magnitude of the Coriolis
acceleration component (a) at the pipe centre, and (b) at the maximum radius of
4 m. [Ans. 64.00 m s- 2 .]
Hint: answer to both parts is the same; Corio lis acceleration is independent of
position.
2. A link turns about a fixed pivot in a vertical plane, with angular velocity w and
angular acceleration of 4 rad s- 2 clockwise. A point P moves along the link with
a sliding velocity of 2 m s - 1 inwards from the pivot, and a sliding acceleration of
1 m s- 1 outwards. If, at the instant the link is vertically upwards, P is at a radius
of 1.5 m and the total acceleration of P is horizontal, what is the value of w, and
what is the total acceleration of P? [Ans. w = 0.8165 rad s- 1 ; a 101 = 2.734 m s- 2.]
Hint: sketch the four vectors. It can be seen that for the stated condition, centripetal
component= sliding component; hence find w.

107
 DYNAMICS

23
We now study an actual mechanism which involves a Coriolis acceleration. Learn to
'spot' the existence of a Coriolis component. Remember that it is found whenever a
point is moving along a path which is turning. When a block moves along a slideway
which is fixed, the Coriolis component does not exist.
We shall take for the first example, the simple 'quick-return' mechanism which we
looked at in Programme 2, Frame 26.

Example. In the mechanism shown, link AB is 0.15 m long and CD is 0.5 m long.
At the instant shown, AB is at angle e= 30° to AC, and is turning anti-clockwise
at a constant rate of 30 rev min- 1 . Determine the angular acceleration of the link
CD, the sliding acceleration of slider B along CD, and the linear acceleration of D.
The first part of the solution should be straightforward by this stage. Draw the
configuration diagram and the velocity diagram on a single sheet of A4 paper, leaving
plenty of space to include an acceleration diagram. Choose your own scales, recalling
the remarks in Frame 23 of Programme 2. When you have completed the velocity
diagram, you can then calculate the centripetal acceleration components for both AB
and CD. You may need to refresh your memory by referring to Programme 2. Recall
particularly that you will need to allocate a letter to the point on CD corresponding
to the position of the block; call the point BL.
As a check on your work you should find that on the configuration diagram, CD
makes an angle of 15.5 o with CA, and the length of CBL should be 0.28 m. In the
velocity diagram, vectors bbL and cbL should scale approximately 0.336 m s- 1 and
0.330 m s- 1 respectively.
The two diagrams are reproduced in the next frame, although detailed step-by-step
instructions are not included this time, as the sequence will be exactly the same as
for the example in Programme 2, detailed in Frame 28, allowing for the different
direction of rotation and dimensions.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

24
The velocity of B relative to A is first calculated.
v = wR = (2n x 30/60)(0.15) = 0.471 m s - 1
and the configuration and velocity diagrams should look like these.
(a,c)
D

c~
b
Before beginning the acceleration diagram, we calculate the centripetal acceleration
components of both AB and CBL, and the Coriolis component. Work these out, using
your own velocity values, if they are different from the ones shown (although if the
difference is considerable, you should check to see where you have made mistakes).
The calculations are given in Frame 25.

25
Centripetal acceleration ofB rei. to A=w 2 R=(2n x 30/60) 2 (0.15)= 1.48 m s- 2
Centripetal acceleration of BL rei. to C = v2 j R = (cbd 2 /CBL = (0.33) 2 /0.28
= 0.389 m s -2
To calculate the Coriolis component, aeon we use the expression
acor = 2vw
where v is, in this case, the sliding velocity of the block along CD, bbL, which is
0.336 m s- 1 , and w is the angular velocity of CD.
Wco = cbLfCBL = 0.330/0.28 = 1.179 rad s - 1
acor =2 X 0.336 X 1.179 = 0.792 m S- 2

If you wish to draw the acceleration diagram, here is the order of procedure.
1. Define 'fixed' point (a,c).
2. Draw centripetal vector ab of length 1.48 m s- 2 in direction B to A.
3. Draw Coriolis vector of length 0.792 m s- 2 perpendicular to CD.
4. Draw sliding vector from end of this of unknown length parallel to CD.
5. Draw centripetal vector of length 0.389 m s- 2 in direction BL to C.
6. Draw tangential vector from end of this perpendicular to CD. This will intersect
the vector drawn under 4 at point bL.

109
 DYNAMICS

26
Specific instructions as to the direction of the Coriolis component were omitted from
the procedure in the previous frame, to give you the opportunity to work it out for
yourself. First, here is the complete solution, with the configuration and velocity
diagrams repeated, for clarity.

(a,c)

C ~ A
b

In constructing the acceleration diagram, we identify point b before point bL. The
direction of the Coriolis vector is 90° in advance of the corresponding sliding velocity
vector. Now it must be clearly understood that this sliding vector is bbL on the
velocity diagram, not bL b because we are drawing the Corio lis and sliding vectors
of BL relative to B, not the other way round.
Now we must determine the direction of rotation of the sliding path. The velocity
diagram shows the vector cbL to be downwards, indicating that BL is moving
downwards relative to C. This clearly indicates a clockwise rotation of CD. Thus, we
'advance' the sliding velocity vector bbL clockwise by 90°.
If you find this rule difficult to understand or to apply, you may find it simpler to
determine the Coriolis direction simply by working out each time which way the
sliding velocity vector is being turned. Alongside the velocity diagram, we show a
small vector with an arrow, specifically indicating the sliding velocity of BL relative
to B, in positions I and 2. The vector cbL again tells us that link CD is turning
clockwise; so in a small increment of time, this sliding vector will be in position 2,
that is, advanced clockwise by a small amount. Then the change of velocity, bv, is
clearly seen to be in the downward direction.
This determination of the correct direction of the Corio lis vector is the most difficult
part of the work, and you will require much practice to be always certain of getting
it right. Notice in the discussion above that we have used the velocity diagram to
determine the direction of rotation of CD. Although it is obvious from the details of
the question that if AB is turning anti-clockwise, CD must be turning clockwise, you
should never take such obvious facts for granted. Get into the habit of always
determining the direction of rotation of a link from the velocity diagram. You will
find some examples in which the direction is not obvious.
The calculations for the required values are completed in the next frame.

110
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

27
Values scaled from the acceleration diagram are:
Sliding acceleration vector (bL rel. to b) scales 1.43 m s- 2
Tangential acceleration vector ( bL rel. to C) scales 1.83 m s- 2
Total acceleration BL rel. to C (vector cbd scales 1.89 m s- 2
1Xco = atanfr = 1.83/0.28 = 6.536 rad s- 2
Sliding acceleration (as scaled)= 1.43 m s - 2
The linear acceleration of point D can be obtained by constructing the image of link
C- BL- D, but this is not necessary; we may simply calculate the length of the vector
by ratio:
cd = cbL x CD/CBL = 1.89 x 0.5/0.28 = 3.375 m s- 2
Repeat this whole exercise, this time taking e as 45o instead of 30°. The procedure
will be exactly the same throughout, of course, and therefore details are not given,
but in the following frame there are a few values for you to confirm that your working
is correct, as you proceed.

28
For the case when angle e= 45°:
In the configuration diagram:
CBL should measure approximately 0.31 m
CD should be at approximately 19.8 o to AC
In the velocity diagram:
bbL should scale approximately 0.43 m s- 1
cbL should scale approximately 0.2 m s- 1
In the acceleration diagram:
The sliding component (bL rel. to b) should scale approximately 0. 76 m s- 2
The tangential component (bL rel. to c) should scale approximately 1.88 m s- 2
The total acceleration of BL (cbd should scale approximately 1.89 m s- 2
These values give the following answers:
Angular acceleration of CD= atanlr = 1.88/0.31 = 6.065 rad s- 2
Sliding acceleration of slider on CD= 0.76 m s- 2
Total acceleration ofD=cbL x CD/CBL= 1.892 x 0.5/0.31 =3.052 m s- 2

111
 DYNAMICS

29 In Frame 30 are two further problems. The first consists of a single link, although a
Coriolis acceleration component will be involved. For both problems, the velocity
diagram is a right-angled triangle, and the acceleration diagram consists of only four
vectors. Accurate drawing is not necessary; once the shape of the diagrams is known,
the values of the vectors can be calculated.
We shall see in Programme 4 that we can calculate accelerations mathematically
for such simple mechanisms. It is actually simpler to solve graphically, but
mathematical analysis offers the advantage that, once an expression for an acceleration
has been derived, it can be used for any value of displacement, and therefore, for any
configuration of the mechanism. With a graphical method, the diagrams must be
drawn for each configuration required.

30
PROBLEMS
B I A

1>>>>>.>'\).1 c

E
M E
ci <t
ci

(a) (b)

1. Diagram (a) above shows a link AB. A is constrained by a horizontal slide and
the link passes through a swivel at P which is fixed in position but allows the link
to turn, and slide through it. If A moves at constant speed of 2 m s- 1 to the right,
determine the sliding component of acceleration through the swivel, and the angular
acceleration of AB when angle e is 30°. [Ans. 8.66 m s- 2 ; 28.87 rad s- 2.]
Hint: (o,p) is a single point on the velocity diagram, and (o,a) a single point on
the acceleration diagram.
2. In diagram (b) above, line OA turns about a fixed pivot 0. Link BC moves in a
horizontal guide and the end B carries a block which slides along OA. Angle eis 40°.
(a) If BC moves left with constant velocity 2 m s- 1, determine the angular
acceleration of OA.
(b) If OA turns anti-clockwise with constant velocity 2 rad s- 1, determine the
linear acceleration of BC.
[Ans. (a) 14.447 rad s- 2 ; (b) 4.576 m s- 2.]
Hints: for (a), ( o,b) will be one fixed point on the acceleration diagram.

112
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

31

We shall go through one further example before the final set of problems, but first,
here is a step-by-step set of instructions for drawing acceleration diagrams.
1. Draw a configuration diagram and a velocity diagram, according to the principles
set out in Programme 2, Frame 39. Leave sufficient space on the sheet for drawing
the acceleration diagram.
2. Calculate all centripetal acceleration components for the mechanism. When the
angular velocity of a link is given, the centripetal component can be calculated
from the data. For all other links, the component is calculated from values scaled
from the velocity diagram. One centripetal component should be calculated for
each link in the mechanism.
3. Calculate all Coriolis components, using values scaled from the velocity diagram.
4. Make a rough sketch of the acceleration diagram to decide on a scale, and to
determine at what point to begin the drawing.
5. Begin by defining a 'fixed point', that is, a point of zero acceleration. Where
there is clearly more than one such point in the mechanism, letter the point
appropriately.
6. Generally, begin the drawing with the centripetal and tangential vectors for a
link whose angular velocity and acceleration are given.
7. Always draw centripetal and Coriolis vectors before tangential and sliding
vectors: that is, always draw vectors of known value before those of unknown
value.
8. Generally, proceed from one link to an adjacent link in the mechanism.
9. When a link has more than two connections to it in the mechanism, first identify
two points on the link on the acceleration diagram, and determine the total
relative acceleration of the two points. All other points on the link may then be
determined by constructing the acceleration image of the link.
10. When the diagram is complete, measure all the vector components required for
the solution ofthe problem, using the scale chosen. These will usually be tangential
and sliding components.
11. Calculate all angular accelerations required.
It is impossible to set down a complete and absolutely comprehensive guide to the
drawing of vector diagrams, and this does not have any pretensions to being one.
There will always be some oddity about the occasional problem which requires some
extra ingenuity, initiative, or special knowledge of the solver.
The next, and final exercise, is set out generally according to the guide, and we
shall make reference to it as we proceed through the solution.

113
 DYNAMICS

32

E
CXl
~

Example. The figure shows part of a mechanism in which CDE is a single rigid
link with a right-angled bend, turning about the fixed pivot D. The link AB is
connected to the arm CD by a slider at B, so that B slides along CD. Link FG
connects to the other arm DE by the slider at E, so that E can slide along FG. At
the instant shown, AB is at an angle of 20o to the horizontal and is turning clockwise
at the constant rate of 5 rad s- 1 . AB=0.12 m; CD=0.4 m; DE=0.16 m;
FG = 0.3 m. Determine the angular velocities and accelerations of the links CDE
and FG.
Begin the solution by studying the data carefully. There are two dimensions given
which are not required for the solution. Which are they?

33
We shall not need the lengths of CD, or FG.

If you do not see why, it will become clear later, but this fact helps in deciding on a
scale for the configuration diagram, because we shall not need to include the arm
CD beyond the point B. A suitable scale for A4 paper is therefore 4 em 0.1 m. =
Draw your diagram carefully, beginning by locating the 'fixed' points A, D and F,
and keeping the diagram well to the top of your A4 sheet. If you locate F almost at
the left of the sheet, you will fit B comfortably in, but C will be off the paper. The
diagram is reproduced in the following frame, as are the detailed steps in producing
it, but if you wish to complete the drawing without referring to the steps, then as a
check, you should find that the angle between BD and the horizontal through F
and Dis 27.9° and that the angle between FG and the same horizontal is 53.4 °. Also
the length of DB should be 0.297 m, and the length of EF should be 0.176 m. These
values have been calculated from the geometry of the diagram; you should accordingly
take them as correct, and your values should be close to them.

114
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

34
The steps for constructing the configuration diagram are:
1. Locate F at the top-left of the sheet.
2. Draw a horizontal through F.
3. Measure FD = 0.18 m along this line to locate D.
4. Measure 0.15 m along the line to the right of D.
5. Draw a vertical through this last point.
6. Measure 0.18 m below the horizontal, along this vertical, to locate A.
7. Draw horizontal through A.
8. Draw line at 20° to the horizontal through A.
9. Measure AB = 0.12 m along this line to locate B.
10. Join BD. Measure.
11. Draw a line through D perpendicular to BD.
12. Measure DE= 0.16 m along this line to locate E.
13. Join EF. Measure.
And the configuration diagram is reproduced below.

From the diagram, BD scales 0.297 m and EF scales 0.176 m.

The drawing of the velocity diagram comes next. Follow the suggestion made
earlier, and make a rough sketch of it, to gain some idea of the shape, and to help
in choosing a scale. And of course, calculate the velocity of B relative to A. You
should find that a scale of 2 em= 0.1 m s- 1 is a suitable scale for a diagram which
will then be of reasonable size and yet leave space to draw the acceleration diagram.
It need not be considered a disaster, of course, if one diagram runs across another
one, but it is clearly better to keep them separate so far as is practical. The diagram
is reproduced in Frame 35, with a 'repeat' of the configuration diagram.

115
 DYNAMICS

35
Velocity of B relative to A is:

v = wR = 5 x 0.12 = 0.6 m s- 1

and the pair of diagrams are shown below, with the instructions.
e
F D

b
1. Locate 'starting-point' ( a,d,f) representing 'fixed' points.
2. Draw vector ab = 0.6 m s - 1 perpendicular to AB, in 'down-right' direction
consistent with clockwise rotation of AB.
3. BL is point on CD coincident with slider B. Draw sliding velocity vector bbL
parallel to CD of indefinite length; bL lies on this line.
4. Draw tangential velocity vector dbL perpendicular to CD, to intersect above at
point bL. abL scales 0.403 m s- 1 .
5. Draw ae perpendicular to abL in ratio ae:abL = DE:DBL = 0.16:0.297. (See
Frame 33.) bL -d-e is the image of link BLDE.
6. EL is point on FG coincident with slider E. Draw sliding velocity vector eeL of
indefinite length parallel to FG: point eL lies on this line.
7. Draw tangential velocity vector feL perpendicular to FG to intersect above at point
eL. This completes the velocity diagram.

bbL should scale 0.448 m s- 1 ; dbL should scale 0.403 m s- 1

eeL should scale 0.196 m s- 1 ; feL should scale 0.093 m s - 1

Once more, the above values have been accurately calculated from the geometry of
the diagram, and your scaled values should be close to them.
Calculate the required angular velocities of CDE and FG.

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 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

36

WcoE =vIR = dbLfDBL = 0.40310.297 = 1.357 rad s - 1

wFa =vIR = feLIFEL = 0.09310.176 = 0.528 rad s - 1

This completes step l of the instruction sheet on Frame 31. Steps 2 and 3 require
calculation of all the necessary acceleration components. These consist of a centripetal
component for each of the three links of the mechanism, and also two Coriolis
components.

acen(B rei. to A)= w 2 R =5 2 X 0.12 = 3.0 m s -2

acen(BL rei. to D)= v 2 I R = dbUDB = (0.403) 2 10.297 = 0.545 m s -2
acen(EL rei. to F)= v2 I R =feU FE= (0.093 ) 2 10.176 = 0.049 m s- 2
acor(BL rei. to B)=2vw=2(bbdwcoE=2 x 0.448 x 1.357= 1.216 m s- 2
acor(EL rei. to E)= 2vw = 2(eedwFG = 2 x 0.196 x 0.528 = 0.207 m s -2

The lengths of DB and FE are scaled from the configuration diagram in Frame 34.
We omit step 4, mentioning in passing that you should include it when you are
solving a problem unaided, from the beginning. It will suffice to state that sketching
the diagram reveals firstly, that a scale of 4 em= l m s- 2 will result in an acceleration
diagram approximately 12 em wide and 8 em deep; secondly, that the starting-point
(a,d,f) will be at the extreme right of the diagram; and thirdly, that the centripetal
vector for B relative to A will be the longest vector in the whole diagram.
The completed diagram is reproduced below, together with the 'repeat' of the
configuration diagram. Steps for the drawing follow in the next frame.

117
 DYNAMICS

37

These are the stages in drawing the acceleration diagram of the previous frame.
l. Select the 'fixed points' point, (a,d,f) with at least 3 em space above it, and well
to the right of your available space.
2. Draw centripetal vector ab 3.0 m s- 2 long, in the direction B-A.
3. From b, draw the Coriolis vector of length 1.216 m s- 2 perpendicular to CD.
The sliding velocity vector bbL points up-left; the tangential velocity vector dbL
points down-left indicating clockwise rotation of link CD. Clockwise rotation of
sliding vector bbL informs us that the velocity change must be up-right.
4. From the end of this, draw the sliding acceleration vector of indefinite length,
parallel to CD; point bL lies on this line.
5. From d, draw the centripetal vector for BL rei. to D, 0.545 m s -2 long, in the
direction BL -D.
6. From the end of this, draw the tangential vector perpendicular to CD. bL is
located where this intersects the vector drawn at 4 above.
7. Join points d, bL. Vector dbL is the total acceleration of BL relative to D. Measure
the length. It is not necessary to 'translate' this length into an acceleration. To
the scale chosen, the vector should scale approximately 46 mm.
8. Draw vector de perpendicular to bLd such that de:bLd = DE:BLD. The
configuration diagram gives the length of BLD as 0.297 m, and DE is 0.16 m.
Thus de= 24.78 mm. Then bL -d-e is the acceleration image of BLDE.
9. From e, draw the Coriolis vector perpendicular to link EF. The sliding velocity
vector eeL points down-right; the tangential velocity vector eLf indicates that link
FG is turning clockwise. Clockwise rotation of the sliding velocity vector is
consistent with a down-left direction of the Coriolis vector.
10. From the end of this, draw the sliding acceleration vector parallel to FG, of
indefinite length; point eL lies on this line.
1l. From f, draw the centripetal vector for EL relative to F, 0.049 m s- 2 long, in the
direction EL-F.
12. From end of this, draw the tangential vector perpendicular to EF. eL is located
where this vector intersects the vector drawn at 10 above.
This completes the diagram. Scaling from it, the tangential acceleration components
of bL relative to d, and of eL relative to f, are respectively 1.01 m s- 2 , and 0.21 m s- 2 •
The required angular accelerations are:

tXcoE = aj R = ajBD = 1.01/0.297 = 3.37 rad s - l

aFG =a/ R = ajFG = 0.21/0.176 = 1.19 rad s - l

118
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ACCELERATION DIAGRAMS

38

A few concluding remarks may be helpful.

Even with the completed diagram before you as a guide, it cannot always be easy
to follow the instructions, particularly in regard to the acceleration diagram. In an
attempt to make the diagram clearer, the acceleration image of the right-angled link
CDE has been drawn as a broken line. But you may have found that in following
step 11 of the instructions, the direction of the centripetal vector ( oflength 0.049 m s- 2 )
happens to be almost exactly the same as the direction of vector de, and moreover,
is very small, being less than 2 mm long. Thus, even with the scale suggested, it is
not easy to see the actual vectors, and it becomes less easy when the diagram is scaled
down for the purpose of including it in a printed book.
You will have seen that in an attempt to simplify the instruction, all the points on
the acceleration diagram have not been allocated letters. For example, the acceleration
of point BL relative to point B consists of two components: a Coriolis vector and a
sliding vector, and there is no need to allocate a letter to the end of the one and the
beginning of the other. It has been found that learners are more confused by a
comprehensively-lettered diagram than they are by the ones shown.
The question of accuracy also enters into any graphical solution, and it is just not
possible to lay down limits to the sort of accuracy you should expect, as this depends
on the problem being solved. So, although you should strive to make drawings as
accurate as possible, you should not be unnecessarily disturbed if the answers you
obtain disagree with the ones in the book.
Finally, it cannot be denied that the complete analysis of a mechanism such as this
takes a considerable time. But you should not use this as grounds for not bothering
to learn the subject. You may tell yourself that you could not possibly solve such a
problem in the limited time allotted to an examination question. This may be true,
but you should also remember that examiners, whatever you may think about them,
are for the most part, reasonable people, and will set questions which require only
so much work as can reasonably be expected from an average student in the allotted
time. This may be done in several ways. For example, the examiner may provide you
with a completed drawing of the configuration and velocity diagrams and ask you
to draw only the acceleration diagram. Or you may be asked only to sketch the
diagram or diagrams, instead of drawing them accurately.
The following frame consists of four problems for solution, and this completes the
work of this programme.

119
 DYNAMICS

39
The following set of three problems completes the programme.

PROBLEMS

AI

E
N
0

(a) (c)

(b)

1. In the mechanism shown in diagram (a), AB is 0.1 m long, BC is 0.25 m long, BD

is 0.15 m long, and DE is 0.15 m long. BC is a single link. AB turns anti-clockwise
at a constant speed of 15 rev /min. Determine the velocities and accelerations of
the two sliders at C and E, and the angular accelerations of the links BC and DE
when theangleOis 30°. [Ans. Ve = 0.1063 ms- 1 ; vE = 0.077ms- 1 ;ae = 0.269ms- 2 ;
aE = 0.054 m s- 2 • !X 8 e = 0.44 rad s- 2 ; !XoE = 1.587 rad s- 2.]
2. Diagram (b) shows a quick-return mechanism. AB is 0.3 m long and turns clockwise
at 20 rev min- 1 with angular acceleration 4 rad s- 2 clockwise. Determine the
angular velocity and acceleration of CD and the linear acceleration of the slider
at B along the link CD when angle (} is 45°. [Ans. Weo = 0.408 rad s- 1 ;
!Xev = 1.467 rad s- 2 ; 1.796 m s- 2.]
3. In the device shown in diagram (c), AB is 7 em long, BD is 10 em, DE is 10 em
long. BD is a single link with a slider attached at the mid-point C, through which
link FG passes. FG lies behind links AB, BC, DE. AB turns clockwise at the
constant rate of 8 rad s- 2 . Determine the angular velocity and acceleration of link
FG when angle 8 is 40°. [Ans. wFG = 4.4 rad s- 1 ; !X Fa= 64.23 rad s- 2.]

120
 Programme 4

KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS:
ANALYSIS

121
 DYNAMICS

1
In Programmes 2 and 3 we dealt with the kinematic analysis of mechanisms by
drawing velocity and acceleration diagrams. We found this method time-consuming,
and sometimes rather inaccurate.
In this programme, we analyse mechanisms by the use of the calculus instead of
by a graphical method. This avoids the disadvantages of the graphical method, but
can be used for only very simple mechanisms.
The method consists of writing the displacement of some point, or of some
component of a mechanism, as a mathematical function, by analysing the geometry
of the mechanism. Calling this displacement x, we then recall:

dx dv d 2 x
v=-· a=-=--
dt' dt dt 2

Thus, the velocity of the point, or the component, can be determined simply by
differentiating the displacement function. Similarly, the acceleration is found by
differentiating the resulting velocity function.

2
Consider the simple case of a point P moving at a constant speed in a circular path
about a fixed point. The radius of the path is R. We can look at this in terms of
co-ordinate geometry, by including x- and y-axes of reference.

'
'\
y

Let us call the angular velocity of the motion w. If the radius makes an angle 8 to
the x-axis at some instant, it is easy to see that x and y can be written:

X= R cos 8; y = R sin 8

Thus, we have expressed the displacement components x and y as mathematical

functions which we can differentiate. Have a go at this yourself. Think carefully before
diving in! Refresh your memory by referring back to Frame 1 for the definition of v.

122
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

3
Our displacement functions express displacement components in terms of (). To
determine velocity, we have to differentiate with respect to time, t. Perhaps you forgot
this rather important condition.
We use the well-known 'function of a function' technique. If we require dxjdt, and
the function is a function of x and (), we can write:

dx dx d() dy dy d()
-=-X- and similarly -=-X-
dt d() dt dt d() dt

We shall use the 'dot' notation extensively in this programme:

dx .
-=x·
dt '

You should have worked the following out already:

dx . () dy
- = -R sm · d() = R cos()
d() '
x=(-R sin(J)O; y= (R cos e)e

It is not difficult to see at this point that 8 = w, the angular velocity ofthe radius. Thus:

i = -wR sin 0; y = wR cosO

4
The result obtained in the previous frame is one we might have expected. We know
that when a point moves in a circular path, it has a linear velocity of wR which is
tangential to the path. The values of x and y are the components of this tangential
velocity. The figure below illustrates this.
R wRcos (J
w (J+

y
wRsinfJ---~P

The figure also shows that the x component of the velocity is to the left, and this is
consistent with the negative sign for x in Frame 3.
Now try and derive the corresponding components of acceleration, by differentiating
x and y. Remember again: you need to differentiate with respect to t.

123
 DYNAMICS

x= -w 2 R cosO;

and the diagram below shows that these are the components of the centripetal
acceleration. In case you had difficulty, here is the working for x,

d(x) d(x) dB .
x= - - = - - x - = ( -wR)(cos 8)(} = -w 2 R cos(}
dt d(} dt

recalling again that 0= w. The derivation of y is similar.

y
w2R cos 8 -p,-'"' \
P

R
8
w2R tl
•'\

w2Rsin 8

The rest of the programme contains a lot of differentiation, and quite a lot of
trigonometry. If you are not the fortunate possessor of a flair for pure mathematics,
you might find some of the work a little daunting. Try to avoid this if you can.
Although some of the pages appear at first glance to be a dense mass of mathematics,
remember that throughout, we are using differentiation only. And although
differentiation might be tedious, and may occasionally yield expressions which are
too long to fit on to one line, you don't have to be particularly clever to do it; you
need only to be careful. So do not be put off when you see the sort of expressions
described. Just go carefully through the terms and make sure you follow each step
of the working.
Differentiation is very much a business of applying formulae and standard
techniques. In the following frame you will find all the formulae and standard
differentials you will need to complete this programme. Needless to say, you should
have met all of them before in your Mathematics course. Following this is a frame
containing all the formulae and identities you need to know from trigonometry to
deal with the programme.

124
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

6
Products When an expression comprises several multiplied terms, e.g. u, v, w:

d(u x v x w) = (vw)d(u) + (wu)d(v) + (uv)d(w)

Example: y = x 3 sin x cos x

~~=(sin x cos x)(2x 2 ) + (x 3 cos x)(cos x) + (x 3 sin x)( -sin x)

d(ujv) vdujdx- udvjdx

Quotient
dx v2

sin x dy (x 2 )(cos x)- (sin x )(2x)

Example: y=-2-;
X dx x4
Function of a function When y is a function of u which is a function of x, then
dyjdx = dyjdu x du/dx.
Example: y = (x 2 + a 2 )t; let (x 2 + a 2 ) be u; then y = ut

Implicit differentiation This is a useful technique when the variables in an expression

are not easily separated. To differentiate a 'mixed' function of x and y terms with
respect to x, the x terms are treated normally, and the y terms first differentiated with
respect toy, and then multiplied by dyjdx.
Example: y 2 + 2x sin y = 4

dy dy
(2y)dx +(2x)(cosy)dx +(smy)(2)=0
0

Notice that the second term of the expression is treated as a product.

~~(2y+2x cosy)+2 siny=O

dy 2 siny siny
giving
dx 2y + 2x cosy y + x cosy

Differentials Variable Differential Variable Differential

sin x COSX cosec x cosec x cot x

cosx -sinx sec x sec x tan x
tanx sec 2 x cot x -cosec 2 x

125
 DYNAMICS

7
This frame contains all the trigonometrical formulae and identities you will require
for this programme.

a b c
The Sine formula:
sin A sin B sin C
The Cosine formula: a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 - 2ca cos B
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
Angle summation: sin( A+ B)= sin A cos B +cos A sin B
sin(A- B)= sin A cos B- cos A sin B
cos( A+ B)= cos A cos B- sin A sin B
cos( A- B)= cos A cos B +sin A sin B
tan A+ tan B
tan( A+ B ) = - - - - -
1- tan A tan B
tan A- tan B
tan( A- B ) = - - - - -
1 +tan A tan B

sin 8 = cos(90°- 8); cos 8 = sin(90o- 8); tan 8 =sin 8jcos 8

sin 8 =sin( 180° - 8); cos 8 = -cos( 180°- 8)

Particular values:

sin oo = 0; cos 0° = 1; tan oo = 0

sin 90° = 1; cos 90° = 0; tan 90° =infinity
sin 180° = 0; cos 180° = -1

You may recall that many of these formulae appeared in Programme 1, Frames 13
and 14.

126
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

8
Now we shall go back to the example of Frame 2 and add a complication. Instead
of P moving in a circular path, let it be moving outwards along the radius with a
constant speed v, while the radius itself continues to turn at constant speed was before.

~·
0
X

This now means that the radius is a variable, and for this reason, it is denoted by a
small r instead of by R as previously. As before, we can state the displacement
components of the point P:

x = r cos e; y = r sine

Have a try at determining .X, the differential of x. Remember that now, both terms
on the right-hand side of the equation are variables. So use the Product formula.

9
1 x=r(-sine)O+(cose)r 1

If you failed to derive this, at least make sure you can now see how it is obtained.
Treating as a product, we first multiply r by the differential of cos e. And as we are
differentiating with respect to t, we multiply by dejdt. d(cos e); de is (-sin e) and
e.
de I dt is written as Then we multiply cos e by the differential of r, which we have
written as f.
Treating the expression for y in exactly the same way, it is left for you to show
that the differential of y is given by
y = r(cos e)O +(sin e)r
Now before proceeding, answer this question. What are 0 and r?

127
 DYNAMICS

10
0 is w, the angular velocity of the radius, as before
r is the velocity v at which P moves along the radius

So we can re-write thus:

.X= -wr sin()+ v cos(); y= wr cos () + v sin ()

The next stage is to differentiate these expressions again. Recalling that both w and
v are constant, we treat (r sin()) as a product.

x= -w{r(cos ())0 +(sin ())r} + v( -sin ())0

= -w 2 r cose-vw sine-vw sin()
= -w 2 r cos()- 2vw sin()
and with this as a guide, it is now your turn to show that the corresponding
differentiation of y gives:
y= - w 2 r sin () + 2vw cos ()

X
(a) (b)

The components are shown in diagram (a). Calling the resultant of the four
components in the radial direction R., and in the tangential direction R,:
R, = (2vw cos ())sin()- (w 2 r sin ())sin()- (2vw sin ())cos()- ( w 2 r cos ())cos()
= ( -w 2 r)(sin 2 () + cos 2 ())
= -w 2 r
R 1 = (2vw cos ())cos ()- ( w 2 r sin ())cos () + ( 2vw sin ())sin () + (w 2 r cos ())sin()
= (2vw)(cos 2 () + sin 2 ())
=2vw

These are respectively the centripetal acceleration, and the Coriolis acceleration.
A graphical demonstration of the latter is to be found in Programme 3, Frame 17
et seq. The two resultants are shown in diagram (b).
This calculation is one of many which we referred to in Frame 5. There is no
inherent difficulty; the working just has to be carried out with care.

128
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

11
Now let us examine an actual mechanism. The diagram shows the simple mechanism
called the elliptic trammel.

It is so called because as the two ends of the link move along the vertical and horizontal
slides, any point on the link traces out the path of an ellipse. The two ends trace
straight lines, of course, which is the special case of an ellipse having one axis of zero
length. The locus of the centre of the link is a circle, which is another special case of
an ellipse, with equal axes.
Example. The length of the link of the elliptic trammel is 1 m. The horizontal slider
moves with a constant velocity x = 5 m s- 1• Calculate the velocity of the vertical
slider for values of x from 0 to 1 in increments of 0.1 m, and plot a graph of the
velocity against x.
We require an expression for y in terms of x. Derive this expression. Call the link
length L. The answer is in Frame 12. The configuration of the mechanism is a
right-angled triangle.

12
We differentiate to determine y, remembering that we require dy/dt, not dy/dx.
. dy dy dx
y=dt = dx x dt

y=xdy =x(!{L2 -x 2)-t(-2x))

dx
-xx
y= J(L2-x2)
Values of yare calculated in Frame 13, taking L = 1 m and x = 5 m s - 1. If you have
a programmable calculator, you can draw up the table yourself first, before reading on.

129
 DYNAMICS

13
x,m 0 0.1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 0.9 1.0

y, m s- 1 0 0.502 1.02 1.57 2.18 2.89 3.75 4.90 6.67 10.32 oo

The graph follows.

y 12
I

J
m s-1

0.5 1.0 x, m
The negative sign is left out of the table, but must be explained. In the diagram in
Frame 11, x and y are respectively the distances of the two sliders from 0. Implicit
in this is that quantities to the left are positive, and quantities upwards are positive.
Thus, a negative y means that for a velocity x to the left, the vertical slider must have
a downward velocity. This is clear from the mechanism in this case, but you must
always observe a sign convention, so that signs can be correctly interpreted in the
derived expressions.
Now, for the same conditions, derive an expression for ji, the acceleration of the
vertical slider. Use the 'quotient' formula when differentiating.

14
ji= -(x) 2CL2_L:2)3i2)

The calculation follows. Remember that x is constant.

-xx
y=(Lz-xz)t
.. (Lz- xzy!( -xz)- (( -xx)!{Lz- xz)-1( -2xx))
y= ((Lz-xz)i)z
(Lz- xz)( -xz)- (xx)z
(Lz-xz)3!2
(x)z(-Lz+xz-xz)
(L2-x2)3i2

ji= -(x)z((1:-L:2)3/2)

130
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

15
Do not be too discouraged if you made any mistakes: if you did, here is a brief' recap'
of the procedure.
We use the Quotient formula: 'u' is ( -xx) and 'v' is (L2 - x 2 )1.
dujdt is (x)(x) = (x) 2 (because .X is constant in this case).
We treat dvjdt as 'function of a function'.
First differentiate the bracket as a whole:(! x (13- x 2 )-1).
Then multiply this by the differential of the contents of the bracket (i.e. - 2 x x ).
This gives dujdx; we finally multiply by dx/dt, i.e . .X.
The denominator is just 'v' 2 .
The rest of the calculation is just algebraic simplification.

16
The same method may be used to calculate angular velocity and acceleration. To do
this, we require an expression for the angular displacement. On the diagram in
Frame 11, the angle 8 is shown as the angle the link makes with the vertical. This
angle, rather than the angle with the horizontal, is chosen, because it increases with
an increase of x.
From the diagram (Frame 11):

x = Lsin 8

We could express 8 as an inverse sine. But there is no need to do this, if we differentiate

implicitly. (See Frame 6.) Thus:

.X= Leos 8 0
0 =(.X/ L) sec 8

which is the expression we require. The angular acceleration, lJ, is determined by a

second differentiation.

lf=(xjL)(sec8. tan8)0 (see Frame 6 again)

and substituting for e, this gives:

lJ =(.X/ L)(sec 8. tan 8)(xj L)sec 8
lJ = (x) 2 ( 1/ L2 )sec 2 8. tan 8

131
 DYNAMICS

17
PROBLEMS

1. The link of an elliptic trammel has a length L. Assuming the end in the horizontal
slide to move with velocity x and acceleration x, both outwards, show that the
acceleration of the end in the vertical slide, ji, is given by the expression:

2. The horizontal slider A of the elliptic trammel of Frame 11 moves with simple
harmonic motion about the point of zero displacement with amplitude 0.5 m and
frequency 1 cycle per second. Determine the acceleration of the vertical slider B
when the displacement of A is (a) 0; (b) 0.5 m. [Ans. (a) -9.87 m s- 2 ;
(b) + 11.396 m s- 2 .]
Hints: determine ji as in frame 14, but allowing for x being a variable.
x = 0.5 sin wt; calculate x and x. w = 2n x frequency. Subst. values in ji.

E
M
0

3. In the mechanism shown above, A moves at constant speed of 2 m s- 1 to the

right. Calculate the magnitude of the sliding acceleration of AB through the fixed
swivel at P, and also the angular acceleration of AB when angle () is 30°. [Ans.
8.66 m s- 2 ; 28.87 rad s- 2 .]
Hints: let length of AP bey, displacement of A be x, and vert. height of 0.3 m be
h. Prove:

Then substitute the values given. The problem is the same as the one in
Programme 3, Frame 30, no. 1.

132
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

The device called the quick-return mechanism which we analysed graphically in

18
Programme 3, Frame 23 et seq. can be analysed mathematically, although the result
is somewhat more complex.
D

h
c~ h N

Let the angular velocity of link AB be w. We shall plot a graph of angular velocity
of the link CD against angle e. If the perpendicular BN is constructed we see from
the diagram that:
BN BN r sin(}
tan ¢ = CN = CA + AN h + r cos(}
Differentiating implicitly and using the quotient formula (see Frames 6 and 7):

(sec 2 ¢ )( ci>) = (O)((h +r cos e)(r cos e)- (r sin e)(- r sin e))
(h + r cos 8) 2
(Or)( h cos (} + r cos 2 (} + r sin 2 (})
(h + r cos 8) 2
_ ( wr) ( h cos (} + r )
- (h+rcos8) 2
Recall the trigonometrical identity tan 2 ¢ + 1 = sec 2 ¢ (see Frame 7). We already
have the expression for tan¢ above:

cj>(sec 2 ¢) = ci>(
(h
(r sin 8) 2
+ r cos 0) 2
+ 1) = ci>(r 2 sin 2 (} + h 2
(h
+ 2hr cos(}+ r 2
+ r cos 8) 2
cos 2 e)
+ r 2 + 2hr cos(})
= ci>(h 2
(h + r cos 8) 2
When substituted in the above, the denominator term (h + r cos 8) 2 cancels.
cj>(h 2 + r 2 + 2hr cos(})= (wr)(h cos(}+ r)

ip = (wr) ( h cos 0 + r )
h2 + r2 + 2hr cos 0

Taking h = 0.6 m, r = 0.2 m and w = 8 rad s - l , draw up the table of values of cj> for
19
values of(} from oo to 180° in increments of 20°.
The table is given in the next frame. Clearly, the use of a programmable calculator
or a simple computer program will save time and effort.

133
 DYNAMICS

20
B deg. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

cfo rad s - t 2.0 1.95 1.81 1.54 1.10 0.43 -0.57 -1.92 -3.34 -4.0

and this is a graph of¢ against e.

·--.......... ' · 120

/ ----·--·--
8, deg.
60 180 270 360

-4

The graph is repeated as a mirror-image for e= 180° to 360° because it is clear

that the motion is symmetrical. The reason for the name 'quick-return mechanism'
is now clear. The two points at which ¢ = 0 are the two extreme positions of link
CD, when the link stops instantaneously and changes direction. So, from approximately
110° to 250° -a travel of 140° -it is moving one way. From approximately 250° to
110° -a travel of 220° -it is moving the other way. The graph and table show that
the maximum velocity in the one direction is exactly twice that in the other.
If you refer back to Programme 2, Frames 26 to 31, you will find that this analysis is a
mathematical alternative to the graphical exercise in Frame 26. The values of¢ called
for at e = 60°, oo and 120o in that exercise are found in the above table.
For this same mechanism, we shall develop an expression for the velocity of sliding
of the block B on the link CD. See first if you can devise a method for obtaining it.
Remember that we must begin with an expression for the appropriate displacement.

21
Look again at the diagram in Frame 18. The required appropriate displacement must
be the displacement of the sliding block along CD. Displacement may be measured
from any convenient arbitrary datum. So we may define the length CB as the required
displacement; the length of CB defines the displacement of the block from the point C
at any time. Write down an expression for x, the length ofCB. Use the cosine formula.

134
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

22
I X = .J (h 2 + r 2 + 2hr cos e) I
(From the cosine formula (look back to Frame 7 if you have forgotten):

x 2 = h2 + r2 - 2hr cos( 180° -e)

e
But cos( 180°- e)= -cos (see Frame 7 again) which, on substituting, gives the
required expression for x.)
Differentiate this-with respect to t, remember.

X= .............. ..

23
-h sine )
x = wr ( j(h 2 + r 2 + 2hr cos e)

Here is the working. We use the technique of'function of a function' (see Frame 6).
Call the quantity under the root sign u. Then:

(recalling that a square root is raising to power!)

dx dx du 1 1 •
de= dux de =( 2 u-')(2hr)( -sm8)

dx dx de dx e dx
d"t = de x Cit = de x = w x de

x = w!(u)-t(2hr)( -sin e)
- wr ( - h sin e )
- j(h 2 + r 2 + 2hr cos e)

(recalling also that u-t= 1/ut)

Now use this expression to calculate the values of x for values of e of 60°, oo and
120°. Take the same values as before for h, rand w, that is, h = 0.6 m, r = 0.2 m and
w = 8 rad s- 1•

135
 DYNAMICS

24
e= 60°; x=-1.153ms- 1
0=0°; x=O
e= 12oo; x= -1.571 m s - 1

Since x is reckoned as the distance from C to the slider B, the negative answer for x
means that the slider is moving towards C.
In Frame 28 of Programme 2, the graphical solution gave the length of bbL, the
sliding velocity vector, as 1.153 m s - 1 . The velocity diagram in Frame 29 showed
the length bbL to be zero. The length of bbL was not actually measured in the diagram
of Frame 30 (for 0 = 120°)
The expression above, and the expression for angular velocity in Frame 18, may
of course be differentiated a second time to determine respectively the sliding
acceleration of block on link, and the angular acceleration of the link. The resulting
expressions are cumbersome, but the work is not difficult. With a calculator available,
there is not much advantage in manipulating the expressions into any particular and
economic form. Once an expression has been derived, however cumbersome, values
may be substituted, and results obtained. You should remember this when attempting
the problems which follow.

25
PROBLEMS

l. In a quick-return mechanism, as shown in the diagram in Frame 18, r = 0.15 m,

h = 0.4 m. Calculate the angular acceleration of the link CD when AB rotates at
30 revolutions per minute anti-clockwise, for values of angle e
of (a) 150°;
(b) 135°. [Ans. (a) -6.5938 rad s- 2 ; (b) -6.0384 rad s- 2.]
2. For the same mechanism and data as for problem 1, calculate the magnitude of
the sliding acceleration of block A on link CD. [Ans. (a) +1.4262 m s- 2 ;
(b) +0.7578 m s- 2.]
x
Hints: differentiate the expressions for 4> and from Frames 18 and 23. The data
are the same as for the example in Frames 23 and 27 of Programme 3. Compare
your solution with the graphical one.

136
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

26
The slider-crank mechanism is found in many actual devices and machines, and
probably most frequently in car engines, as it is the mechanism of the crank,
connecting-rod and piston.

B
B

L~r
Co c~A
~ N
(a) (b)

Diagram (a) is a representation of the mechanism. The piston in the cylinder is

represented by the slider at C. AB is the crank, which is an integral part of the
crankshaft. As the crankshaft rotates about the centre A, the other end (the crank-pin
end) travels in a circular path. BC is the connecting-rod, often abbreviated to 'con-rod',
and this connects the sliding piston to the turning crank. The end B of the con-rod,
attached to the crankshaft is very much larger than the end secured to the piston,
and is, for this reason, called the big end. End C is called the little end. The purpose
of the mechanism, whether used in an engine, or a pump, or in other machines, is to
convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa.
Diagram (b) shows the simple geometry of the mechanism. r is the crank radius
and L is the length of the connecting-rod. The displacement of the piston may be
reckoned from any convenient datum. We have chosen here to reckon it from the
point C 0 which is called the position of inner dead centre. This is the point at which
the crank and connecting-rod are in a straight line, with the crank-pin, B, between
the crank centre A and the piston. (When the piston is situated vertically above
the crank, as is normal in many car engines, the position is called top dead
centre.) The position opposite to this, with crank and connecting-rod in a straight
line, this time with the crank-pin B outside, angle () on the diagram being 180°,
is called outer dead centre.
For the configuration shown, with the crank AB making an angle of fJ with AC,
the angle between connecting-rod BC and line AC is shown as ¢. Write down an
expression for the displacement x in terms of r, L, fJ and ¢. To start you off, the
required displacement is CC 0 , which is AC 0 - AC which is AC 0 - (AN+ NC).

137
 DYNAMICS

27

X = r + L- r cos e- L cos ¢

(You can see that the length of AC 0 must be the combined length of r + L.)
We cannot differentiate this as it stands, as angle¢ is a 'dependent variable', that is
to say, its value depends on the value of e. We must express ¢ in terms of e.
The perpendicular BN is constructed. Then:

BN = r sin e= L sin ¢
But sin 2 ¢ + cos 2 ¢ = 1(see Frame 7)
cos¢= ( 1 - sin 2 ¢ )t = ( 1 - (r/ L) 2 sin 2 e)t
X= r + L- r cos e- L(1- (r/L) 2 sin 2 ¢)!

We shall replace the fraction r / L by k. (It must always be a fraction, because the
con-rod of an engine must always be much longer than the crank.) Then:

We could determine x by differentiating at this point, but instead, we shall expand

the bracketed terms at the end by using the Binomial Expansion. We shall see that
this procedure will result in eliciting more information about the motion of the
mechanism than we should gain by straightforward differentiation at this point.
To remind you of the Binomial Expansion:

( 1 - aY = 1 - na + ( n(n-1)) a 2 - etc.
1X2

You may know that when the term a is small compared with 1, the magnitudes of
the terms diminish very rapidly. You can show this for yourself. For the term a
substitute k 2 sin 2 e. The index n is t. So work out the first three terms of the expansion
yourself, taking a value of k oft. This is about the largest value k could have; the
connecting-rod must be at least twice the length of the crank. So ( 1 - a)" becomes
( 1 - t sin 2 e)t.

138
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

28

( l- ±sin 2 O)t = l - t(± sin 2 0) + ((ti(x- t) }±

2 sin 2 0) 2 - etc.

= I-isin 2 0- 1 i 8 sin 4 0- etc.

and when you remember that the maximum value of sin 0 is l, it becomes clear that
the third term, and all subsequent terms become negligible.
So, taking the first two terms only, we may say:

( l - k 2 sin 2 0 )t ~ 1 - tP sin 2 0
x =r +L- r cos 0 - L( 1 - tP sin 2 0)
= r - r cos 0 + t LP sin 2 0

Make an attempt to differentiate this. Remember:

Differentiate with respect to t, not 0.
The differential of a constant is 0.
Treat the third term as a 'function of a function' (see Frame 6).

29
Differentiating to obtain the piston velocity x:
x= O(r sin 0 + iLk 2 (2 sin 0 cos 0))

= wr(sin 6 + tksin 26) (recalling that k = r/ L)

Differentiating a second time to determine the piston acceleration .X:

x=(0) 2 r(cosO+tk(2 cos20))

= w 2 r( cos 6 + k cos 26)

139
 DYNAMICS

30
Here are the three expressions: for displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
piston.

x = r - r cos (} + ! Lk 2 sin 2 (}

x = wr(sin (} + !k sin 2(})

x = w 2 r(cos (} + k cos 2(})
It can be seen that if the last term in each expression were deleted, then displacement
would be a simple cosine function, x a simple sine function, and x a cosine function
again. The motion would indeed be Simple Harmonic Motion. You may have forgotten
that Simple Harmonic Motion is a reciprocating motion in which the displacement
is represented graphically by a pure sine or cosine curve. And because the differential
of sin (} is cos (}, and the differential of cos (}is -sin (}, it follows that graphs of velocity
and acceleration for Simple Harmonic Motion are also sine or cosine curves. (It also
follows that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement, and opposite in sign.)
This would be the case if k were zero, which means that the connecting-rod would
be infinitely long. The second terms containing the fraction k are 'harmonics', that
is, they are functions of (2(}), and the smaller the value of k, the smaller these terms
become. Thus, the longer the connecting-rod of an engine is compared with the crank
length, the closer the piston motion becomes to simple harmonic, if the crank turns
at constant angular speed. The graphs below are plots of velocity and acceleration
for a value of k of 0.4, a crank radius of 0.1 m and a speed of 10 rad s- 1 , and dotted
on the same axes are graphs of the corresponding purely simple harmonic values, to
illustrate the effect of the modifying second term.
x
m s-215

ms-1
ic
[
11\''
1
~,

•'
I
',
\\
I
/·
\ 180°

-5
\
\\ '/
/j
~....-"'-,!-
-1 -10
'
' . _... I
I

140
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

31
PROBLEMS

1. The crank of a car engine has a length of 64 mm and the connecting-rod length
is 153.6 mm. Calculate the maximum piston acceleration when the engine is turning
at a speed of 6000 rev. per minute. [Ans. 35 793.8 m s- 2.]
Hint: inspection of the expression for acceleration shows that maximum occurs
e
when = 0°; differentiating is not necessary.
2. Determine the maximum piston velocity for the engine specified in problem 1.
[Ans. 43.18 m s- 1 (0 = 70.89° ).]
Hint: v (i.e. acceleration) will be zero. .·. cos e+ k cos 20 = 0. cos 20 =
e-
2 cos 2 1; substitute and solve the quadratic for e.
Substitute this value in
expression for velocity.

32
The answer to the first ofthe two problems above gives one some idea ofthe magnitude
of the accelerations encountered in high-speed machinery. The acceleration is
approximately 3600 times the gravitational acceleration. To express this in practical
terms, what it tells us is, that when the piston has moved up to the top of the cylinder,
it is being pulled back by the connecting-rod with a force approximately equal to
3600 times its own weight. This offers some explanation of the reason for manufacturing
pistons of light alloy instead of steel.
Determination of the angular velocity and acceleration of the connecting rod
requires an expression for the angular displacement. You can use the expression for
cos <jJ set down in Frame 27. The differentiation is performed in Frame 33, but you
might wish to attempt it yourself first. Use the method of implicit differentiation, that
is, do not write the expression as an inverse cosine function.

33
From Frame 27

Differentiating:
(-sin¢)¢= !(1- k 2 sin 2 e)-t( -k 2 (2 sine cos 0))0
From Frame 27
sin <P = k sin e
Substituting:

141
 DYNAMICS

34
Differentiating ¢ gives the angular acceleration of the connecting-rod. We use the
quotient formula again.
<P=
. 2(( 1- k 2 sin 2 8)l( -k sin 8)- (k cos e)!( 1- k 2 sin 2 e)-1( -2e sine cos 8))
(e) ((1-esin 2 8)') 2
We multiply top and bottom lines of the right-hand side by (1- k 2 sin 2 8)1:
q; = ( 0)2 (( 1 -
k 2 sin 2 8)(- k sin 8) + (k cos 8)t(2k 2 sine cos 8))
( 1 - k 2 sin 2 8) 312
~ = (8 2k . e( - 1 + k sin 2 e+ k 2 cos 2 e )
2
'I' ) sm ( 1- k2 sin2 8)3/2
. . 2 . ( k2 -1 )
¢ = ( 0) k sm 0 ( 1 - k2 sin2 0)3/2
Remembering that k 2 must always be less than 1, this expression shows that the
angular acceleration of the connecting-rod must be negative for all positive values of
sin 8; that is, fore= oo to 180°. Thus, for the first half-revolution of the crank from
the inner dead centre position, the connecting-rod moves outwards, but with a reducing
speed, and then returns with an increasing speed. For the second half-revolution, the
motion is symmetrical.
Examine the expression and then state (a) what is the condition for maximum
acceleration, and (b) what will this maximum acceleration be?

35
For max. (/), sine= 1. e= n/2 or 3n/2
<Pmax = ( 0) 2 (j(;~ k2))

The expression shows that as sin e increases, the numerator increases, and the
denominator decreases; thus, the maximum value must be when sine has its maximum
value of 1. Substituting sine= 1 gives:
•• • 2 ( k2- 1 )
</Jmax=(8) k (1-k2)3i2

= -(0) 2kc1 ~~~:3/2)

<Pmax = (0) 2 (j(;~ k2))
Answer this question now. For a given value of crank speed, if the length of the
connecting-rod were increased, would this result in an increase of the maximum
angular acceleration, or a decrease?

142
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

36
A decrease

k will be smaller. The numerator will decrease, and the denominator will increase,
both resulting in a decrease in ¢max·
A drawing of the mechanism of a trunnion engine is shown.

Crank AB rotates at constant speed w about the fixed pivot A. The piston is integral
with the connecting-rod. The cylinder is mounted on a strong transverse axis at C,
called a trunnion, which allows the cylinder to oscillate up and down as the crank
turns. We shall develop expressions for the angular velocity of the cylinder, and the
linear velocity of the piston relative to the cylinder.
The equivalent mechanism is shown. Distance a is constant. Begin by obtaining
an expression for the angle ¢. Construct the perpendicular from B to AC.

37
B

A ~ N a
C

From the diagram, BN = r sin()- (a - r cos 8) tan ¢

A. r sin()
tan'l'=------,-
a- r cos()

Angular velocity: tj, = (wr)( a cos (J- r )

a 2 + r 2 - 2ar cos (J

It is left for you to derive this expression for ¢. If you have any difficulty, you will
find that the working in Frame 18 is almost identical.

143
 DYNAMICS

38
To find the linear velocity of the piston, you require an expression for the displacement,
x. What dimension on the diagram in Frame 37 can be used to define displacement, x?

39
Length BC

The distance of the trunnion centre C from B can be defined as the displacement of
the cylinder from a point on the piston rod.
So use the Cosine formula (see Frame 7) to determine x, the length of BC and
differentiate.

40
Using the Cosine formula:

X= (a 2 + r 2 - 2ar COS 8)l

x= (O)t(a 2 + r 2 - 2arcos e)-t(2arsin 8)

i=(Or)( asinll )
a 2 + r 2 - 2ar cos 9

If you need further practice, you can differentiate this again to obtain .X. The answer
is:

The derivation is not included here, but the working is not difficult.
Frame 41 brings this programme to a close with a final set of problems.

144
 KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS: ANALYSIS

41
PROBLEMS

D
A

t/,,,,,,, c
Jill I////

E
'<t
c::i

E
(a) (b) (c)

1. A vehicle A moves along a straight track at a constant velocity v = 25 m s- 1 . A

rope attached to it passes round a pulley fixed at point B which is at a distance
a= 10 m from the line of the track. The arrangement is shown at (a) above.
Calculate the acceleration of the rope through the pulley when the distance y
shown on the diagram is 20m. [Ans. 5.59 m s- 2.]
Hints: let the distance ABbe x, and obtain an expression for x in terms of a and
y. Differentiate twice, and then substitute the values given. You should find:

2. In the mechanism shown at (b) above, angle () is 40°.

(a) If BC moves left with constant velocity of 2 m s -1, calculate the angular
acceleration of link OA.
(b) If OA turns anti-clockwise with a constant angular velocity of 2 rad s -1 ,
calculate the linear acceleration of BC.
[Ans. (a) 14.447 rad s- 2 ; (b) 4.576 m s- 2.]
Hint: the problem is the same as that in Programme 3, Frame 30, no. 2.
3. The mechanism illustrated at (c) above is a special type of quick-return mechanism.
The upper end of link DE is constrained by a horizontal slide, and the link passes
through a swivel at C which is fixed in position, but allows the link to slide through
it. The link is driven by crank AB of radius 0.125 which is connected by a sliding
block at B which slides along DE. Calculate the linear velocity and acceleration
of D when AB turns at a constant speed of 2.5 rad s- 1 in an anti-clockwise
direction, when the angle() is (a) 30°; (b) oo; (c) 180°. [Ans. (a) 0.321 m s- 1 ;
0.0142 m s- 2 • (b) 0.333 m s- 1 ; 0. (c) 1.00 m s- 1 ; 0.]

145
 Programme 5

NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

147
 DYNAMICS

1
In this programme, we shall investigate problems of bodies which move under the
direction of a force which is not constant. Also, we shall examine the problem of a
body propelled by a constant force, but having a variable mass, such as a rocket.
Remember the four equations of linear motion in Programme 1:

x=!(v 0 +v)t (1) v = v 0 +at (2)

x = v0 t + !at 2 (3) v 2 = v& + 2ax (4)

and four similar and analogous equations for the motion of bodies in pure rotation.
You were given a specific warning that they were to be used only when the acceleration
of the body was constant. Now force, mass and acceleration are related by the
fundamental Equation of Motion which is Newton's Second Law:

L.(F) = m x a

so it follows that acceleration will be constant only if the force and the mass remain
constant.

2
When acceleration varies, our starting-point for analysis is the basic definition of
acceleration in calculus terms, viz.:

dv d 2 x
a=-=--
dt 2 dt

and, if we adopt the convention that small letters are used for variables, and large
ones for constants, the equation L.(F) = ma is better written L.(f) = ma where L.(J)
now represents the resultant force on a body at any instant. There are two possibilities:
1. L.(f) can be expressed as a function, f being a variable with time, velocity or
displacement.
2. L.(J) is a variable which cannot be expressed as an algebraic function, but only
as a graph of force against some other variable (e.g. time, velocity, displacement).
The first part of this programme, as far as Frame 57, will be devoted to solving
problems of force which can be expressed as a function of either time, velocity or
displacement.

148
 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

3
When force can be expressed as a variable of time, velocity or displacement, the
Equation of Motion becomes a differential equation, of first or second order. At this
point, we need a reminder about the process of integration. The solving of a differential
equation is really a process of integration, even though frequently, you do not actually
integrate. When integration is performed, you should remember that one must always
allow for a constant of integration. Why is this necessary?

4
A constant of integration is required because when differentiating
a constant, the result is zero. So, when reversing the process, and
integrating, the original function may have had a constant as part of it.

We shall see in this programme that these constants have real meanings in engineering
problems. So, if we are solving a first-order equation, we should always remember
that a constant of integration must be included, and if we are solving a second-order
equation, there must be two constants.
To illustrate the significance of these constants, we shall solve an example of the
sort we looked at in Programme 1, but our approach will now be different.
Example. A body is projected vertically upwards with an initial speed of 20 m s - 1 .
How long will it take to reach a height of 15 m? Neglect resistance of the air, and
assume g = 9.81 m s- 2 •
Instead of using the equation:

we shall start with the general Equation of Motion of the body. At any instant, the
force acting on the body will be (mg) downwards. So we write the Equation of Motion,
~(F)= ma, thus:

and here we have a second-order differential equation, which we can solve by

integrating twice. You can do this yourself.

149
 DYNAMICS

dx
Integrating: dt= -9.8lt+A (1)

Integrating again: x = -9.81 x 1t 2 +At+ B (2)

We can determine the value of the constant A if we know dxjdt (i.e. the velocity) at
some particular value of t. We are told that the initial velocity (i.e. when t = 0) is
20 m s - 1 . So, substituting in equation ( 1):

20= -9.81 xO+A

giving: A=20
The constant B can be evaluated if we know the value of displacement x at some
particular value oft. The initial displacement (i.e. when t = 0) is 0. So, substituting
in equation (2):

0 = -9.81 X 0 +A X 0+B
B=O

So the complete solution of the equation is:

X= -9.81 X 1t2 + 20t

and this is seen to be the same result as we should have obtained by using the standard
equation for constant acceleration in Frame 4. Complete the solution by solving the
quadratic equation. The answer is

t = 0.991 s or 3.087 s

150
 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

6
Of course, you would not normally solve this last problem this way. Simple problems,
in which the acceleration is constant, should be solved using the four equations
developed for the purpose. The aim of Frames 4 and 5 is to introduce you to the
more generalised approach needed for problems in which the acceleration is not
constant.
The solution here involves solving a differential equation, and you will meet
differential equations in all the problems and examples in this programme. For the
purpose of this text, we may divide differential equations into two classes.

1. Equations in which the variables can be separated easily, so that the equation can
be solved by direct integration. (The solution in Frame 5 is an example.)
2. Equations in which the variables cannot be separated.

The second group comprises the much more difficult problems. We shall deal with a
few of them later, and shall have some remarks to make about the methods of solving
them. But most of the work will consist of equations of the first kind. To help you,
you will find in the following frame a list of some standard integrals, many of which
will be needed as you work through the text.

7
Useful integrals

f( - 1- ) dx =
a-bx
-~In(
b
a- bx)

_x_) dx
f( a+ bx
=~-~In(
b 2 b
a+ bx); f( a-bx
_ x )dx= -~-~ln(a-bx)
b b2

f( 1) _1 _(x)·
a 2 + x 2 dx-; tan-;- ,
1
f( l ) .
j(a2-x2) dx=sm
-1 (X)
-;;

f( 1 ) dx = __!__ In
a2 - x 2 2a
(a x)
+
a-x
= ~tanh - 1 ( ~)
a a

f ( J (x 21_ a 2)) dx = In (x + J {x 2 - a 2});

fln(x)dx = x ln(x)- x

151
 DYNAMICS

8
The same method of solution is used to solve this next example.
Example. A body having a mass of 25 kg is acted upon by a force f which varies
with time according to the expression:

f = (lOt- 0.4t 3 ) newtons

where t is the time elapsed from initiation of the force. Calculate how far the body
moves after (a) 4 seconds; (b) 8 seconds, assuming it starts from rest. Determine after
what time it will return to its starting-point, and what its velocity will then be.
Begin by setting up the equation of motion, proceeding as in the earlier example.
Then integrate to determine dx/dt. Don't forget the constant.

9
d2 x
Equation of motion (L(f) = ma): lOt- 0.4t 3 = 25 dt 2

Integrating: 25dx = IO(lt 2 )-0.4(lt 4 )+A ( 1)

dt 4 4

Constant A can be found straight away, before the second integration, by substituting
a known value of velocity at some known value of t. Do this, and thus show that in
this case, A = 0.

10
The body starts from rest. Therefore, when t = 0, v = 0. Substituting in equation (I)
from the previous frame:

0=5 X 0 - 0.1 X 0+A

A=O

So equation ( 1) now is:

(2)

Now integrate this a second time to determine displacement, x. Again, don't forget
the constant, and try to determine the value of it.

152
 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

11
Integrating again: 25x = 5(1t 3 ) - 0.1 (!t 5 ) + B (3)

The condition to determine the constant of integration B is clearly, when t = 0. x = 0

(if we measure displacement from the initial starting-point). Substituting this
condition:

0= 5 X 0 - 0.1 X 0+B
B=O

and the circumstance of both constants being proved to be zero in this example
should never lead you into assuming that they will be zero. You must always determine
the values of the constants by substituting known conditions of the motion.
So the final equation may be written:

(4)

Substitute the two values oft ( 4 sand 8 s) in this equation; you should obtain answers
of 3.4476 m and 7.9188 m. To find when the body returns to its starting-point, simply
put x = 0 in equation ( 4) and solve for t. You should get t = 9.129 s. The solution is
continued in Frame 12.

12
Substituting the two values oft in equation ( 4 ):

25x 4 = 1i X 4 3 -0.02 X 4 5 = 106.667- 20.48 = 86.19

x 4 = 3.4476 m
25x 8 = 1 i x 8 3 -0.02 x 8 5 = 853.33-655.36 = 197.97
x 8 = 7.9188 m

Substituting x = 0:

0 = 1t X t 3 - 0.02 X t5

t2 = 83.333
t = 9.129 s

The solution is continued in Frame 13.

153
 DYNAMICS

13
It may not be immediately obvious from the question that the body does return to
its starting-point. But if you examine the expression for the variable force f
(Frame 8) you can see that for low values oft (e.g. 1 second) the force will be positive.
But as t increases, the negative cubed term increases rapidly, and at some point, the
force will be zero, and subsequently will be negative, so that the acceleration of the
body will be reversed.
To determine the velocity of the body at the instant it returns to the starting-point,
we substitute the value oft for x = 0 in the expression for velocity which we obtained
in Frame 10 (equation (2)):

25v ( = 25dx/dt) = 5(9.129) 2 - 0.1(9.129) 4 = -277.84

v= -11.11 m s- 1

The negative sign clearly indicates that it is now moving in the opposite direction.
See if you can determine how far the body travels before reversing its direction; in
other words, calculate its maximum displacement. The answer is, 9.4281 m, but try
and find this yourself. The working follows in the next frame.

14
For maximum displacement, dx/dt = 0. Thus, velocity= 0 at maximum displacement.
Substituting in the expression for dx/dt (equation (2) in Frame 10):

25 X 0 = 5t 2 - O.lt 4

giving: t 2 =50
t=7.071 s
and substituting this value oft in the expression for x (equation ( 4) in Frame 11 ):

25xmax = 1 t X (7.071 ) 3 - 0.02 X (7.071 ) 5 = 235.7

X max= 9.4281 m

The next example is slightly more tricky.

154
 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

15
Example. A rocket of mass 700 kg ascends vertically from the earth, propelled by
a force of (4t) kN where t is the time, in seconds, measured from the instant the
force begins to act. Show that it will take approximately 11.88 s for the rocket to
ascend to a vertical height of 1000 m. Neglect resistance of the air, and assume
that g is constant at 9.81 m s- 2 .
It is clear that the force propelling the rocket upwards increases with time from an
initial value of zero. But the rocket will not begin to move upwards, that is, lift-off
will not take place, until the propulsive force equals the magnitude of the rocket's
weight. Before that, the rocket will be resting on the launch pad, and will be subjected
to (a) its own weight, (b) the steadily-increasing propulsive force, and (c) an upward
reaction force between launch pad and rocket which will decrease as the propulsive
force increases, becoming zero at the instant of lift-off. Only then will upward motion
begin.
So the first task is to calculate the value of t for which the force just equals the
weight. Do this; it is a simple calculation, and you should get an answer of 1.717 s.

16
Propulsive force= weight
4t X 10 3 = 700 X 9.81
t= 1.717 s

Now we write the differential equation of motion for the rocket in flight. Reckoning
t from the instant the force begins, and not from the instant of lift-off, for any time
t (t > 1.717 s) the rocket is subjected to an upward force of (4t x 1000) Nand a
downward force of(700g) N. A free-body diagram is not essential for just two forces.
Calling upwards positive, the equation is:

d2 x
4000t - 700g = 700a = 700 dt 2

This can be simplified to:

Now integrate this equation. Don't forget the two constants; call them A and B.

155
 DYNAMICS

17
dx
- = 2.857 t 2 - gt +A (1)
dt
and X= 0.9523t 3 - !gt 2 +At+ B (2)

Read the question and the previous working carefully, and decide how you are to
determine A and B.

18
At the instant of lift-off, both velocity and displacement will be 0. But t at this point
is 1.717 s, not zero. Substituting in equation ( 1) of the previous frame:

0=2.857(1.717) 2 -9.81 x 1.717+A

A = 16.844 - 8.423 = 8.421

Substituting x = 0 in equation (2) of the previous frame:

0 = 0.9523(1.717) 3 - -t X 9.81(1.717) 2 + 8.421 X 1.717 + B

B = -4.820 + 14.460- 14.459 = -4.819

So equations (I) and (2) may now be re-written and completed:

dx
dt = (2.857t 2 - 9.81t + 8.421) m s - l (3)

x = (0.9523t 3 - 4.905t 2 + 8.421t- 4.819) m (4)

and the equations are valid for any value oft greater than 1.717 s.
If you use these equations to determine velocity and displacement for values oft
less than 1. 717 s, you will obtain what appear to be possible values. But such a
procedure is incorrect. We know that at t = 1 s, the rocket is still on the launching-pad
and is acted on by an upward reaction force which was not allowed for when the
equations were derived.
If you were to substitute x = 1000 m in equation ( 4 ), you would be faced with a
cubic equation to solve. This is not difficult if you have a programmable calculator,
but note the way the question is put. You are not asked to find the value of t, but
merely to show that the value given is correct. All that is required, therefore, is to
substitute t = 11.88 sin the expression for x, and verify that the answer is approximately
1000 m. If you do this, you should find that x = 999.66 m, which is close enough for
you to assume that the expressions are correct.
Frame 19 comprises a couple of problems for you to try.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

19
PROBLEMS

1. A body has a mass of 120 kg. It is travelling with an initial velocity of 100m s - 1
when a retarding force of(0.6t 2 ) newtons begins to act upon it, where tis the time
elapsed in seconds from the initiation of the force. Determine the time for the body
to come to rest; the time it takes for the body to return to the point at which the
force began to act; the maximum distance it travels; the velocity when it returns
to the starting-point; and the magnitude of the force at the significant points. [ Ans.
39.15 s; 62.14 s; 2936.3 m; 300m s- 1 ; 919.6 N; 2316.8 N.]
2. A body having a mass of 8 kg has an initial speed of 150 m s- 1 when it is acted
upon by a retarding force of (Kt 2 ) newtons, where K is some constant, and t is
the time elapsed from the application of the force. It is observed that the speed is
reduced to 100 m s- 1 after 4 seconds. Calculate the displacement of the mass
during this time. Determine also the distance travelled, and the time taken, for the
body to come to rest. [Ans. 550 m; 549 m; 5.769 s.]
Hints: solve algebraically, and integrate twice. Expressions for x and x will contain
three unknowns: A, Band K. t = 0, x = 0 and x = 150m s- 1 ; t = 4 s, x = 100m s- 1 .
Thus find A, Band K (18.75).

20
Force may also vary with velocity. An example is the resisting force of air, water, or
other fluids. A body which moves very slowly through liquid experiences a resistance
proportional to the velocity with which it is moving.
Example. A body having a mass of 5 kg and moving with an initial speed of
12 m s- 1 is subjected to a retarding force of (0.1 v) newtons where v is the velocity
in m s- 1 • Determine how long it takes for the speed to fall to (a) 6 m s- 1 ;
(b) 3 m s- 1 ; (c) 0.
The equation of motion (I:(f) = ma) is:

We can make this a differential equation in v:

dv
-O.lv = m dt

So we have a first-order equation in v. The variables can be separated, and the

equation integrated. This is done in the following frame.

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 DYNAMICS

21
Separating the variables:

f dt = f( -O.lv - 5 fdv = _ 50 fdv

mdv) = 0.1 v v
Integrating:

t=-50ln(v)+A (see Frame 7)

The constant A is evaluated by substituting the given condition that when t = 0,

v=12ms- 1

0=-50ln(12)+A
A= 50 ln(12)

So the equation of motion is:

t = - 50 ln ( v) + 50 ln ( 12)
= 50(ln( 12) -ln(v))
=50ln(12/v)

Notice that because this was a first-order differential equation, only one constant
of integration appears. Completing the solution by substituting values:

Part (a): t =50 ln( 12/6) =50 ln(2) = 34.66 s

Part (b): t =50 ln(12/3) =50 ln( 4) = 69.32 s
Part (c): t = 50 ln(l2/0) =50 ln( oo) =infinite time

The graph of velocity against time looks like this:

12
v,
m s-1

0 20 40 60 80 100 t, seconds
The graph is called an exponential decay. One characteristic of such a graph is that
for equal increments of time, the dependent variable changes by a constant fraction.
Thus, after a time interval of 34.66 seconds, the velocity drops to one-half the initial
value. What will the velocity be after a total time of 138.64 seconds?

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

22
after 138.64 seconds, v = i m s- 1

(There are four time-increments of 34.66 s, each diminishing velocity by one-half;

thus, the velocities at each interval will be, 12, 6, 3, 1 t and i s.)
The diminishing fraction of one-half is quite arbitrary. Calculate the velocities after,
say, 10, 20, 30 and 40 seconds. Plot the results in a table.

23
t (seconds) 0 10 20 30 40

12 9.82 8.04 6.59 5.39

Here is a typical calculation, for t = 10 seconds:

10 = 50 In ( 12 I v)
12/v = e 0 · 2
v = 12 e -o.z = 9.82 m s - 1

and the remaining calculations are similar. You can verify that for this time-increment
of 10 seconds, the reduction ratio-that is, the ratio of any one value of v to the
previous value-is 0.8183 for each interval.
For an exponential decay function, the graph of the variable is always asymptotic
to the time-axis; in other words, the time for the function to become zero is always
infinite. Probably one of the most well-known exponential-decay functions is that of
radio-active decay. Because of this feature, some index is needed to describe the rate
of change of such a function. One such index is called the half-life. This is the time
for the function to attain half its initial value. The working in Frame 21 shows that
the half-life for this velocity-function is 34.66 seconds.
A second example:
Example. A body of mass 0.5 kg falling vertically from rest is subjected to a resistance
of (0.1 v) N where v is the velocity at any instant. Sketch a graph of v against t for
t = 0 to 20 sin increments of 2 s. What is the maximum possible velocity of fall?
How long will it be before the velocity is (a) 99%, (b) 99.9% of maximum velocity?
The body moves downwards as a result of its weight and the resisting force acts
upwards. So begin by writing the equation of motion. With two forces only, a free-body
diagram is not a necessity.

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 DYNAMICS

24
The equation of motion (L(f) = ma) is:
dv
0.5g- 0.1v = 0.5a = 0.5 dt

Re-arranging and integrating:

I I dt = 0.5 0.5g ~ O.lv

t = 0.5 ln(0.5g- O.lv)( -~. 1 ) +A
= -5 ln(0.5g- O.lv) +A ( 1)
Calculate the value of A by substituting the appropriate condition.

25
The condition is: when t = 0, v = 0 (the body starts from rest).
Substituting in equation ( 1) of Frame 24:
0= -5ln(0.5g-0)+A
A= 5 ln(0.5g)

Substituting this value of A in equation ( 1) (Frame 24 ):

t = -5ln(0.5g- O.lv) + 5ln(0.5g)

= 5 In( 0·5g )
0.5g- O.lv
This, though correct, is not in a convenient form to calculate v for given values of t.
Recall that if y =In x, then x = eY. Re-arranging:

0.5g = el/5 = eo.21

0.5g- O.lv
0.5g- 0.1v = 0.5g e- 0 · 21
0.1 v = 0.5g( 1 - e- 0 · 21 )
v = 5g( 1 - e- o.21)
In this form, we can readily calculate values of v for values oft.
t (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

v (m s -l) 0 16.2 27.0 34.3 39.1 42.4 44.6 46.1 47.1 47.7 48.2

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

26
And here is the graph of velocity against time:
v;
m s-1
50 ---------------
40

30

20

10

10 20
The velocity increases, steeply at first, and then more slowly, as the graph flattens
out. The curve is the mirror-image of the curve of exponential decay in Frame 21,
and, in fact, is called an exponential rise.
Now determine the maximum possible velocity of fall. Look back to the expression
for v in Frame 25. Or just re-read the question carefully.

27
Since v = 5g( 1 - e- 0 · 2 '),
it is not difficult to see that for maximum velocity, thee-term
must be as small as possible. This condition corresponds with infinite t, when the
e-term will be zero.
Going back to the question, if you think of the body falling through the fluid, it
will continue to accelerate for as long as the downward weight is greater than the
upward resistance. As it goes faster, the resistance increases, the resultant downward
force becomes less, and the acceleration gets less. So, when the resistance is equal to
the weight, the body will stop accelerating, and will continue at this maximum velocity,
which is called the terminal velocity. It is a theoretical state insofar as the time to
achieve it is infinite, but we calculate the time for the body to attain approximate
terminal velocity.
Clearly, when thee-term is zero:
Vmax = 5g = 49.05 m S-l

For 99% of Vmax:

0.99 x 5g=5g(1-e- 0 · 2 ')
e -o. 2 r = 1 -0.99 = 0.01
e0.2r = 100
0.2t =In( 100) = 4.605
t = 23.03 s
Using exactly the same reasoning, calculate the time to achieve 99.9% vmax·

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 DYNAMICS

28
For 99.9% of Vmax: 0.999 x 5g = 5g( 1- e -o. 21 )
e- 0 · 21 = 1 - 0.999 = 0.001
e 0 · 21 = 1000
0.2t =In( 1000) = 6.908
t = 34.54 s

Another example:
Example. A body having a mass of 4.5 kg is projected vertically upwards with initial
velocity of 3.6 m s- 1 • The resistance due to the air, R, may be assumed to be
R = (0.12v 2 ) newtons where v is the velocity at any instant in m s - 1 . Calculate
(a) the time for the body to reach maximum height; (b) the maximum height reached.
Begin your solution by writing the equation of motion. As in the previous example,
there are only two forces. Take care with the signs this time.

29
The equation is: -4.5g- 0.12v 2 =rna= 4.5 dvfdt

We have adopted an 'upwards positive' sign convention. Both the weight and the
air resistance will act downwards, as the body is rising, so both forces are negative.
Although a free-body diagram is essential for most kinetic problems, when only two
forces act on a body, both in the same direction, it can be dispensed with.
Re-arranging the equation in a form suitable for integrating:

I dt = -4.5 I dv
4.5g + 0.12v 2

Calculation is simpler if we divide by the coefficient of v2 :

The right-hand side is a 'standard' form of integral. Can you recall it? If not, refer
to the list of integrals in Frame 7.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

30
You should have found that:

f-a:2;-~_x_x--=-2 =~tan - ~)
1(

Adapting to this formula, a= .j(367.9) = 19.18. Now for maximum height, the final
velocity must be zero. So, integrating between the two limits, 36 m s - 1 and 0,
remembering to set the final value first:

f - [ tan
31.5
dt- - -
19.18
-1( -v- )]
19.18 36
0
t= -1.955{tan- (0)-tan- (36/19.18)}
1 1

= + 1.955{ tan - 1 (1.877)- 0}

= 1.955 X 1.083
= 2.114 s

You can see that by integrating between limits, we dispense with the need for
introducing constants of integration. This is just an alternative way of solving the
problem. You can solve it by using constants if you prefer. To determine the distance
we modify the original equation of motion. We can express dvjdt as a 'function of
a function'. Thus:
2 dv dv dx dv
-4.5g- 0.12v = ma = 4.5-d = 4.5-d x -d = 4.5v-
t x t dx
and this is arranged with the variables separated:

f f vdv
dx= - 4·5 4.5g+0.12v 2
( 1)

This form of integral occurs frequently, wherein the top line can be expressed in
terms of the differential of the bottom line. In this example, let the denominator,
4.5g + 0.12v 2 be u.
u = 4.5g + 0.12v 2
du
- = 2 x 0.12v
dv
du
vdv = 0.24

Substituting for v dv in equation ( 1) above:

f f
du 4.5
dx= -4.5 -0 - = - 24 ln(u)= -18.75ln(4.5g+0.12v 2 )
.24u 0.
Complete the working yourself. The limits are from initial v = 36 m s- 1 to final v = 0.
The calculation is completed in Frame 31: the answer is 28.30 m.

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 DYNAMICS

31
Completing the integration and putting in the two limit-values:

x = -18.75[ln(4.5g + 0.12v 2)]g 6

= -18.75(ln(4.5g + 0) -ln(4.5g + 0.12(36) 2))

= +18.75ln(4.5g+4~;~2(36)2)
= 18.75ln(199.7/44.15)
= 18.75 X 1.5092
X max = 28.30 m

The following frame comprises two problems on acceleration varying with velocity.

32
PROBLEMS

1. A body has a weight of 120 N. Motion through the air is resisted by a force of
(0.01 v2) newtons, where v is the velocity of the body in m s- 1 • If it is projected
vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 65 m s- 1 , calculate the maximum
height it reaches, and the time to reach this height. [Ans. 184.5 m; 5.98 s.]
Hints: see Frame 28 et seq.
2. A vehicle of mass 1150 kg is subjected to a retarding force R due to air resistance
given by:

R = ( 140 + 1.2v 2) newtons

where v is the velocity in m s - 1 • Calculate the distance travelled while the speed
falls from 15 m s- 1 to 10 m s- 1 along a straight level road. Assume that the
resistance R is the only force acting on the vehicle. [Ans. 218.3 m.]
Hint:

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

33
We now consider acceleration varying with displacement. One example is a body
acted upon by a spring, or similar elastic member. Another is the motion of a body
subject to gravitational force where gravity may not be considered constant, but may
vary according to the square of the distance between the bodies. This, of course, is
the general case of gravitational attraction. We consider g to be constant only when
the distance travelled is small when compared with the size of the earth.
Example. An aircraft has a mass of 18 750 kg. It lands on the deck of a carrier and
is brought to rest by an arrester which exerts a retarding force proportional to its
extension. The stiffness of the arrester (i.e. the force to extend it by I metre) is
75 kN per metre. If the initial speed of the aircraft is 50 m s -t, calculate the time
taken to bring it to rest, and the distance travelled.
As always, the first step in the solution is to formulate the equation of motion of the
body, writing the acceleration as a differential of velocity or displacement, so that
the equation of motion becomes a differential equation. To begin, work in algebra,
calling the mass of the aircraft m, and the stiffness of the arrester k. Take care with
sign; remember that the arrester exerts a negative force.

34
The required equation of motion (1:(/) =rna) is:
d2 x
-kx=m dt2

The arrester force is proportional to its extension, so the tension force when it has
stretched a distance x will be ( kx ). Because it is a retarding force, it is negative. Again,
with a single force operating, we do not need a diagram.
To integrate, we use the device we adopted in Frame 30.

dv dv dx dv
-(k/m)x=-=- x - = v -
dt dx dt dx

- (k/m) I I
x dx = v dv

-(k/m)(tx 2 )= tv 2 +A (1)

We can determine a value for the constant A if we know the velocity when the arrester
begins to operate, that is, when x = 0. Call this value of velocity v0 , and so work out
what is the expression for A. This is done in the next frame.

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 DYNAMICS

35
A can be found if we know the velocity when the arrester begins to operate, i.e. when
x = 0. Retaining algebraic symbols for the time being, and calling this velocity v0 :
-(k/m)xO=!v6+A

A=- !v5
Substituting this value in equation ( 1) (Frame 34 ):
- (k/m)(1x 2 ) = 1v 2 - !v6

(k/m)x 2 = v5- v 2

x 2 = (m/k)(v6- v 2 ) (2)
and we may use this to solve the second part of the question first. Substituting the
given values, setting final velocity v at 0:
x 2 = ( 18 750/75 000)((50) 2 - 0) = 625
x=25 m
We can re-arrange equation (2) above to express velocity in terms of displacement x:
v 2 = v5- (k/m)x 2

v= ~: = y' (v5- (k/m)x 2 ) = y' ((50) 2 - (75 000/18 750)x 2 )

f fy'((50~2x-
dt = 4x 2 ) = ~ f((25)~~ x 2)

The last integral is a standard 'sine' form (see Frame 7):

Integrating and substituting values:

t= 0 sin - 1 (x/25)]6 5
= t {sin - 1 ( 1) - sin- 1 ( 0)}

t = 0.7853 s
This solution is laborious, and demands knowledge of two standard forms of
integration. In Frame 36 we shall explore another solution.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

36
The problem just completed can be solved another way, by obtaining a direct solution
to the differential equation of motion, instead of separating the variables and
integration. Before we do this, we shall digress and offer a few remarks concerning
differential equations and their solutions.
So far, we have solved the differential equations by 'separating the variables', so
that both sides of the equation can be integrated. For example, in Frame 20, the
equation of motion was:

dv
-O.lv = m dt

and this was re-arranged in the form:

~fdv
f dt = 0.1 v

the object being to put the differential dt on one side, and the differential dv, together
with all terms in v, on the other. With the equation in this form, it is easily integrated.
But sometimes, it is just not possible to do this. Take, for instance, the equation:

As it stands, the variables in this equation cannot be neatly parcelled up to one side
or the other. In such a case, you have to solve the equation by finding some function
of x which you know will satisfy the equation. Now it must be said that this is not
easy. If you have a function y of x, it is a fairly simple matter to differentiate it twice
and find d 2 y j dx 2 . But it is very much harder to reverse the process, and deduce what
x is from the second differential.
However, there are some aspects of the problem that may make it appear not so
formidable as it might at first meeting. Here are three of them.
1. A fairly good knowledge of standard differentials is useful.
2. In Engineering theory, you will not meet very many types of equation.
3. You can memorise some solutions of well-known equations.
We shall discuss these aspects in Frame 37. By way of a lead-in to the discussion,
consider this differential equation:

What you require to solve this equation is some function of x which, if differentiated
twice, remains unaltered. Can you think of such a function?

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 DYNAMICS

37
IThe answer is: y=e I
If you couldn't think of this yourself, no doubt you now remember that the function
ex has the peculiarity that when differentiated, it does not change.
So a knowledge of some standard differentials is of considerable help in guessing
the sort of function that might satisfy an equation.
The second aspect we referred to in the previous frame-the limited number of
types of differential equations you are likely to meet -may seem rather like a coward's
way out of a problem. But it is a fact that while books on Differential Equations
cover a very wide range of types of equation, very few of these are directly applicable
to basic engineering theory. To cite an example: in the study of Vibration theory, up
to final-year level on an average course, a student will require to solve only three
types of equation. (The first of these will be met in Programme 10.)
And finally, remembering standard forms of solution is clearly a help. When you
meet an equation that you have solved before, all you need to do is write it down.
It is as simple as integrating, when you can remember the standard integrals.
Before returning to solving problems of variable acceleration, there is another very
important point to remember when solving differential equations. We shall address
this in the following frame.

38
In Frame 4 we stressed that whenever an integration is carried out, one must always
include a constant. This is equally true of differential equations. It is often relatively
simple to find a particular solution to an equation. The solution y =ex at the head
of Frame 37 is an example. It is less simple to obtain the general solution to the
equation. The general solution is the solution which can satisfy all possible conditions
of the equation, and it must of necessity include the required constants of integration.
When the equation is first-order (i.e. including first differential terms only), a single
constant is required. For a second-order equation, including terms of the second
differential, then two constants are necessary.
Some of the points just raised will become clearer as we work through the next
solution.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

39
Returning to the problem of Frame 33, we have the equation of motion:

d2x
-kx=m--
dt2

which we can express more simply as:

d2 x
-=-Cx where Cis a constant, in this case (k/m)
dt2

The general solution of the equation is:

x =A sin(J(C)t) + B cos(J(C)t) (1)

Perhaps you know this, although it is unlikely. If you dido 't, then you may just accept
the solution, but before doing so, differentiate it twice with respect to t, and prove
for yourself that it is a valid solution which satisfies the equation of motion. This
equation and solution is one of those which you could class as 'standard', and worth
remembering, because you will certainly meet it again, in Programme 10, for example.
Notice that it includes two constants, A and B.
We find the value of J C by substituting values of k and m:

J C = J(kjm) = J(75000/18 750) = J4 = 2

x =A sin(2t) + B cos(2t)

What are the two conditions we need, to determine A and B?

40
The conditions are: 1. When t = 0, x = 0
2. When t = 0, velocity = 50 m s- 1

These conditions for determining the constants are called initial conditions. We can
substitute the first condition straight away in equation ( 1) from the previous frame:

0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
B=O (recalling that cos 0 = 1)
x =A sin(2t)

For the second condition, the velocity is required. Differentiate this expression for x
to obtain the velocity dxjdt.

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 DYNAMICS

41
v = dx/dt = 2A cos(2t)

Substituting the second condition, t = 0, v = 50 m s- 1 :

50 = 2A cos 0 = 2A
A =25

So we now have the final expressions for displacement and velocity:

x = 25 sin(2t) (2)
v =50 cos(2t) (3)

For the condition of coming to rest, v = 0. Substitute in equation (3):

0 =50 cos(2t)
2t = n/2 (the lowest possible value)
t = 0.7853 s
Then x = 25 sin(n/2) =25m

For practice, repeat this exercise, taking the aircraft mass at 12 000 kg instead of
18 750 kg, leaving the stiffness, and the initial velocity unchanged. You should find
that the distance is 20 m and the time 0.6283 s. The working follows, in condensed
form, but avoid referring to it if you can.

42
.J (k/m) = .J (75 000/12 000) = .J (6.25) = 2.5
So the differential equation and corresponding solution are:

x =A sin(2.5t) + B cos(2.5t)

Using the same method as before, you can show that A = 20 and B = 0.
Then: x = 20 sin(2.5t); v =50 cos(2.5t)
For v = 0: 0 =50 cos(2.5t): 2.5t = n/2: t = 0.6283 s
Then: x = 20 sin(n/2) =20m

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43
The problem of a uniform flexible chain sliding off a smooth table affords an interesting
example of acceleration proportional to displacement.
Example. A uniform thin perfectly flexible chain has a total mass m and a length L.
It lies partly on a smooth horizontal table, straight, and at right-angles to an edge,
with a length x 0 overhanging. It is released from rest and slides off. Derive an
expression for the overhang, x, after time t from release, and determine also the
velocity of the chain at this point.

L-x

The diagram shows the chain at an instant when the overhang is x. The force
causing the chain to accelerate is the weight of the overhang: this is mg(x/ L). But
the mass accelerated is the total mass of the chain. So the equation of motion is:

x d2x
mg-=ma=m--
L dt 2
d2x g
--=-x=Cx (where Cis g/ L)
dt 2 L

This differential equation is almost the same as the one in Frame 39, except that the
right-hand side is positive instead of negative. Unfortunately, this apparently small
difference means that the solution of the equation is completely different from the
last one. If you know that the differential of sin is cos, and the differential of cos is
-sin, then you are predisposed to look for a solution of the equation of Frame 39
in terms of sin and cos, and indeed, the solution was of this form. But the argument
breaks down when the negative sign disappears. We now have to 'guess' some function
of x which is unchanged by differentiating twice, except for the emergence of a
constant, C.
We shall solve this equation in the following frame, using what may be called a
standard method, but you should not be too perturbed if you don't follow all the
reasoning. The purpose of this text is to help you to learn to solve engineering
problems, not to solve differential equations.

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44
To obtain the solution of this type of equation, we assume a solution of the general
form:

where pis to be determined by 'trying' the solution, to fit the equation. Thus:

dx
-=
A pe pr
dt

We 'try' this in the original equation. This is done in Frame 45.

45
'Trying' this by substituting in the original equation gives:

from which p=JC

By 'trying' this solution: x = Aev'fC)r you will find that it satisfies the equation, and
thus is a valid solution. But the equation is of second order, and therefore, a complete
general solution must include two constants of integration. Recall that if p 2 = C, then
J
p = ± C. To ensure we have both our constants in the solution, we must modify it
thus:

and you can differentiate this twice and prove that it satisfies the equation.
Now we can turn to the problem of evaluating the constants A and B. What two
conditions can we state regarding the motion of the chain?

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

46
The two conditions are: 1. when t = 0, x = x 0
2. when t = 0, v = 0

Substituting the first of these conditions, we get:

x 0 =A e 0 + B e0
x 0 =A +B (recalling that e 0 = 1)

To establish the second condition we require v. Differentiate x:

v = dx/dt = AJ(C)e+y'(C)r- BJ(C)e-y'(CJr

Substituting the second condition gives:

0 = AJ(C)e 0 - BJ(C)e 0
O=A-B
A=B
x 0 =2A

and so the final complete equations become:

where C = g/ L

47
Using the expressions just derived, complete the example following. The answers are
given, but the working is not, as all you require to do is to substitute in the two
equations.
Example. A flexible chain has a length of 0.9 m and lies partly on a horizontal
smooth table with an initial overhang.
(a) If the total time to slide off the table is 1.6 seconds, calculate the initial overhang,
and the final velocity.
(b) Given that the initial overhang is 50 mm, verify that the end of the chain will
leave the table after 1.085 seconds, and determine the final velocity as the end
leaves the table.
The answers are 9.14 mm and 2.97 m s- 1 for (a). The velocity for (b) is 2.97 m s- 1 •

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 DYNAMICS

48
PROBLEMS

1. A body having a mass of 50 kg is travelling along a straight path at a speed of

4 m s - 1 when it is acted upon by a retarding force proportional to displacement,
which causes the body to be brought to rest in a distance of 5 m. Determine (a)
the time to travel 1 m from the point at which the force begins to act; (b) the
speed at that point; (c) the time for the body to come to rest. [Ans. (a) 0.2517 s;
(b) 3.919 m s- 1 ; (c) 1.963 s.]
2. A thin, perfectly flexible uniform chain of total length 1.8 m hangs over a small
smooth horizontal peg. It is released from rest when 0.95 m hangs over one side,
and 0.85 m hangs over the other. Calculate the time for the chain to slip additionally
by 0.5 m, the amount of slip after 0.1 s, and the time for the chain to leave the
peg. [Ans. 1.3229 s; 0.1027 m; 1.5344 s.]

49
Sometimes, the mass of a body may itself vary.
Example. An experimental rocket is driven along a horizontal frictionless test-track
by a constant propulsive force F. It has an initial mass M 0 and discharges fuel
at a constant mass-flow rate of k. Obtain an expression for the velocity after time
t from starting from rest. Given M 0 = 40 kg, F = 200 N and k = 2 kg s- 1 , determine
velocity and displacement after 10 s.
We require the general equation of motion after a time t. The mass will then be
(M 0- kt). The equation (l:(F) =rna) will be:

F = (M 0 - kt)a = (M 0 - kt)(dvjdt)
Separating the variables:

dv=F I dt
M 0 -kt
v = F In( M 0 - kt )(- 1/ k) + A
When t = 0, v = 0
0= -(F/k)ln(M 0 )+A; A= (F/k) ln(M 0 )
v = ( -F /k) ln(M 0 - kt) + (F /k) ln(M 0 )

-: ln(M~~ kt) ( 1)

Substituting the values given:

200 ( 40 ) -1
v =Tin 40 _ 2 x 10 = 100 ln(2) = 69.3 m s

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

50
Integration will be easier if we write v as two separate log functions. Recalling that
ln(A/ B)= ln(A) -ln(B), we can expand equation ( 1) from the previous frame thus:

dx F
v= dt =k{ln(M 0 )-ln(M 0 -kt)}

Substituting values, F = 200, M 0 = 40, k = 2 and re-arranging for integration:

Jdx=(200/2) Jln(40)dt-(200/2) fln(40-2t)dt

Frame 7 gives the integral of a log function: fln(x)dx=x ln(x)-x

x = 100 ln(40)t- 100(- !)(40- 2t){ln(40- 2t) -1} + B
=lOOt ln(40) + 50(40- 2t){ln(40- 2t) -1} + B

When t = 0, x = 0

0=0+ 50 x 40[ln(40)-1] + B
= 2000[3.689- I]+ B
B = -5378

So the final expression for x is:

x =lOOt ln(40) + 50(40- 2t){ln(40- 2t)- 1}- 5378 (2)

Finally substituting t = 10 s in equation (2):

x = 100 x 10 In( 40) +50 x 20{ ln(20)- I}- 5378

= 1000 X 3.689 + 1000[2.996- I]- 5378
=307m

51
Example. A test-vehicle has an initial mass M 0 = 200 kg. It is propelled along a
horizontal frictionless track by a constant force of 50 N. As it moves, it collects
water from a channel at a constant rate of 5 kg per second. Its velocity, when it
begins to collect, is 2 m s- 1 . Calculate its velocity after (a) 5 s; (b) 20 s. When will
its velocity be 4 m s - 1 ?
This problem is similar to the previous one, except that mass is now being added to
the initial mass, instead of being removed. So, write the general equation of motion,
after a time t, and integrate, as before.

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 DYNAMICS

52
After timet, the mass of the body will be (M 0 + kt) = (200 + 5t) kg.

I.(.f) =rna: 50= (200 + 5t) dv/dt

I I
dv = 50 200d: 5t

v = (50/5) ln(200 + 5t) +A

What condition is necessary to evaluate the constant A?

53
l The initial velocity (when t = 0) is 2 m s - 1

2 = 10 ln(200 + 0) +A
A= 2- 10 ln(200)
v = 10 ln(200 + 5t) + 2- 10 ln(200)

v=2+10ln ( 200200
+ 5t) =2+10ln(1+0.025t)

Complete the calculations asked for. You should find that the velocity after 5 seconds
is 3.178 m s- 1 , and after 20 seconds, 6.055 m s- 1 . The time to reach 4 m s- 1 is 8.856 s.
The exercise is completed in Frame 54.

54
Fort= 5 s: v = 2 + 10 ln(1 + 0.025 x 5) = 3.178 s- 1
Fort= 20 s: v = 2 + 10 ln(1 + 0.025 x 20) = 6.055 s- 1
If v = 4 m s- 1 : 4 = 2 + 10 In ( 1 + 0.025t)

In( 1 + 0.025t) = 0.2

1 + 0.025t = 1.2214
t = 0.2214/0.025 = 8.856 s

Now solve the two fairly easy problems in the next frame.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

55
PROBLEMS

1. A small projectile of initial mass M 0 = 40 kg is subjected to a constant propulsive

force P = 12 N propelling it along a straight horizontal frictionless track. Its mass
is continually being reduced at the rate of (0.8 t 2 ) kg per second, where t is the
time elapsed from the beginning of the motion. If it starts from rest, what will be
its velocity when the mass is reduced to half its initial value? [Ans. 1.8697 m s- 1.]
2. A container having an initial mass of 60 kg travels along a straight level track,
and is subjected to a retarding force of constant value 20 N. It sheds mass at a
rate of 0.4 kg per metre of distance travelled. If it is travelling initially at 4 m s -I,
calculate how far it travels before coming to rest. [Ans. 22.18 m.]

56
Here is a summary of the methods used.
If force is a function of time t:

Solve the equation by separating variables and integrating twice to determine v and x.
If force is a function of velocity v:

dv
f(v)=ma=m-
dt

Separate the variables and integrate once to determine v as a function of t. Separate

the variables again and integrate again to find x.
If force is a function of displacement x:

dv dv dx dv
f(x) =rna= m- = m- x - = mv-
dt dx dt dx

Separate the variables and integrate once to give v as a function of x. Then write
v = dxfdt and integrate again to determine x.
The remainder of the programme is devoted to problems of accelerating forces
which cannot be expressed as mathematical functions, but only in terms of graphs
and tables.

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 DYNAMICS

57
When the force acting on a body varies in such a manner that we cannot write it as
a function of time, velocity or displacement, but can express it only as a graph, we
resort to approximate methods of solution of problems.
Example. A body having a mass of 20 kg is acted on by a single force which varies
with time according to the graph and the table shown.

Force,
N 50
40
30
20
10
0 Time, seconds
2 4 6

Time, s 0 2 3 4 5 6

Force, N 0 4.2 20.0 48.0 49.0 26.6 5.2

Determine the total distance travelled during the 6 seconds the force is acting, and
estimate the final velocity. The body starts from rest.
To solve this kind of problem, we break the motion down into convenient 'increments',
and calculate the motion over each increment, assuming the force, and therefore the
acceleration, to be constant during the increment. Taking six increments, each of
1 second duration, we calculate the force for each increment as being the average of
the initial and final value over that period. Thus:
For the first increment: F 1 =t(0+4.2)=2.1 N
For the second: F 2 = t(4.2 + 20.0) = 12.1 N
and so on. Because the acceleration is constant, we use the equation ~(F)= rna:
For the first increment: a 1 =F 1 /m=2.1/20=0.105 m s- 2
For the second: a 2 =F 2 /m= 12.1/20=0.605 m s- 2
and so on. The velocity can be determined using v = v0 +at:
For the first increment: v 1 = 0 + 0.105 x 1 = 0.105 m s- 1
For the second: v2 =0.105+0.605 x 1 =0.71 m s- 1
Displacement may be found from x = t(v 0 + v)t:
For the first increment: X1 = (0+0.105)=0.053 m
For the second: x2 = (0.105 + 0.71) = 0.408 m

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

58
The calculations in the previous frame are best presented in the form of a table. Here
is the table, completed for the first three increments.
Time, s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Force, N 0 4.2 20.0 48.0 49.0 26.6 5.2
Av. force 2.1 12.1 34.0
Acceln, m s - 2 0 0.105 0.605 1.70
Vel., m s - l 0 1.05 0.71 2.41
Dispt, m 0 0.053 0.408 1.56
Note that in the third and fourth lines, force and acceleration are assumed to be the
values for the increment immediately before that point in time, whereas velocity is the
velocity at that point in time. Displacement is the displacement for each increment
of time; total displacement will be the sum of all separate displacements. Thus, total
displacement after 3 seconds will be 2.021 m.
Make sure you understand the calculations of all the figures, and then complete
the table yourself. The completed table appears in the following frame, but refer to
it only if necessary. Do not go beyond three decimal places in any calculation. (Notice
that displacements for t = 1 s and 2 s have been 'rounded off'.) Calculate the final
total displacement by adding up the final row.

59
Here is the table complete.
Time, s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Force, N 0 4.2 20.0 48.0 49.0 26.6 5.2
Av. force 2.1 12.1 34.0 48.5 37.8 15.9
Acceln, m s - 2 0 0.105 0.605 1.70 2.425 1.89 0.795
Vel., m s - I 0 0.105 0.71 2.41 4.835 6.725 7.52
Dispt, m 0 0.053 0.408 1.56 3.623 5.78 7.123
The final velocity is seen to be 7.52 m s- 1.
The total displacement is the sum of the final row, which is 18.547 m.
Do not forget that such methods as this one are at best approximations. Accuracy
depends on the size of the increment taken; the more increments, the greater the
accuracy, but also, the more work in calculation.

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 DYNAMICS

60
We may write: "l:.{f) =rna= m dvjdt

If Idt = m dv = m( velocity change)

change of velocity= ( 1/m)(area under force-time graph)

and if you look back to the fifth line of the table in Frame 59, you will see that the
figure of 7.52 is actually the area under the graph divided by 20. The area under
each segment will be (average force x time) and as the time-increment is 1 second,
average force is numerically equal to area. So total area will be the sum of the terms
in line 3, which is 150.4 N s. Dividing this by the mass, 20 kg gives 7.52 m s- 1 .

61
A similar technique is used when force varies with displacement.
Example. A spring-buffer has a non-linear force-displacement characteristic in
compression in accordance with the table.
Compression, mm 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Force, N 70 82 96 116 144 188 200
A body of mass 4 kg moving with velocity 2.5 m s- 1 is brought to rest by the
buffer. Calculate the approximate time to come to rest, and the compression of the
buffer.
In this example, it is convenient to divide the motion into equal increments of
displacement, rather than time-increments. We shall take six increments, assuming
force to be constant over each one, and equal to the average value. So for the first
increment of 20 mm, average force= !(70 + 82) = 76 N. Then:

F=ma: a=76/4= 19m s- 2

The relevant kinematic equation to find velocity change is:

v 2 = v~ + 2ax = (2.5) 2 + 2( -19)(20 x 10- 3 ) = 5.49

v = 2.343 m s- 1

Time is calculated from v = v0 +at

t = (2.5- 2.343)/ 19 = 0.00826 s

We begin setting out results in a table in the next frame.

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 NON-LINEAR ACCELERATION

62
Compression, rom 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Force, N 70 82 96 116 144 188 200
Av. force, N 76 89 106
Acceln, m s- 2 19 22.25 26.5
v2 6.25 5.49 4.60 3.54
v, m s- 1 2.5 2.343 2.145 1.881
t, s 0 0.00826 0.00890 0.00996

Make sure you understand all the calculations and then complete the table yourself.
The fourth line, v 2 , is included because each calculation of velocity requires the square
of the previous velocity. The completed table is presented in the next frame.

63
Compression, rom 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Force, N 70 82 96 116 144 188 200
Av. force, N 76 89 106 130 166 194
Acceln, m s - 2 19 22.25 26.5 32.5 41.5 48.5
v2 6.25 5.49 4.60 3.54 2.24 0.58 -1.36
v, m s - 1 2.50 2.343 2.145 1.881 1.497 0.762
t, s 0 0.00826 0.00890 0.00996 0.01182 0.01771

The table shows that the body comes to rest somewhere between a spring compression
of 100 and 120 mm; if a graph of v against compression is plotted, it suggests a value
of about 105 mm. The sum of the final row is 0.05665 s. Thus, the time for the body
to be brought to rest is slightly above this figure.
An alternative approach is to consider equal increments of time. A reasonable
increment in this example would be 0.005 s; this would give about 11 increments.
Assuming the spring force for the first increment to be the initial value of 72 N, the
acceleration, and thus the velocity change, and displacement, can be worked out. The
graph is then used to evaluate the force at the new displacement, and the calculations
repeated for the second increment, and so on, until the final velocity becomes zero
or negative. This method would not be so accurate, as we should always be measuring
the initial value of the force for each time-increment, and as the force-compression
graph is always rising, every calculation would assume a value of force which was
less than the mean value over the increment.
Again, we may make a deduction concerning the area under the curve, which in
this case is the work done during compression. A simple square-counting operation
on the graph plotted from the table given, up to a compression of 105 mm, gives an
area of 12 320 N mm. The initial kinetic energy of the body (! mv 2 ) is 12.5 N m; this
is a good agreement.

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 DYNAMICS

64

PROBLEMS

1. A body of mass 75 kg moving initially at 12 m s - 1 is acted upon by a retarding

force of (6t) newtons where t is the time in seconds. Calculate how long it takes
to come to rest, and how far it travels in that time. [Ans. 17.32 s; 138.6 m.]
2. A body of mass 3 kg initially at rest is propelled along a straight path by a single
force f = (5t- kt 3 ) newtons, where t is the time elapsed in seconds, and k is a
constant. Given that it returns to its starting-point after 50 seconds, evaluate the
constant k, calculate the maximum distance it travels before returning, and calculate
its velocity as it passes the starting-point. [ Ans. 1/150; 6455 m; -1388.9 m s- 1.]
3. A body having a mass of 7.5 kg is projected vertically upwards with an initial
velocity of 60 m s - 1 . Resistance to motion due to the air may be assumed to be
according to the expression ( kv 2 ) newtons, where v is the velocity at any instant,
and k is a constant. It attains a maximum height of 145 m. Write the equation of
motion for the body and derive the expression for displacement. Show that the
expression is satisfied by a value of k = 0.0117. Calculate the time taken to reach
maximum height. [Ans. 5.2359 s.]
4. A ship of mass 1200 tonnes ( 1tonne= 1000 kg) moving through water is resisted
by a force of (240v) kN where v is the velocity in m s - 1. Its initial speed is
3m s - 1 • How far will it move in 20 s, and what will its speed then be? How long
will it take before the speed is 0.1 m s - 1 and how far will it then have gone?
[Ans. 14.725 m; 0.0549 m s- 1 ; 17.00 s; 14.50 m.]
5. A car has a mass of 950 kg. It may be assumed that the driving force is constant,
and that resistance to motion along a straight level track varies as (speed) 2 . The
maximum speed attainable is 35 m s - 1 and at this speed, the vehicle is operating
at 140 kW. Calculate the time taken for the car to reach a speed of 20m s - 1 from
rest, and the corresponding distance travelled. [Ans. 5.400 s; 57.51 m.]
Hints: at maximum speed, power= tractive force F x velocity. Hence find F. Also,
at maximum speed, F =resistance= kv 2 • Hence determine k (3.2653).
6. A small truck of mass 50 kg is travelling along a straight level frictionless track
at a constant speed of 4 m s- 1 when it strikes a spring-buffer which has a stiffness
of 300 N per metre of compression. Calculate (a) the maximum compression of
the buffer; (b) how long the truck is in contact with the buffer before recoiling
backwards; (c) the maximum retardation of the truck. [Ans. (a) 1.633 m;
(b) 1.2825 s; (c) 9.798 m s- 2.]

182
 Programme 6

DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

183
 DYNAMICS

1
We define a rigid body as a body which does not change its shape, and which is
subjected to a number of forces which do not all pass through a single point. When
the forces on a body all pass through a single point, the body is called a particle.
For some purposes, a body may be considered to be a particle, while for others,
it may be treated as a rigid body. In Programme 1, Frame 95, we made some
calculations on a car travelling around a circular track, and in so doing, we drew the
free-body diagram as a small rectangle, assuming all three forces to pass through one
point. Now it is well-known that if you drive a car around a circular track fast enough,
there is a tendency for the inner pair of wheels to lift off the ground, and for the car
to turn over. To analyse this effect, we require to know the reaction forces on each
pair of wheels, and the position of the mass centre of the car. In such a case, we treat
the car as a rigid body.
You will find several examples, later in this programme, of forces acting on cars
and other vehicles. We shall also examine the forces on bodies swinging about a fixed
pivot, and the motion of discs and wheels on level or inclined tracks. We shall have
occasion to examine the internal forces and stresses set up when bodies are constrained
to move under certain conditions. And finally, we shall talk about d' Alembert's
Principle, which offers an alternative method of treatment for the determination of
the acceleration of a rigid body.

2
Imagine an abstract rigid body, of indefinite shape, subjected to several forces, which
can be reduced to a single resultant force F.

G is the mass centre of the body, and the perpendicular distance from G to the line
of action of the resultant force F is h. The force will have two effects.
1. A linear acceleration a of the mass centre G, given by F = ma
2. An angular acceleration of the body, r:x, given by (Fh) =I 0 r:x
where m is the mass of the body and I 0 its moment of inertia about G. We shall
show this in Frame 3.

184
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

(a) (b) (c)

In (a) we have added a pair of equal and opposite forces to the body at G, both
parallel to the single force F, and both equal to F. Such an addition cannot alter the
motion of the body, as the two forces cancel each other. But we can now treat this
system of three forces as a single force F acting at G, as shown in (b), and a couple,
of magnitude ( Fh) as shown at (c).
The single force F will cause a linear acceleration a given by:

F=ma

and the couple will produce an angular acceleration a given by:

(Fh)=l 0 a

4
Frame 3 illustrates the general effect or-forces on a rigid body. There are two special
cases.
1. The line of action of the resultant force F passes through G. In this case, the body
w~ll have no angular acceleration; only a linear acceleration.
2. The body is constrained to rotate about a transverse axis passing through G. Then
the body will have no linear acceleration, and the elementary formula L(M) = Ia
applies, where L(M) is the resultant moment of forces acting on the body about G.
See Programme l, Frame lll.
Vehicles travelling on tracks provide an example of the first special case. We shall
discuss this in detail in the next frame.

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 DYNAMICS

5
When a vehicle travels along a straight or a curved track, it is normally assumed
that the weight will provide sufficient force to keep it on the track. This is, of course,
the purpose of the track. A road is designed to allow vehicles to move along its
surface. A railway is similarly designed to permit the movement of locomotives. But
a wheel-drive vehicle has the feature that the driving and retarding forces are applied
at the surface on which the vehicle travels. A car is pushed forwards, or slowed down,
by the friction force between wheels and road, not by the engine or by the brakes.
The engine only supplies power to the wheels, and the brakes only apply a retarding
force to the wheels. You will know how true this is if you attempt to drive a car on
a very icy road.
Here is a sideways look at a car being driven along a level road.

The forward driving force F is called the tractive force. If this were the only force
acting, it would have the combined effects of both linear and angular acceleration
referred to in Frame 2. It can be seen that the force has a moment with respect to
an axis through the mass centre G tending to turn the car anti-clockwise. But the
weight of the car attempts to pull it downwards. It does not move downwards because
the road surface exerts reaction forces at the wheel contact points. But the
anti-clockwise moment has the effect of reducing the front-wheel reaction RF and
increasing the rear reaction RR, to the extent that the resultant moment of all the
forces about G is still zero. You may have noticed that when a car pulls away from
a standing start, the front of the car tends to rise. When the brakes are applied
suddenly, the front drops.
It is theoretically possible, of course, to increase the tractive force until the front
reaction force R F becomes zero. If the tractive force is further increased, the car would
actually begin to turn anti-clockwise, because the road cannot exert a negative (i.e.
downward) reaction on the car. The condition is hypothetical to the extent that an
ordinary car would normally be incapable of providing a tractive force of sufficient
magnitude, although when handling the American sporting vehicles called 'hot rods',
which consists of very little more than a very powerful engine and four wheels, this
condition is quite possible, and part of the skill in driving such vehicles is in learning
how to avoid such a catastrophe.

186
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

6
Example. A car has a mass of 1150 kg. The distance between front and rear wheels
is 2.94 m. The mass centre is 0.42 m above ground level, and is 0.92 m to the rear of
the front-wheel centres. Calculate the tractive force, and the magnitudes of the front
and rear-wheel reaction forces when the car is driven with a forward acceleration of
1.85 m s- 2 (a) along a straight level track; (b) up a slope of 8 °.
Tractive force was discussed in Programme 1, Frame 45 and also in the previous
frame. It is the tangential friction force between the driving wheels and the road.
Before drawing a free-body diagram, we review all the forces which most act on the
car. These will consist of (a) the weight; (b) the tractive force; (c) the front-wheels
reaction force; (d) the rear-wheels reaction force. We shall treat each reaction force
as a single force. The diagram follows.

a=1.85 m s-2

_F_~-r-~r-----+--"""T""--r-1--- -][

Notice that the question of whether the car is a front- or rear-wheel drive is irrelevant,
as the tractive force is in any case tangential to the wheels.
With this type of problem, we always seek three equations:
1. An equation: L(F) =rna in the direction of the linear acceleration a.
2. An equation: L(F) = 0 in the direction perpendicular to that of the linear
acceleration.
3. An equation: L(M) = 0 for moments of all forces about the mass centre.
Write the first two equations before reading on.

7
L(F) =rna: F = 1150 X 1.85 = 2127.5 N
L(F) = 0: RR + RF = 1150g = 11281.5 N

The first equation gives the value of F. But the two reaction forces cannot be
determined from the second. We need the third equation. Write this yourself, adopting
a convention anti-clockwise is positive.

187
 DYNAMICS

8
~(M) = 0 about G: F X 0.42 + RF X 0.92 = RR X 2.02

Substituting for F and RR from the first two equations:

2127.5 X 0.42 + RF X 0.92 = 2.02( 11 2gt.5- RF)

RF(0.92 + 2.02) = 2.02 X 112g1.5- 2127.5 X 0.42 = 21 g95.1
RR = 112g1.5- RF = 3834.2 N

For part (b), draw the free-body diagram yourself, before checking in Frame 9.

9
a=1.85 m s-2

To write the three equations this time, we must resolve the weight force.
~(F)= rna (in direction of a):

F- 1150g sin go= 1150a = 1150 x 1.g5 = 2127.5

F = 2127.5 + 1150 x 9.g1 x sin go= 3697.6 N

~(F)= 0 (perpendicular to direction of a):

RR + RF = 1150g COS go= 11171.7 N

~(M) = 0 (moments about G, anti-clockwise positive):

F X 0.42 + RF X 0.92 = RR X 2.02

The algebra is similar to the first part:

3697.6 X 0.42 + RF X 0.92 = 2.02( 11171.7- RF)

RF(0.92 + 2.02) = 2.02 X 11171.7- 3697.6 X 0.42 = 21 ong

1gg
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

10
A common mistake is to write a moment equilibrium equation about a point other
than the mass centre G-for example, one of the wheel-contact points. This would
be correct if the vehicle was in a state of static equilibrium, or if it was travelling at
a constant velocity: that is, if there were no resultant force acting on it. But when
the vehicle has an acceleration, then you may write a moment equilibrium equation
only about the mass centre, G. The reason for this is clear if you remember that a
vehicle travelling along a track is a special case of rigid-body motion, where the
resultant force passes through the mass centre of the body. Now if this is so, it is
clear that the resultant force can have no moment about G, but that it does not
follow that the moment about any other point will be zero.
Do not forget, also, that a moment equilibrium equation with respect to the mass
centre G is a special case of the general equation (F x h)=l 0 a (Frame 3) when the
angular acceleration a is known to be zero.
With the second example as a guide, see if you can complete this next example
yourself.
Example. The car of the previous example is ascending a slope of go at a steady
speed of 21 m s -J when it is brought to rest by application of the brakes, in a
distance of 35 m. Assuming the retardation is constant, calculate the magnitude of
the braking force, and the front and rear-wheel reaction forces. Compare these with
the reaction forces when the car is stationary on the slope.
Recall that braking force is exactly like tractive force except that it acts backwards
instead of forwards. Call the force B. You will need a simple kinematic equation to
calculate the magnitude of the acceleration first.

11
v2 = v6 + 2ax
0=(21) 2 +2ax35
a= -6.3 m s- 2

The complete solution follows, but you should have no trouble.

189
 DYNAMICS

12

====r=:=-:== 8 = 8 °

Of course, the direction of the acceleration is down the slope.

The three equations are:
}:(F)= ma: B + 1150g sin go = 1150a = 1150 x 6.3 = 7245
B = 7245- 1150 x 9.g1 sin go= 5674.9 m

L(F} = 0: RR + RF = 1150g COS go= 11171.7

L(M) = O:B X 0.42 + RR X 2.02 = RF X 0.92

and the algebra is similar.

5674.9 X 0.42 + RR X 2.02 = 0.92( 11171.7- RR)
RR(2.02 + 0.92) = 0.92 X 11171.7-0.42 X 5674.9 = 7g94.5
RR =2685.2 N
RF = 11171.7- RR = 8486.5 N

To determine the static wheel reaction forces, which we may call RFs and RRs• we
write the equations of static equilibrium. Another drawing is not necessary; we may
use the free-body diagram above, remembering that force B is removed. Because there
is now no acceleration, we may write a moment equilibrium equation about the
rear-wheel contact point.
RFs X 2.94 + 1150g sin go X 0.42 = 1150g cos go X 2.02
RFs = (22 566.9- 659.4) -7- 2.94 = 7451.5 N

The equation of equilibrium transverse to the track is the same as before.

RRs + RFs = 11171.7

giving R Rs = 3720.2 N
If the answers in Frame 9 and these above are compared, it is seen that accelerating
up the slope reduces the static front-wheel load by about 300 N, while braking
increases it by about 1000 N. The braking retardation is of course much greater than
the acceleration.

190
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

13
PROBLEMS

1. A car has a mass of 1240 kg. The distance between front- and rear-wheel centres
is 3.85 m. The mass centre is 1.26 m to the rear of the front-wheel centre and is
0.69 m above track level. Calculate the tractive or braking force and the magnitudes
of front- and rear-wheel reaction forces when the car ascends a slope of 1 in 8 (i.e.
sin- 1 -k) (a) with a forward acceleration of 1.6 m s- 2 ; (b) with a retardation of
5.8 m s - 2 . [Ans. (a) RF = 7491 N; RR = 4578 N. F = 3504.6 N. (b) RF = 9135.6 N,
RR = 2933.4 N. B = 5671.5 N.]
2. A truck has a mass m. The distance between front- and rear-wheel centre is
3.84 m. The mass centre is 2.2 m above ground level and 0.75 m to the rear of the
front-wheel centre. The truck is descending a slope of sin - 1 (0.2) at a speed of
40 km per hour. Determine the shortest distance in which it can be brought to
rest without tipping over the front wheels. Show that for this condition, the
coefficient of friction between wheels and road must be at least 0.341. [Ans. 46.95 m
(a= 1.3148 m s- 2 ).]
Hints: RR = 0 for condition stated, Jl. = B/ RF.

14
Let us examine the situation of a car travelling round a bend.
Example. A car has a mass of 1320 kg. The distance between wheels (the track
width) is 2.44 m. The mass centre is centrally between the wheels, and is 0.49 m
above ground level. Calculate the magnitudes oftotal inner and outer wheel reaction
forces when the car travels around a flat right-hand bend of mean radius 35 m at
(a) 15 m s- 1 ; (b) 25 m s- 1 .
When drawing the free-body diagram, we must remember that the vehicle will suffer
a centripetal acceleration of magnitude v 2 / R, directed towards the centre of the bend,
i.e. to the right. This acceleration must be provided by a sideways friction force, F.
Call the reactions Ri (inner) and Ro (outer).

We require the same three equations as before: L(F) = ma in the direction of the
acceleration; L(F) = 0 perpendicular to this; and L(M) = 0 about G.

191
 DYNAMICS

15
L(F) = ma (--+ ): F = ma = mv 2 jr = 1320(15) 2 /35 = 8485.7 N
L(F) = 0 (f): Ro + Ri = 1320g = 12 949.2
L(M) = 0 about G: R 0 x 1.22 = F x 0.49 + Ri x 1.22
Substituting for F and Ri in the last equation:

1.22R 0 = 8485.7 X 0.49 + 1.22( 12 949.2 - R 0 )

R 0 ( 1.22 + 1.22) = 8485.7 X 0.49 + 1.22 X 12 949.2 = 19 956.0
R0 =8178.7 N
Ri =4770.5 N

As expected, the outer wheel reaction is increased and the inner decreased.
The second part of the exercise is left for you to do yourself, as the calculation
follows exactly the same lines. You should obtain values of ll208.2 N and 1741 N
for R 0 and Ri respectively.
This second result suggests that 25 m s- 1 is approaching the maximum speed at
which the vehicle could negotiate the bend without turning over. We can calculate
this limiting speed. Using the same free-body diagram, setting Ri to zero, and calling
the acceleration a, the equations now become:

L(F) = ma (--+ ):

F=ma= 1320a
L(F) = 0 (f): R0 = 12 949.2
L(M) = 0 about G: R 0 x 1.22 = F x 0.49
12 949.2 x 1.22 = 0.49F
F= 32240.9 N
a= 24.42 m S- 2 = v 2 /R = (vmax) 2 /35
Vmax = j(24.42 X 45) = 29.23 m S-l

and attempting to drive round this bend in this vehicle at any speed greater than this
would result in the vehicle overturning. In this calculation we have made no conditions
about friction beyond assuming that a friction force F exists. If the friction coefficient
were sufficiently low, then the car could sideslip before it reached the speed for
overturning. For the friction force to be capable of resulting in the above limiting
acceleration of 24.42 m s - 2 , the coefficient J1 would need to have a minimum value
given by Jlmin = F / Ro which gives a value of 2.49. This very high figure suggests that
in this particular case, sideslip would occur at a lower speed than 29.23 m s - 1 .
The difficulties of driving cars around bends may be partly overcome by banking
the track inwards towards the centre of the curve. This is examined in the next example.
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

16
Example. A car having the same dimensions as in the example of Frame 14 is driven
around a right-hand bend of mean radius 35m, the track now being banked inwards
at an angle of 15°. Calculate the inner and outer wheel reaction forces for the same
two speeds of 15 m s- 1 and 25 m s- 1 , Calculate the maximum speed at which the
car could negotiate the bend without overturning, assuming that it did not slip.
We still have four forces acting: weight, inner and outer reaction, and friction.

In writing the equations, avoid the temptation to resolve along, and perpendicular
to, the track. Always resolve parallel to, and perpendicular to, the acceleration. Attempt
the equations yourself before checking in Frame 17.

17
In the direction of acceleration: I:( F)= rna:

F cos 15° + (R 0 + Ri) sin 15° = 1320( 15) 2 /35 = 8485.7 ( 1)

Perpendicular to the direction of acceleration: I:( F)= 0:

(2)

Moments about G: I:(M) = 0:

F X 0.49 + Ri X 1.22 = R 0 X 1.22 (3)

The solution is completed by algebraic manipulation. This is done in the next frame.

193
 DYNAMICS

18
Re-arranging equations (1) and (2) and dividing one by the other:

(R 0 + RJ sin 15° 8485.7- F cos 15°

(R 0 + RJ cos 15° 1320g + F sin 15°
tan l5°(1320g + F sin 15°) = 8485.7- F cos 15°
F(sin 15° tan 15° +cos 15°) = 8485.7- 1320g tan 15°
F=4845.0 N
Substituting in equation ( 1):

(R 0 + RJ = (8485.7- 4845 cos 15°) cosec 15° = 14 704.4 N

Substituting for F and R 0 in equation ( 3 ):

4845 X 0.49 + Ri X 1.22 = 1.22( 14 704.4- Ri)

Ri( 1.22 + 1.22) = 1.22 X 14 704.4-4845 X 0.49 = 15 565.3
Ri =6379.2 N
R 0 = 14 704.4- Ri = 8325.2 N

19
Again, it is left for you to solve the second part of the example, as the calculations
are of exactly the same form. You should obtain a value of 19 416.8 N for F, and
values of 13203.6 Nand 5405.1 N for R and Ri. 0

For the final part of the example, when the car is about to tip outwards, the inner
wheel reaction force will be zero. We may use the free-body diagram of Frame 16,
remembering that Ri = 0. The equations now become:
I:( F)= rna ( ~ ): F cos 15° + R 0 sin 15° = mv 2 / R ( 1)

I:( F)= 0 (j): mg + F sin 15° = R 0 cos 15° (2)

I:(M) = 0 about G: F X 0.49 = R 0 X 1.22 (3)

From equation (3), F = 2.49 R 0 • Substitute this in equations ( 1) and (2) and re-arrange
thus:

2.49 Ro cos 15° + R 0 sin 15° mv 2

Ro cos 15°-2.49 R 0 sin 15° mgR
Cancelling gives: 8.287 = v2 j35g
v=~(2845.3)=53.34 m s- 1

194
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

20
The results of the previous example show that the effect of banking is to decrease
the sideways friction force F, and to increase both wheel-reaction forces. To cause
the car to travel around a circular bend, a force must be available to produce the
centripetal acceleration. On a flat track, this is a sideways frictional force between
wheels and road surface. But if the track is banked inwards, then the normal reaction
force between wheels and road will have a horizontal component, which assists in
producing the required acceleration. Thus, this force is increased by banking, and the
friction force is reduced.

21
PROBLEMS

1. The mass of a car is 1470 kg. The track width is 2.56 m and the mass centre is
centrally between the wheels and 0.54 m above ground level.
(a) Calculate the friction force between wheels and road, and the wheel reaction
forces, when the car is travelling at 30m s - I round a circular track of mean
radius 45 m, which is banked at 20°. What is the minimum coefficient of friction
necessary for this condition?
(b) Calculate the required angle of bank of the track in order that the sideways
friction force should be zero at the stated speed.
[Ans. (a) 22694.8 N; 7015.0 N, 16589.4 N, 0.961. (b) 63.87°.]
2.
0.4m 1
I I

Gl
~--+
E
co
ci

u u

The figure shows the rear view of a crate on the flat floor of a truck. The mass
centre G is 0.6 m above the floor and 0.4 m from the left-hand edge.
(a) Determine the maximum speed at which the truck may travel around a
right-hand curve of radius 50 m banked inwards to an angle of 10° without
the crate slipping, if the friction coefficient between truck floor and crate is 0.6.
(b) If the crate is prevented by a stop from slipping, calculate the maximum truck
speed such that the crate does not tip outwards, when travelling round the same
track.
[Ans. (a) 20.64 m s- 1• (b) 21.65 m s- 1.]

195
 DYNAMICS

22
Now let us consider the dynamics of a rigid body turning about a fixed pivot. We
shall start with an example of a swinging rod.
Example. A uniform rod of mass m and length L is arranged to swing in a vertical
plane about a fixed frictionless pivot at one end. The rod is held initially horizontal,
at rest, and is then released, allowing it to swing down. Derive an expression for
the angular acceleration of the rod after it has turned through an angle () from the
initial position. Calculate the magnitude of the pivot reaction force when() is (a) 0°;
(b) 45°; (c) 90°.

The free-body diagram is shown. Only two forces act on the rod while it is in
motion. These are, the weight mg and the reaction force at the pivot. This latter is
shown as two components, P and Q. We shall find that it is always preferable to
choose components, one of which passes through the mass centre, rather than
horizontal and vertical components.
First, be quite clear about the kinematics of the motion. Consider the following
points.
1. The road will have an angular velocity w about the turning point 0.
2. It will also have an angular acceleration a.
3. Because of the angular velocity, the mass centre G will have a centripetal
acceleration ac, directed towards the pivot 0.
4. Because ofthe angular acceleration, the mass centre G will have a linear acceleration
a1 tangential to its circular path.
Write down expressions for the centripetal acceleration, ac, and the tangential
acceleration, a1 • If you can't see how to do this, refer to Programme 1, Frames 69
and 63.

196
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

23

The centripetal acceleration is w 2 R and the tangential acceleration is aR, where R

is the radius of the circular path. Since mass centre G is at the mid-point of the rod,
R= tL.
Because there are two accelerations, we shall require two equations of motion of
the form L(F) =rna. And a third equation of the form L(M) = Ia is needed in respect
of moments of all forces about the mass centre G.
Before we write these equations, notice the necessity for angular and tangential
acceleration to be compatible. The angular acceleration rx must obviously be clockwise,
as shown. Because of this, at, the corresponding tangential acceleration of G must
be 'down-left' in the direction shown.
Equation L(F) =rna in direction at:

mg cos 8 - P = m X taL ( 1)

Equation L(F) =rna in direction ac:

Q-mg sin8=tmw 2 L (2)

Equation L(M) = Ia taking moments clockwise about G:

(3)

and the advantage of choosing the components P and Q along, and perpendicular
to the rod, now becomes clear: equation ( 1) includes P only and equation (2) includes
Q only. The mathematics is thereby made simpler.
The completion of the problem will require a value for I G• the moment of inertia
of the rod about a transverse axis through G. This is given by:

If you dido 't know this, then it is one formula that you should remember, as you
will certainly require it again. Don't forget that the formula applies only to a uniform
rod.
Now if you look, you can see that equations ( 1) and ( 3) consist of two simultaneous
equations in P and a, so you can determine expressions for them. Have a go; the
working follows in Frame 24.

197
 DYNAMICS

24
From equation ( 1): P = mg cos () - t mVx
From equation (3): P = (2/ L)( / 2 mL2 )rx
and equating: mg cos()- tmLrx = +,mLrx
mLrx(t + 1,) = mg cos()
iLrx = g cos()

3g
IX= --cos(}
2L

Substitute this in equation (3):

P=imLrx

P = img cosO
In order to find an expression for Q from equation (2) we shall require an expression
for w 2 • The easiest way to find this is by using an energy equation. The rod is released
from rest in the horizontal position.

Loss of potential energy of rod = gain of kinetic energy

The mass centre G descends a vertical height h = tL sin() (see the diagram in
Frame 22). The increase of kinetic energy is t I 0 w 2 • I 0 is the moment of inertia about
a transverse axis through the end 0 now, as this is the pivot about which the rod
turns. Io = tmL2 • Again, this is an expression you should try to remember, but you
can determine it fairly simply by use of the Parallel Axis theorem. (See Programme 1,
Frame 113.)
Substituting in the above energy equation:

mgh = !I 0 w 2
mg(!L sin 0)= t(tmL2 )w 2

w 2 = 3§!_ sin()
L
Substituting in equation (2) of Frame 23 gives:

Q- mg sin()= tmL(3(g/ L) sin())= 1.5 mg sin()

Q = mg sin ()( 1.5 + 1)
Q = 2.5 mg sin (}

198
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

25
Summarising the results of the analysis:

3g
a=--cosO· P = tmg cos 0; Q = 2!mg sin 0
2L '

The total reaction forceR at the pivot is given by R = J {(P 2 + Q2 )} and substituting
the values of 0 given yields the following results.

0=0: P=tmg; Q=O; R=tmg

0 = 45° P = 0.1768 mg; Q = 1.768 mg; R = 1.777 mg
0 = 90°: p = 0; Q=2.5 mg; R =2.5 mg

26
The procedure following will be found applicable to all problems of this type.
1. Draw the free-body diagram:
(a) If necessary, determine the position of the mass centre, G, and the value of
I 0 , the moment of inertia with respect to an axis through G perpendicular to the
plane of the motion.
(b) Indicate the angular acceleration, and a compatible linear acceleration of the
mass centre G of the body.
(c) Indicate the reaction force at the pivot in terms of two components, one, P,
passing through the mass centre, and the other, Q, perpendicular to this.
2. Calculate the angular velocity w of the body, using an energy equation.
3. Write the equation of motion L(F) = ma in the direction of the tangential
acceleration of G.
4. Write the equation of motion L(M) = Ia taking moments of forces about the mass
centre G.
5. Write the equation of motion L(F) = ma in the direction of the centripetal
acceleration, i.e. G to the pivot 0.
6. Manipulate the equations to solve for the unknown terms.
In the next frame, we shall see how this guide applies to another problem.

199
 DYNAMICS

27
Example. A thin flat uniform metal disc has a diameter of 2 m and a mass of
52 kg. It is mounted on a fixed frictionless pivot at a point on the edge, so that it
can swing freely in a vertical plane. It is held initially at rest, with the centre G
vertically above the pivot. It is then given a small initial disturbance, causing it to
swing downwards. Derive an expression for the angular velocity, and angular
acceleration after the disc has swung through an angle e from rest. Calculate the
magnitude of the pivot reaction force when angle e is 90° and 180°.
The free-body diagram is drawn in Frame 28. The directions of the force components
P and Q are not known, and we therefore assume directions.
We shall require the moment of inertia of the disc, both about an axis perpendicular
to the plane of the disc through G, and also about a parallel axis through the pivot 0.
You should remember the expression for the former:

but even if you didn't know this, you can now use it to determine the other value,
I 0 , using the Parallel axis theorem.

28

G 0 is the initial position of the mass centre G, and h is the vertical height through
which G descends in turning through angle e.
The tangential acceleration a 1 of G is compatible with the angular acceleration, a;
its value is ar and its direction is perpendicular to the radius OG.
Taking step 2 of the procedure of Frame 26, write the energy equation and derive
an expression for w 2 •

200
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

29
! 10 w 2 = mgh = mg(R- R cos 8) = mgR( 1- cos{})
! x 1.5mR 2 w 2 = mgR( 1- cos B)

2 4g
w =--(1-cosO)
3R

Steps 3 to 5 of the procedure are the formulations of the three equations of motion.
Attempt them first yourself.

30
L(F) = ma in direction of tangential acceleration:

mg sin (} - P = ma 1 = mrxR ( 1)

L(M) = Jrx: moments about G:

(2)

L(F) = ma in direction of centripetal acceleration:

mg cos0-Q=mac=mw 2 R (3)

Step 6: manipulate the equations to find the unknown terms. No doubt you need
practice in algebra of this sort, so this is left for you to complete. You can eliminate
P from equations (I) and ( 2) and thus find rx. You can then use this to substitute
back in either equation ( 1) or (2) to find P. Finally, the expression for Q can be
obtained directly from equation ( 3) and the expression already derived for w 2 • You
should get the following results.

rx =~~sin(}; P = 1mg sin B; Q = 1mg(7 cos(}- 4)

3R

For(}= 90° you should get:

P= 170 N; Q= -680 N; R = 701 N

For(}= 180° you should get:

P=O; Q=-1870N; R = 1870 N

These results are calculated to the nearest whole number.
 DYNAMICS

31
Example. A uniform bar of mass 12 kg and length 1 m rests on a table with its
mass centre overhanging the edge by 0.1 m. When released from the horizontal
rest position, it is observed that the rod begins to slip on the table edge when it
has turned through 10°. Determine the coefficient of friction between rod and table.
Follow the suggested procedure; you are given all the data, and can calculate P and
Q. You should find P=103.51 Nand Q=24.82 N; w 2 =3.65 rad 2 s- 2 and
a= 10.351 rad s- 2 . f.1 = Q/ P when slip begins. To apply the energy equation, in order
to calculate w, you will require (a) Ia (which is the same as for the example in
Frame 22), and (b) the Parallel Axis theorem, in order to determine I 0 . You should find
the value of I 0 to be 1.12 kg m 2 . The solution follows in Frame 32.

32
The free-body diagram is shown here.

Be
P,i.J_
0' :!.,.'a
... s: G'W
Q

10 =I a+ mb 2 = 1.0 + 12(0.1) 2 = 1.12 kg m 2

The energy equation:

tiow 2 = mg(b sin e)

t x 1.12w 2 = 12g(O.l sin 10°)
w 2 = 3.65 rad 2 s- 2

The three equations of motion:

In direction at: mg cos e- p = mat = mab (1)
In direction ac: Q- mg sine= mac= mw 2 b (2)
L.(M)=/a: moments about G: Pb=laa (3)
The calculations are completed in Frame 33.

202
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

33
In this case, working will be simplified by substituting the values given and calculated.
The revised equations are then:

Equation (1): 12g cos 10°- P = 12ex x 0.1

115.9- P = 1.2cx
Equation (2): Q- 12g sin 10° = 12 x 3.65 x 0.1 = 4.38
Q = 4.38 + 20.44 = 24.82 N
Equation (3): p X 0.1 = 1 X CX

Since ex is not required, we eliminate cx from equations ( 1) and ( 3 ):

115.9-P= 1.2(P X 0.1)

P = 115.9 /( 1 + 0.12) = 103.5 N

Since slip is about to occur

J.1 = Q/ p = 24.82/103.5 = 0.24.

34
Sometimes there may be forces other than weight and pivot force.
Example. A trapdoor is a uniform flat board hinged at one end, 2 m wide and of
mass 20 kg. When closed, in the horizontal position, it compresses a spring which
exerts an upward force at the free edge of 300 N. When the securing-bolt is released,
calculate the instantaneous angular acceleration of the door, and the pivot reaction
force.
The problem is straightforward. Draw the free-body diagram, including the upward
force of 300 N at the free edge. Because the door is motionless, there is no centripetal
acceleration, so only two equations are needed. Begin with a moment equation about
the hinge; ex can be determined from this. Then write the equation oflinear translation
to determine the vertical reaction force at the pivot, which we have called P.
It was made very clear in Frame 10 that it is a mistake to write a moment equilibrium
equation for a rigid body about any point other than the mass centre. Here, you are
being advised to write a moment equation with respect to the hinge. In case this
bothers you, understand that this equation is not an equation of equilibrium: it is an
equation of motion, i.e. l:(M) =lex. It is permissible to write such an equation with
respect to any point on a rigid body.

203
 DYNAMICS

35

( •
-1-.....
OIJI I
Oc:=• =jF===tt
t 300N
(20g) N

1m 1m

Moments about 0 ((:EM)= I 0 a): assume a anti-clockwise:

(I 0 = 1mL2 -see Frame 24)

ll( = (600- 20 X 9.81) X 0.0375
= 15.14 rad s - l

Linear translation: !:(F)= ma:

P + 300- 20g = 20a = 20( 15.14 x 1) = 302.8

p = 302.8 - 300 + 20g
= 199 N

36
Example. A uniform thin rod of mass m is held horizontally by two vertical strings
attached to the two ends. One ofthe strings is cut. Show that the tension in the other
string immediately after the cut is± mg, and determine the initial angular acceleration
of the rod.
This one is left for you to do yourself entirely; the value of the angular acceleration
is 1.5(g/ L). It is actually the same problem as the first part of the example of
Frame 22. It is included here, partly to give you practice, but chiefly to emphasise the
difference between a static and a dynamic state. Just before the string is cut, the
tensions in the two strings must both bet mg. It requires a certain amount of intellectual
effort to realise (a) that the tension in the remaining string changes instantaneously,
and (b) that it becomes less than it was. There is a tendency to think that because
it is the only support left, it should be carrying more weight.
The same example is developed in the first of the problems that make up Frame 37
which follows.

204
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

37

PROBLEMS

1. A thin uniform rod of length L and mass m is held horizontally suspended by two
vertical strings, one attached to the right-hand end and the other a distance a from
the left-hand end. The right-hand string is cut. Determine the tension in the left-hand
string, as a function of mg the instant after the string is cut, if a is (a) 0; (b) !L;
(c) tL. Show that the ratio of this tension to the initial static tension is (a) t;
(b) ~; (c) 1. Calculate in each case the angular acceleration of the rod. [ Ans. ! mg;
i mg ; l mg. 1! gIL: 172 gIL; 1! gIL.]
2. A thin uniform rod is 1.2 m long and its mass is 8 kg. It is mounted on a frictionless
pivot at the left-hand end, and a weight of mass 1 kg hangs by a light string at a
distance b from the pivot. The rod is held horizontally, and then released from
rest. Show that if the string supporting the weight is not to go slack, b must be
less than 0.8 m. Calculate the initial angular acceleration of the rod. [Ans.
a= 1.25g rad s- 2.]
Hints: call the string tension T. Write equation of motion also for weight, and
eliminate T to determine a. Thus find T; T = 0.
3. A thin uniform rod is 1.6 m long with a mass of 12 kg. It stands on a table, vertically
on end. It is given a small initial disturbance, causing it to fall. Show that if the
lower end begins to slip on the table when the rod has fallen through 19.66°, the
coefficient of friction between rod and table must be 0.25.
Hints: solve in terms of forces P and Q as normally, and then calculate the horizontal
and vertical components H and V of the end-force, from P and Q. fJ. =HI V. Do
not try to prove that () = 19.66 o but calculate P and Q for this particular value.
4. A compound pendulum has a mass of 65 kg. It is mounted on a pivot so that it
can swing in a vertical plane. It is initially at rest, the mass centre G being 2.2 m
below the pivot. The moment of inertia of the pendulum about a transverse axis
through the pivot is 420 kg m 2 . A torque M of constant magnitude 1500 N m is
then applied to the pendulum at the pivot, causing it to be raised.
(a) Calculate the angular velocity and acceleration of the pendulum when it has
turned through 90°, and the components of the pivot reaction force.
(b) Through what angle must the torque be applied in order that the pendulum
turns exactly through 180° before coming to rest?
[Ans. (a) 2.1307 rad s- 1, 0.2314 rad s- 1 • 670.74 N, 649.2 N. (b) 107./r.]
Hints: for (b) a simple energy equation: M() = mgh where h = 4.4 m.

205
 DYNAMICS

38
When rigid bodies accelerate, they are subjected to internal forces.
Example. A uniform rod has a mass m and length L. It is attached to a pivot at
one end so that it can turn in a vertical plane. Show that if it is held horizontally
and released from rest, there will be a shearing force and bending moment in the
rod. Determine the magnitude of the maximum bending moment, and its location.
Referring to Frames 22 to 24, when the rod is horizontal (i.e. when()= 0), the angular
acceleration is 1t(gl L), and the pivot force Pis !mg. We shall use these results here.
To determine internal forces, we draw the free-body diagram of a length x only of
the rod. The diagram must include the internal forces which are brought to bear on
it by the other part of the rod; these consist of a shearing force, F, and a bending
moment, M. (In general, there could also be a longitudinal force, due to centripetal
acceleration, but in this particular case, with the bar at rest, this will be zero.) Here
is the diagram.

I·
X

,. -"-a "I
I +Gx Ft )===:)
tp M
!mxg
I
I
+a=aY.x
The weight, mxg, and the moment of inertia will be those of the portion of rod,
not the complete rod. The directions of F and M are unknown; they have been
assumed positive according to a widely-adopted sign convention used in Stress
Analysis The tangential acceleration a 1 of the mass centre, G x• will be a( t x) since
the rod rotates about the fixed pivot at the left-hand end.
The equation of translation of the portion, L.(F) = ma, is:
mxg- P- F = mxa = mx(a x tx) = (m x xl L)( 1!gl L x tx)
(m x xl L)g- img- F = imgx 2 I L2
F= mgxl L- !mg- lmgx 2 1L 2
Taking a moment equation about G x: L.(M) =/a: assume clockwise + ve:
M + P x tx- F x tx =I' a= {l2 (mxl L)(x 2 ))(1 !gl L)
M = kmgx 3 IL2 - img x tx + tx(mgxiL- img- imgx 2 I L2 )
= kmgx 3 I L2 - kmgx + tmgx 2 I L- kmgx- imgx 3 I L2

M = !mgx 2 IL- !mgx- !mgx 3 1L 2

We shall discuss these results in the following frame.

206
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

39
F.N
0 .1 t - -% m
---+'
or----.~~r----.----.---~ x,m
1.0
-0.1
-0.2
~---.--.-.----.----.-~~x.m
1.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
M,Nm

The graphs are drawn for F and M for values of mg = 1 N and L = 1 m. It is seen
from the expressions in Frame 38 that differentiating M results in the expression for
F, which is in accordance with Stress Analysis theory. Also, M is seen to be a maximum
for zero value of F. You can show for yourself that F will be zero when x = ! L, and
this value, substituted into the expression forM results in a value of Mmax = -l7 mgL.
Inertial shearing force and bending moment may appear rather academic, but it is
easy to imagine that if you hold a long thin strip of wood in your hands, at the end,
it can easily be broken simply by swinging it with a high acceleration. Also, whenever
you see pictures of tall industrial chimneys being felled, they are invariably seen to
break while falling. Mortared brickwork is not strong enough to resist the bending
moment resulting from free fall of the chimney. The fact that the breaking-point is
further than one-third the height from the base is accounted for by the chimney not
being uniform in section, but tapering.

40
You may have wondered why, having a chosen a 'section', we chose to examine the
forces on the part to the left instead of that to the right. There is no special reason,
and the same result can be obtained by analysis of the right-hand portion. You should
attempt this yourself. To give you some help, here is the complete free-body diagram.
You will notice that the directions ofF and M are opposite to those of the previous
diagram, in accordance with Newton's Third Law of reactions.
L-x

= - -:.-. t
--{I" /-"J
r:::Jm'g
I
I
t a=a(L- Y:dL-xll

207
 DYNAMICS

41
PROBLEMS

w a
' \ \ 0.6m
::Jf!li=t==t===~ B
A' I
' '

E
(0
c:i
~==B~J~
·I
0.6m

(a) (b)
c

1. Two uniform rods, AB and BC, each 0.6 m long, and mass 24 kg, are welded
together and rotate around a fixed pivot A in a horizontal plane, as shown at (a)
above. At a certain instant, the angular velocity w is 20 rad s - I and the angular
acceleration is 48 rad s- 2 • Calculate the shearing force, tensile force and bending
moment at the mid-point of the rod BC at this instant. [Ans. 2620.8 N; 2505.6 N;
388.8 N m.]
Hints: select the portion from mid-point to C. Assume forces P and Q, parallel
respectively to tangential and centripetal accelerations, and bending moment M.
(P = 432 Nand Q = 3600 N.) Then determine longitudinal and transverse forces
T and F from P and Q. Ignore gravity forces.
2. Diagram (b) above shows a thin uniform disc of diameter 0.2 m and mass 15 kg
secured to a uniform rod AB of length 0.6 m and mass 6 kg. A is attached to a
fixed pivot, permitting the assembly to rotate in a vertical plane. The assembly is
held with AB horizontal and released from rest. Calculate the shearing force,
bending moment, and tensile force in AB at point Bat the instant of release. [Ans.
7.718 N; 0.644 N m; 0.]
Hints: locate G (0.5143 m from A). Calculate /A (I for disc about diameter is
i mR 2 , and use Parallel Axis theorem). Calculate I 0 (I A = 6.1575 kg m 2 , I 0 = 0.6029
kg m 2 ). Determine Panda (20.17 N, 17.21 rad s- 2 ). Then draw AB only, with F
and M acting at B. L(F) =rna yields F; L(M) = Ia yields M.
3. A thin uniform rod of mass m and length L swings in a vertical plane about a fixed
pivot at one end. The rod is initially at rest, vertically above the pivot, and is given
a small initial displacement so that it swings downwards. Determine the angles
through which it must swing in order that (a) the horizontal component of the
pivot reaction force is zero; (b) the vertical component of the pivot reaction force
is zero. [Ans. (a) 48.19°. (b) 70.53°.]
Hints: assume forces P and Q transverse to, and along the road, and derive
expressions ( P = i mg sin e; Q = mg ( 2 t cos e - 1 t) ). Vertical component =
p sine+ Q cos e;horizontal component= p cos e- Q sine; equate each to zero
e e
and solve for cos (cos will be respectively, 2/3 and 1/3 ).

208
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

42

We now look at examples of bodies rolling along surfaces. When a body both rolls
and moves laterally, two equations of motion are needed, one for translation, and
one for rotation. Also, a compatibility equation is needed.

Example. A uniform flat disc of mass 4 kg and diameter 0.15 m is mounted on a

central spindle of diameter 6 mm and of negligible mass and inertia. The spindle
rests on a pair of horizontal rails, with the disc between, as shown in the diagram
above. A light string is attached to the rim of the disc and wrapped round it, and
a horizontal force F = 2 N applied to the string. Calculate the time for the disc to
travell m along the rail, starting from rest, and the final linear and angular velocity.
The spindle rolls without slip along the rail.
We begin our solution by writing a kinematic equation relating the linear acceleration
of the disc, and its angular acceleration. In the case of a body rolling without slip
along a surface, this equation is:

a= rxR

where R is the appropriate rolling radius, in this case, the spindle radius. If this is
not immediately obvious, you might find it helpful to think first of the rolling body
turning and accelerating about a .fixed centre. Then the rolling surface would have a
peripheral acceleration given by the above equation, and if the disc centre were fixed,
and there was no slip, the rail must have a corresponding linear acceleration. But
since we know the rail is fixed, then the rolling body must have a corresponding
linear acceleration in the opposite direction.
Now the free-body diagram must be drawn, in order to obtain the equations of
motion. Attempt the diagram yourself first. You will find it a help to exaggerate the
size of the spindle. There are four forces acting on the roller, although only two of
these will be found relevant to the solution of the problem. If you have a difficulty
finding a fourth force, look at the implications of the phrase:· ... rolls without slip ... '.

209
 DYNAMICS

43
Here is the correct free-body diagram:

To show the disposition of the forces more clearly, the spindle is drawn
disproportionately large, as suggested earlier. Because the disc rolls without slip, there
must be a tangential friction force between spindle and rail; the force on the spindle,
P, is assumed to act to the right, as shown. There is no vertical acceleration, so that
rng is equal to the reaction N.
The translation equation (L(F) =rna) is:
P + F =rna= rn(ar) ( 1)
The equation of motion for rotation (L(M) = Ia) is:
FR- Pr = Ia = trnR 2 a (I= !rnR 2 for uniform disc)
Substituting for P:
FR- r(rnar- F)= !rnR 2 a
FR + Fr = a(!rnR 2 + rnr 2 ) (2)
Substituting values in equation (2):
2(0.075 + 0.003) = a(t x 4(0.075) 2 + 4(0.003) 2 )
0.156 =ax 0.011286
a= 13.822 rad s- 2
a = a x 0.003 = 0.0415 m s - 2
v2 = v5 + 2ax = 0 + 2 x 0.0415 x 1
v = 0.2881 m s- 1
v=wr=w x0.003 (for no slip of spindle on
rail)
w = 96.03 rad s- 1

x = v0 t + !at 2
1 = 0 + t X 0.0415t 2
t = 6.942 s

If the calculated value of a is now substituted into equation ( 1), you can show for
yourself that the value of the force P is 1.834 N, and also, that it acts in the opposite
direction to that assumed.
Now see if you can determine how long it would take the disc to roll 1 m down
a pair of rails inclined at 5° to the horizontal, without the string attached.

210
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

44
Here is the free-body diagram for the disc rolling down the rail.

mg

The angle is exaggerated, for clarity. This time, there can be no doubt about the
direction of the friction force P. Because the disc is rolling without slip, there must
be a force exerting a corresponding torque in the direction of roll. The only force
that can do this is P, because the weight acts through the disc centre. So P must exert
a clockwise moment about the disc centre, as shown.

Kinematically: a= rxr (as before)

Translation: mg sine- p = ma = mrxr

Rotation: Pr = lrx

r(mg sine- mrxr) = lrx

mgr sine= rx(l + mr 2 ) = rx(!mR 2 + mr 2 )
Substituting values:

4g x 0.003 sin 5° = rx(! x 4(0.075) 2 + 4(0.003 )2 ) = 0.011 286rx

rx = 0.909 09 rad s - 2
a= rxr = 0.909 09 x 0.003 = 0.002 727 m s- 2

1 = 0 +! X 0.002 727t 2
t = 27.08 s

Imagine now that the disc is in two halves, with the spindle between, and that a
string is wrapped round the spindle. The free end of the string is held, and the disc
allowed to descend vertically. This is the well-known dynamic toy called the yo-yo.
It is also the limiting case of the disc rolling down an inclined rail, the string replacing
the rail, and being inclined at 90°. It is left for you to show that it will take 7.995 seconds
for the disc to descend 1 m starting from rest, and that its final linear and angular
velocity will be 0.2502 m s -I and 83.89 rad s -I respectively. The calculations follow
exactly the same lines as those above.

211
 DYNAMICS

45
PROBLEMS

1. A uniform cylinder having an outer diameter of 30 mm is placed transversely at

the top of an inclined plane of slope 5° and released from rest. It rolls down the
plane without slipping and travels a distance of 0.5 m in 1.419 s. Determine the
inner diameter of the cylinder. For a uniform cylinder, the moment of inertia about
its central axis, I G• is given by:

where R 0 and R 1 are the outer and inner radii respectively. [ Ans. 20 mm.]
Hints: calculate the linear acceleration first, and then the angular acceleration.
Then treat as the exercise in Frame 44 to find I. Use the given formula to determine
R 1 . The mass-term will cancel.

E
E
0
ltl

(a) (b)

2. A uniform solid cylinder of mass 0.6 kg and diameter 50 mm rests on a horizontal

surface. The coefficient offriction between cylinder and surface is 0.15. A horizontal
force F = 5 N acts on the cylinder at a height h = 20.59 mm above the surface, as
shown in diagram (a) above. Show that the cylinder will have negligible angular
motion. Find the linear acceleration. [Ans. 6.862 m s- 2 .]
Hints: friction force acts to left, causing clockwise moment; Facts below centre,
causing anti-clockwise moment. Show that the two moments are equal.
3. A uniform solid cylinder of mass 2 kg and radius 25 mm rests on a horizontal
surface. A rod moving horizontally moves the cylinder along the surface, the rod
centre-line passing through the cylinder centre-line, as shown in diagram (b) above.
Determine the angular acceleration of the cylinder, the force F between rod and
cylinder, and the force N between cylinder and surface when the rod moves to the
right (a) with constant velocity; (b) with acceleration of 1m s- 2 to the right. The
coefficient of friction between cylinder and surface, and between rod and cylinder,
is 0.1. [Ans. (a) 71.35 rad s- 2 ; 1.9818 N; 19.8182 N. (b) 64.072 rad s- 2 ; 4.002 N;
20.02 N.]
Hints: surface will exert friction force to left of pN; rod will exert a downward
friction force of f.1R. For case (a), F- f.1N = 0. Vertical equilibrium in both cases.

212
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

46
For the remainder of the programme, we shall deal with what is known as d' Alembert's
Principle. And we must begin straight away with a warning:
d' Alembert 's Principle describes an alternative method of solving
dynamics problems. EITHER you use this alternative method, OR you
use the methods already described. You MUST NOT use both together.
Now you may be wondering already why we are bothering with an alternative to
something that you by now have become reasonably proficient in. There are two reasons.
The first is, that for certain types of problem, the use of d' Alembert's Principle
offers a much simpler solution. This reason is hardly convincing; if you have learned
a method of solving a problem, the advantage of learning more theory in order to
make a marginal saving of work is dubious.
The second and much more convincing reason is, that it is quite possible that you
have already come across this method, but without really being aware of it, with the
unhappy result that your thinking in certain areas is muddled and probably incorrect.
If this is so, then you need to understand this aspect of Dynamics, if only to enable
you to make the decision not to use it again!
The case of a body travelling in a circular path affords a good example to introduce
d' Alembert's Principle. We shall shortly select an example from the earlier part of
this programme, as an illustration of the application of the method.
When a rigid body is in a state of static equilibrium, we can normally write three
equations respecting the forces acting on it. State, if you can remember, what are the
three conditions for equilibrium.

47
Resultant force in any one direction is 0
Resultant force in direction at right-angles to above is 0
Resultant moment of all forces about any point is 0

and these conditions enable all the unknown forces to be determined.

When a body has an acceleration, we have to remember that the resultant force
(I:( F)) in the direction of the acceleration is not zero but is equal to (rna), although
l:(F) may still be zero in a direction along which there is no component of acceleration.
When a car accelerates along a straight track, the resultant force perpendicular to
the track is still zero.

213
 DYNAMICS

48
d' Alembert's Principle is a device which enables us to treat a dynamics problem as
though it was a statics problem. And it achieves this by introducing to the system
an extra and wholly imaginary force to the free-body diagram.
This is the argument. Suppose a body is known to have an acceleration a in a
certain direction. Then we know that the resultant force acting in that direction is (rna).
If there is no angular acceleration, we also know that this resultant force must pass
through the mass-centre. So, if we add to our free-body diagram, a force of magnitude
(rna), at the mass-centre, and acting in the opposite direction to the acceleration, then
we could use the conditions of static equilibrium, because the resultant would be
cancelled by this fictitious force.
An example should make things clear. One follows in Frame 49.

49
Example. A car has a mass of 1320 kg. The distance between wheels (the track
width) is 2.44 m. The mass-centre is centrally between the wheels and is 0.49 m above
ground level. Calculate the magnitudes of total inner and outer wheel reaction
forces when the car travels around a flat right-hand bend of mean radius 35 m at
(a) 15m s- 1 ; (b) 25m s- 1 .
This example is copied from Frame 14.
Because the car is travelling at 15m s - 1 round a circle, there must be a centripetal
acceleration, v 2 I R. This is directed towards the centre of the curve. So, we introduce
a force of magnitude mv 2 I R, acting in the opposite direction. Because it is not a real
force, we show it by a distinctive arrow. Here is the free-body diagram.

You may recall having done this before in your earlier courses, because many
elementary books approach centripetal acceleration in this manner.
In Frame 50, we write the appropriate equations for :~olving the problem.

214
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

50
Because we have included the extra and imaginary force, we may now treat the body
as though it were in static equilibrium. The question requires the two reaction forces.
To determine Ri, we can write a moment equilibrium equation about the outer-wheel
contact-point.

Ri x 2.44 + d' Alembert force x 0.49 = 1320g x 1.22

Ri X 2.44 + (1320( 15) 2 /35) X 0.49 = 1320g X 1.22
Ri =4770.5 N

In Frame 10, you were warned against writing a moment equilibrium equation
with respect to any point except the mass-centre. Now, because we have included the
extra imaginary force, we may ignore this warning, with the result that we are able
to determine the answer more quickly than before, by means of a single equation.
The other reaction is found from the vertical-equilibrium equation:

Ro = 1320g- Ri = 8178.7 N

Part (b) of the question is left for you to solve; the working is of course exactly the same.

51
It is clear that this example is solved much more quickly by using this method. Indeed,
the only serious criticism one can make in respect of the method is, that it is so
frequently used without being properly understood. If you have been taught to solve
problems of circular motion this way, and wish to continue doing so, you must realise
that this extra force is purely imaginary. Adopt the practice, always, of illustrating
this imaginary force in a distinctive manner, as we have done in this example. The
force is introduced for the purpose of writing a 'static equilibrium' equation for a
body which is not in static equilibrium. There is nothing wrong with this. An
accountant will add to the Debit side of a balance-sheet a sum called 'Cash in Hand'
simply in order to ensure that both Debit and Credit sides balance, although it is
clear that 'Cash in Hand' is not a real Debit at all, but a fictitious one. A force used
in this manner is called a reversed effective force, because it is opposite in direction
(although equal in magnitude) to the true resultant force acting on the body, which
is the effective force.
When this principle is applied to motion in a circular path, the effective force (i.e.
the nett resultant force acting towards the path centre) is called the centripetal force,
and the reversed effective force (called the d' Alembert force in the example above)
is called the centrifugal force. (The word 'centrifugal' means 'flying from the centre.'.)

215
 DYNAMICS

52

The learner is frequently confused about the unreality of centrifugal force. The question
is often asked: 'If it is a fictitious force, how can a car be turned over on a bend by
a force which does not exist?' The answer is, that it is not the centrifugal force acting
outwards at the mass-centre which turns the car over, but the inward-directed friction
force between wheels and road, exerted by the road on the wheels. When the line of
action of this force is below the mass-centre, it exerts a turning moment on the car,
as we have seen in some of the examples (e.g. Frame 14). Moreover, this friction force
is not stopping the car from being thrown outwards; it is preventing it from travelling
in a straight line. You may know already (if not, you can easily prove for yourself)
that if a weight is whirled round at the end of a string and the string is cut, the weight
immediately begins to travel on a straight path tangential to the circular path. It does
not move outwards at all.

53

d' Alembert's Principle can also be applied to bodies having angular acceleration.
We may summarise.
If a body of mass m is subject to an acceleration a, a reversed effective force of
magnitude (rna) may be added to the free-body diagram, at the mass-centre, and
in the direction opposite to a.
If a body of moment of inertia I 0 with respect to an axis through the mass-centre
is subject to an angular acceleration o:, a reversed effective moment of magnitude
(I 0 o:) may be added to the free-body diagram, in the direction opposite to o:.
The body may then be analysed as though it were in a state of static equilibrium: thus:

resultant force in any direction =0

resultant moment of all forces about any point = 0

216
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

54
The next example shows how we deal with a body having angular acceleration.
Example. A thin uniform rod of mass 32 kg and length 1.2 m turns in a horizontal
plane about a pivot at one end. At a certain instant, its angular velocity is 5 rad s- 1
and its angular acceleration is 10 rad s- 2 • Determine the shearing force and bending
moment at the rod centre. Neglect gravity forces.

The free-body diagram of the outer half only of the rod is shown. Considering the
real forces first, the only forces acting on the outer half are those exerted by the inner
half, if we are to neglect gravity forces, as told. These consist of a transverse shearing
force, F, a longitudinal tensile force T, and a bending moment, M. The directions of
all of these are assumed, those of F and M being positive in accordance with a
widely-accepted Stress Analysis sign convention; a and ware both assumed clockwise.
The 'reversed effective' forces and moments are determined as follows.
1. Angular acceleration a of the rod will cause a linear acceleration a of the centre
of mass G' of the half-rod of magnitude (ar) =(axiL). This will be in a clockwise
direction relative to the pivot 0; that is, downwards on the diagram. The reversed
effective force is therefore (rna x iL) upwards as shown (m is the mass of the
half-rod).
2. Angular velocity of the rod will cause a centripetal acceleration of the mass-centre
of the half-rod of magnitude (w 2 r) = (w 2 x iL) radially inwards. The reversed
effective force is therefore (mw 2 x iL) radially outwards as shown.
3. Angular acceleration a of the rod means also that the half-rod will have the same
angular acceleration, clockwise on the diagram. The reversed effective moment is
therefore (fa·a) anti-clockwise, as shown. (JG' is the moment of inertia of the
half-rod about its own mass-centre).
The appropriate equations are obtained in the following frame.

217
 DYNAMICS

55
Having introduced the three reversed-effective effects, we may now make use of any
conditions of static equilibrium; no equations of motion are necessary-in fact, none
are allowed! As with many static problems, work may be saved by choosing an
appropriate equation.
A force-equilibrium equation vertically will yield F directly.

F-mrx x lL=O

Substituting values:

F = 16 X 10 X l X 1.2 = 144 N

The positive answer means that the direction is downwards, as assumed.

A moment equilibrium equation, either about G, the whole-rod centre, or about
G', the half-rod centre, will yield M. Taking moments about G:

M + J 0 ,rx + (mrx x lL)iL= 0

M= -(/2 x 16 x 0.6 2 x 10+ 16 x 10 x 0.9 x 0.3)
M= -48.0 N m

the negative sign indicating a clockwise moment.

The question does not require it, but you may show for yourself that the tension
force T = 360 N. A simple 'left= right' force 'equilibrium' equation is required. Tis
the centripetal force on the outer half of the rod.

56
A final set of problems follows in Frame 57. But because d'Alembert's Principle
is an alternative to writing equations oflinear and angular motion, all of the problems
so far encountered in this programme can be solved using the method of reversed
effective force, or reversed effective moment. So you may gain extra practice and
experience by attempting some of the earlier samples using this method.

218
 DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

57

PROBLEMS

1. The total mass of a motor cyclist and his machine is m, and the height of the
mass-centre above the ground is h. Calculate the angle at which the machine must
be inclined to the vertical when travelling round a flat circular track of mean radius
20m at a speed of 15m s- 1 . [Ans. 48.91°.]
Hints: include reversed effective force, and then take moments about contact-point
of wheel with ground; h and m will be found to cancel.
2. A small cuboidal block of wood, of dimensions a, b and c, is to be used in a car
as a brake tester. It is placed on a flat surface in the car, with dimension a parallel
to the car's motion, and dimension b vertical. The block is required to tip forward
when the car is brought to rest in a distance of 50 m from a speed of 25 m s- 1
along a straight level track. Calculate the ratio of dimension b to dimension a. If
the same block is turned through 90°, so that dimension a is transverse to the
car's motion, at what speed would the block tip over sideways if the car were
travelling round a circular track of mean radius 25 m (a) if the track were flat;
(b) if it were banked at an angle of 15°? Assume that the block never slips on the
surface. [Ans. b/a = 1.5696. (a) 12.5 m s- 1 ; (b) 16.36 m s- 1.]
Hint: in both cases, take moments about the corner about which the block is
about to tip.
3. A small simple pendulum hangs from the roof of a vehicle. It is arranged so that
the angle of swing can be read by the string passing over a graduated scale.
Calculate the angle indicated when the vehicle accelerates forwards at (a) 2 m s- 2 ;
(b) 6 m s- 2 • Determine also the angle indicated when the vehicle moves with the
same accelerations up a slope of sin- 1 0.1. [ Ans. (a) 11.52°; (b) 31.45°.
(a) 16.979°; (b) 35.57°.]
Hints: indicate weight mg and reversed effective force rna on the free-body diagram
and take moments about the attachment-point of the string. When the vehicle
ascends the slope, first find the true angle of the string to the vertical; weight mg
acts vertically downward, but reversed effective force will act at angle sin - I 0.1
below the horizontal. Because the scale is attached to the vehicle, the angle of the
slope must then be added to these values.

219
 Programme 7

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

221
 DYNAMICS

1
The terms Work, Energy and Power should be familiar by now. You have met them
in earlier work, and also in Programme 1, as revision. In this programme, following
some further revision, we shall apply the principles to solve some more difficult
problems. We shall also define strain energy, and shall show how this concept can
be applied when a load acts suddenly or instantaneously on a member or a structure.
Begin by revising work by answering the two questions following.
1. When a force F moves through a distance x, the work done by the force is ...
2. When a moment or torque M turns through an angle (), the work done by the
moment or torque is ...
In each case, state the units of the terms used.

2
When a force F newtons (N) moves through a distance x metres (m) the
work done is:
(Fx) N m, or joules (J)

When a moment or torque M newton metres (N m) turns through an angle

() radians ( rad ), the work done is:

You must also remember that when the force or moment is variable, the work done
must be expressed as an integral. Thus, for a variable force f acting through a distance
x, the work done, E, is given by:

E= Judx)
and a similar expression must be used for a variable moment.
Now recall what you know about energy. Although energy is manifested in many
forms (nuclear; chemical; solar; thermal are just four examples), we shall consider in
this programme only those forms of energy relating to Dynamics. First define energy,
and then state the three forms of energy relevant to dynamics. By way of a reminder,
in Programme 1, examples were given of a hydro-electric power station, a wind-driven
generator, and a bow and arrow.

222
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

3
Energy is the ability to do work. It is the property possessed by
a body or a system when work has been done on it. Because it is
interchangeable with work, it is measured in the same unit, i.e.
the joule.
In Dynamics, we are concerned with:
(a) potential energy (by virtue of position above an arbitrary datum)
(b) kinetic energy (by virtue of motion)
(c) strain energy (by virtue of deformation of an elastic body)

The energy possessed by a body is determined by a calculation of the work required

to be done on it to bring it to its particular state. So write down, if you can, the
formulae appropriate to the following.
(a) The potential energy (Epot) of a body of mass m a vertical height h above a datum
is ...
(b) The kinetic energy (Ekin) of a body of mass m moving with velocity u is ...
(c) The kinetic energy of a body having a moment of inertia J, turning with an
angular velocity w is ...

4
Epot = mgh;

You should remember that a body can have both translation and rotational kinetic
energy. A body moving with a linear velocity has kinetic energy. Also, a wheel rotating
about a fixed axis has kinetic energy, even though it is not moving bodily. A wheel
rolling along a track has more kinetic energy than the same wheel turning at the
same angular speed about a fixed axis, because it possesses both translational and
rotational energy.
An energy balance equation is always used as a basis for solving problems using
the principle of energy. Thus, for a body, or a system:

Initial energy + energy gained -energy lost = final energy

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 DYNAMICS

5
You need to have a clear understanding of translational kinetic energy (!mu 2 ) and
rotational kinetic energy (! Iw 2 ). As an illustration, consider a vehicle with wheels,
which rolls along a straight track.
Let the total mass of the vehicle including wheels be m
Let the total moment of inertia of all wheels be I"'
Let the wheel rolling radius (i.e. the radius of the rim in contact with the ground) be R
Let the linear velocity of the vehicle be u
Then the wheel angular velocity w = uj R
Because of the linear velocity u, the vehicle will have kinetic energy Ekinl given by:

This energy includes that of the wheels, also moving with velocity u, but does not
include the additional energy due to rotation of the wheels. Call this Ek; 02 .

Ekin2 =!I wW 2 = !J w(uj R) 2

total kinetic energy= !mu 2 + !J"'(u/ R) 2
=!u 2 (m+Iw/R 2 )

We may call the term (m+IwfR 2 ) the effective mass mE of the wheeled vehicle. So
when calculating the kinetic energy of a vehicle with rotating parts, the effective mass
should be used, not the true mass. If there are several wheels of different radii, the
effective mass of each should be determined, and the total evaluated. However, in
elementary work, for example Programme 6 of this text, this is often neglected, in
the interests of simplicity.
If the vehicle ascends or descends a slope, there is a change of potential energy,
Epot· Potential energy represents work done against, or by gravity. As such, it is
calculated by the product of weight and vertical height change, h. Thus:

Epot = (mg)h

and here, m is the true mass of the vehicle, not the effective mass. It takes exactly the
same amount of work to lift a wheel of weight 400 N a height of 1 metre whether the
wheel is spinning or not.
Answer this question. Two vehicles start from rest down the same incline, at the
same instant. The vehicles have the same total mass, but the total moment of inertia
of the wheels of vehicle A is greater than that of vehicle B. Which will reach the foot
of the incline first? Neglect any resistance to motion.

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 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

6
IVehicle B
Both A and B lose the same potential energy. Therefore both gain the same kinetic
energy. Because A has the greater effective mass, it must have a lesser velocity: hence
it must travel slower.
An interesting dynamic toy consists of two small cylinders. They are exactly the
same weight, and of exactly equal dimensions. One is painted black, and the other
white. When placed at the top of an inclined plane and allowed to roll down, it is
found that the white one always reaches the foot of the plane before the other. Why
is this? A clue to the explanation is the paint.

7
The white one is made of solid steel. The black one is made of
brass. Because brass has a greater density than steel, the brass
one is bored out in the centre, and the ends plugged, the boring
adjusted to make both cylinders the same weight. The paint disguises
the fact that the cylinders are of different materials. The brass
cylinder has the greater moment of inertia, and hence the greater
effective mass when rolling.

Example. A train has a total mass of 300 tonnes, and the effective mass of the
rotating parts is 25 tonnes. It is driven by a constant tractive force of 28 kN.
Resistance to motion due to air and other sources may be assumed to be a constant
force of 4500 N. It begins to ascend a slope of sin- 1 0.01 at a speed of 30 m s- 1 .
Calculate the speed after it has travelled 100m up the incline.
This is revision work, and you ought to be able to solve it without help. The answer
is 29.94 m s - 1, and the working follows in Frame 8. To start you off, here is the
Energy Equation applicable to this problem.

Initial energy (Ekin) +work done by tractive force- work done to friction
=final energy (Ekin +gain of Ep01 )

and a reminder that potential energy change is calculated on the vertical height change.

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 DYNAMICS

8
(mE is the effective total mass including wheels)
=-!X 325 000 X (30) 2 = 146.25 MJ
Work by tractive force = F x x
= 28 000 X 100 = 2.8 MJ
work to friction = Fr X X

= 4500 X 100 = 0.45 MJ

Final potential energy Epot = mgh

h is the vertical height. The sine of the slope angle is 0.01.

h = 100 X 0.01
Epot = 300000 X 9.81 X (100 X 0.01) = 2.943 MJ
Final kinetic energy Ekin = -!mv 2
=-! x 325000 v 2 = (0.1625 v2 ) MJ
Substituting in the equation (putting all terms in MJ):

146.25 + 2.8-0.45 = 2.943 + 0.1625 v 2

v2 = 896.34
v = 29.94 m s- 1

If you failed to get the correct answer, you probably made the mistake of confusing
actual total mass with effective mass. The effective mass is used in calculating kinetic
energy, but the true mass must be used when determining changes of potential energy.
Now write down a definition of power. State the units in which it is measured.

9
Power is the rate of doing work, or work done per second.
The unit is the newton metre per second, called the watt.

Example. Calculate the power output of(a) a car travelling at 25m s-1, exerting
a constant tractive force of 1100 N; (b) an electric motor delivering a torque of
2.75 N m at a speed of 2950 rev /min.
The answers are: (a) 27.5 kW; (b) 849.5 W. The working follows.

226
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

10
(a) Work done per second = force x distance per second
= force x velocity
W = 1100 X 25
=27.5 kW

(b) Work done per second= torque x angular displacement per second
=torque x angular velocity
W = 2.75 X (2950 X 2nj60)
=849.5 w
Always remember that the use of an energy equation is very often an alternative
way of solving a dynamic problem. The example of Frame 7 could have been solved
by calculating the acceleration of the train, using an equation of motion, and then
applying a kinematic equation.
Some revision problems follow. Frame 11 consists of energy problems and Frame 12
two problems on power.

11
PROBLEMS

1. A body of mass m ascends an inclined plane of slope 15° with initial velocity
12 m s - 1 • The coefficient of friction between the body and the plane is 0.1. How
far up the plane will it travel before coming to rest? How fast will it be moving
when it returns to its starting-point? [Ans. 20.65 m; 8.Jl m s- 1. ]
2. A truck begins to ascend a slope of 12 o with an initial velocity of 5 m s- 1 . How
far up the slope does it travel before the speed is reduced to 1.2 m s - 1 , assuming
that there is a constant resistance to motion of one-fiftieth of the weight of the
body? [Ans. 5.269 m.]
3. A ballistic pendulum consists of a box filled with sand, suspended by four strings
of equal length 2.4 m, attached to four corners of the box. When the box hangs,
the four strings are parallel, so that the box can swing sideways without rotating.
The total mass of box and sand is 12.5 kg. A bullet of mass 0.08 kg is fired
horizontally into the box, and is retained in the sand. The impact causes the box
to move sideways and upwards, so that the strings make a maximum angle of 19°
to the vertical. Assuming that 99.9% of the initial energy of the bullet is dissipated
in the sand at impact, calculate the initial velocity of the bullet. [Ans. 635.15 m s- 1.)

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 DYNAMICS

12
PROBLEMS

1. A car engine is capable of a constant power output of 60 kW. The total mass of
the car is 1150 kg. Calculate the steady speed at which it could ascend a slope of
7o against a constant resistance of 375 N, assuming a transmission efficiency of
75%. Neglect the inertia of the wheels. [Ans. 25.72 m s- 1.]
Hint: write an energy equation for a period of 1 second.
2. A small generator is driven by a water turbine fed from a tank, the surface level
of which is at a constant height of 12 m above the generator. The flow of water
is constant at 50 m 3 per hour. The generator delivers electricity at a rate of
1 kilowatt. The overall efficiency of turbine and generator combined may be
assumed to be 63%. After passing through the generator, the water discharges
through an exit pipe at the same level, to waste. Estimate the velocity of the exit
flow. [Ans. 2.62 m s- 1.]
Hint: write an energy equation in terms of the mass of water flowing per second.

13
Strain energy offers a method of solution of certain problems which would otherwise
be very difficult to solve. An example is that of a load which is suddenly applied to
a member or a structure. If a crane driver, when lowering a load on to a floor,
miscalculates, and allows the load to drop on to the floor for the last few centimetres,
instead of lowering it very gently, the load on the floor is much greater than the
weight of the load, but there is no simple way of calculating the effect of the load by
using Newton's Laws. In some of the examples in this section, we shall find that the
magnifying effect of a falling load is often surprisingly and disturbingly high.
Strain energy is also employed by the engineering designer. An example is the
tailboard of a truck. The hinges of the tailboard are frequently fitted with springs.
This has two advantages. When the board is lowered, it is much easier to control.
Instead of dropping heavily, with consequent damage, either to the board itself, or
to the operator, it can be lowered slowly with little controlling force. And when being
raised again, much less force is needed than would be required if no springs were
fitted. The strain energy contained in the springs is re-converted back to potential
energy.
Think of a few other examples.

228
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

14
Up-and-over garage doors; vehicle springs; tow-ropes
for vehicles and ships; buffers on trucks and
locomotives; aircraft arresters on carriers.

All these devices make use of strain energy. The first is similar to the tailboard of the
truck. The remaining examples are all devices for absorbing kinetic energy, and are
used in conjunction with other components which dissipate the energy absorbed. For
example, when a car passes over a stone or a pot-hole, the springs convert the kinetic
energy to strain energy. But this alone would result in the car vibrating uncomfortably
as the springs gave up the stored energy. Therefore shock absorbers are also included;
these have the function of dissipating the energy of the springs, converting it to thermal
energy in the fluid of the shock absorber.
All the devices listed employ springs. We shall continue by calculating the work
required to extend or compress a spring.

15
Force tf

-
x Compression

A spring of stiffness k (newtons per metre of compression or extension) is compressed

by a steadily-increasing force f If the compression is within the limit of proportionality,
the graph of force against compression will be a straight line, as shown. The work
done by a variable force f (see Frame 2) is J(f dx); this is the area under the graph.
So the strain energy, E. 1., will be:

Estr = tFx
where F is the final compressive force, and x the total compression. But F = kx.

The expression in this form allows the energy to be calculated in terms of stiffness
and compression.

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 DYNAMICS

16
Example. A buffer at the end of a horizontal track consists of two springs, each of
stiffness 1600 kN per metre of compression. A truck of mass 4150 kg moving at
1.4 m s- 1 collides with the buffers. Calculate the resulting maximum compression
of the buffers.
You can do this simple example yourself; just equate the kinetic energy of the truck
to the strain energy of the buffers. The answer is 50.4 mm.

17

t X 4150 X (1.4) 2 = t X (1600 X 1000 2)x 2

J(
X

4150 X (1.4) 2 )
x= 1600 x 2000 = 0.0504 m = 50.4 mm

You should understand that at the point of maximum compression, the truck will be
instantaneously at rest, and therefore the kinetic energy will be zero.
This problem, like many others, can be solved by using the equation of motion,
L.(f) = rna. Since we are dealing with a variable force, the methods of Programme 5
would need to be employed. Indeed, the example of Frame 33 in that programme is
similar to this, and it is interesting to see in that example that the integration required
actually results in an energy equation. It is clear that the solution using energy is
much simpler. But as we have seen elsewhere, the energy equation would not reveal
how long it takes for the buffers to compress. For this, we would require the method
of Frame 35, Programme 5.
You need to be constantly aware of the assumptions implicit in the methods used.
We said in Frame 15 that the spring compression is within the limit of proportionality;
that is to say, the graph of force against compression is a straight line. If this were
not so, the solution would be more difficult. Suppose for example that the buffer
springs could compress a maximum amount of 40 mm. The calculation above would
then tell us only that the buffers would compress by this amount, and the remaining
kinetic energy would be dissipated elsewhere (possibly by damaging the buffers). You
can easily calculate for yourself that for a maximum compression of 40 mm, the
maximum truck speed would have to be limited to 1.11 m s- 1 .

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 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

18
When a body falls vertically on to a spring, the problem is a little more difficult, as
potential energy also becomes a factor in the equation.

(a) (b)

When a weight of mass m falls vertically on to a spring of stiffness k, the spring will
compress by a greater amount than if the weight were just lowered on to the spring.
Diagram (a) above shows the body, being released from rest at a height h above the
top of the spring; (b) shows the spring at the point of maximum compression, which
we call~-
Write an energy equation, in words, relating the two states. Assume that the system
loses no energy.

19
Loss of potential energy = gain of strain energy

although the equation could be expressed in other ways. The important thing to note
is, that like the first example, when the spring is at maximum compression, the body
will be instantaneously at rest, and therefore, there will be no kinetic energy involved.
Substituting the algebraic symbols:

( 1)

Given the values of m, k and h, ~ can be calculated from this equation. So calculate
for yourself the maximum compression when a body of mass 0.5 kg falls from a height
of 50 mm on to a spring of stiffness 120 N m - 1 . The answer is 116.76 mm. Don't be
discouraged by the quadratic equation; just use the formula.

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 DYNAMICS

20
Substituting the values given:

0.5g(0.05 + M =!X 120 XL\ 2

60L\ 2 - 0.5gL\ - 0.025g = 0

Dividing both sides by the coefficient of L\ 2 :

L\ 2 - 0.08175{\- 0.0040875 = 0

The solution to the quadratic equation is:

L\ = !(0.08175) ± J {(0.08175) 2 - 4 X 1 X ( -0.0040875)}

= 0.040875 ± tJ(0.006683 + 0.01635)

= 0.040875 ± 0.07588
= 0.11676 m
L\ = 116.76 mm

The mere static weight of a mass of 0.5 kg would cause the spring to compress by
40.875 mm. You can see that this figure is the term outside the square root in the
solution above. The quantity within the square root is the additional compression of
the spring resulting from dropping the weight, as distinct from just lowering it.
The alternative negative solution to the equation was rejected, but it does have a
physical significance. If the weight were to fall on to the spring and become attached
to it, the spring would expand again after maximum compression, and this negative
answer indicates the maximum extension that would result.

21
If you take equation ( 1) of Frame 17, and solve the quadratic equation in L\ exactly
as we have just done in the previous frame, you should have no difficulty in proving
that the general expression for L\ is given by:

_ mg
Ll--+
k -
J{ (mg)
-
k
2
+--
2mgh}
k

and if you substitute the values given in the example, you will obtain the same result
as before.
This general expression for L\ gives an interesting result for a value of h = 0.
Determine this.

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 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

22
I When h = 0; A=
L.l 2mkg I
•

This result may be surprising; one might expect that the result of' dropping' a weight
from zero height is the same as just statically applying the weight. But of course, it
is not. If you were to lower a weight on to a spring until it just touches the top, and
were then to suddenly release it, the spring would compress to twice the amount it
would under the static weight only, and the weight would then oscillate up and down
about the static compression point.
So far, we have considered maximum spring compression (or extension; exactly
the same analysis and result applies to a spring being extended). But now, let us think
about the velocity of the falling weight. To determine this, we need a more general
energy equation, considering the energy at the initial state (when the weight is a
height h above the top of the spring), and also at an instant when the spring has
compressed an amount x, where x is less than A, the maximum compression. Calling
the velocity of the weight v at this instant, try and write down this general equation.

23

or, in words:

Loss of potential energy = gain of strain energy + gain of kinetic energy

If values of m, k, h and x are given, the velocity v can be found by using this equation.
Use the same data as in Frame 19, and calculate the velocity when xis, say, 100 mm.
Your answer should be 0. 7369 m s- 1 .

24
0.5g(0.05 + 0.1) = 1 X 120 X (0.1 )2 + 1 X 0.5 v2

0.73575- 0.6)
v = )( 0. 25 = y'(0.543) = 0.7369 m s- 1

The velocity varies as the weight descends. How do we find the maximum velocity?

233
 DYNAMICS

25 The energy equation may be re-arranged to make v 2 the 'subject'. We then

differentiate v 2 with respect to the variable x. It is not necessary to differentiate v;
if v has a maximum value, so must v 2 •
You should be able to do this yourself. Take the algebraic equation of Frame 23;
don't substitute numbers. When you see the answer, you may also see that there was
a simpler way of arriving at it.

26
Re-arranging equation ( 1), Frame 23:

v 2 = 2g(h + x)- (klm)x 2 (2)

For maximum v 2 : d(v2) = 0

dx
2g- (klm)2x = 0
mg
X=-
k

We could have deduced this result without differentiating. At this value of x, the force
in the spring will be (kx) = mg, which is the magnitude of the weight. So at this
instant, the resultant force acting on the body will be zero; the downward weight is
balanced by the upward spring force. No resultant force means no acceleration. And
maximum (or minimum) velocity occurs when the acceleration is zero. For all values
of x greater than this, the upward spring force will be greater than the body weight,
and the weight begins to slow down.
See if you can show that for the data of Frame 19, the maximum velocity will be
l.l756 m s- 1 . The calculation is given in Frame 27.

27
x = mg I k = 0.5g I 120 = 0.040875 m

Substituting in equation (2), Frame 26:

v 2 = 2g(0.05 + 0.040875)- ( 12010.5)(0.040875) 2

= 1.78297- 0.40098
= 1.38199
Vmax= 1.1756 m S- 1

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 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

28
If we apply a force to a spring which already carries a load, the work done by the
additional force is still (! Fx ), where F is the maximum, or final value of the additional
force, and x is the additional extension or compression.

Xo
+ X ·I
It can be seen that the increase of strain energy-the area shaded under the
graph-is now (!Fx+F 0 x). How can the same amount of work done produce a
greater increase of strain energy? You can probably see how, if you think of a weight
of magnitude F 0 hanging from a spring. Here is a clue: Epot·

29
k k

!Fo+F
It can now be seen that applying the additional force results in a loss of potential
energy of the hanging weight. The energy balance equation is:

Initial energy (Epot + E 51 r) +work done= final energy (Estr)

work done = increase of strain energy -loss of potential energy
= shaded area under the graph - mgx
= F0 x + !Fx 2 - mgx
=!Fx 2
as it is clear that the initial force F 0 is the weight mg. Therefore:
When a load is applied to a spring, the spring behaves in the same manner, whether
it is unloaded, or carries a load.

235
 DYNAMICS

30
With this last statement in mind, look back to Frame 19, and answer this question.
A weight of mass 0.5 kg falls from a height of 50 mm on to a spring of stiffness
120 N per metre on which a body of mass 1 kg already rests. What will be the
additional maximum compression of the spring?
Refer also to Frame 20.

31
116.76 mm

The answer must be the same as the previous answer; the presence of the additional
1 kg weight does not affect the amount of additional deformation.
But the situation is quite different when the spring is pre-tensioned, or pre-
compressed, as distinct from pre-loaded.

-.F

The two diagrams show springs which have been strained by an amount x 0 and held
in the strained state. In diagram (a) the spring is pre-tensioned, and (b) pre-compressed.
This is quite different from a spring carrying an initial load. A force F applied to the
free end of the springs will produce no additional strain at all until F reaches the
value of the pre-load in the spring.
Assuming a value of k of 400 N m -1 , and an initial strain of x 0 = 0.1 m, calculate
the least value of force F to begin to strain the spring additionally, and calculate
what value of F would cause an additional stretch or compression of 0.05 m. Also
determine the work done by this extra force.
You should find that F must be at least 40 N, and that the final value must be
60 N. The work done is 2.5 J. The calculation follows.

236
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

32
A pre-strain of 0.1 m means that the initial load is (kx 0 ) = 40 N
The final total strain of the spring is (0.1 + 0.05) = 0.15 m
Hence the final spring is (400 x 0.15) = 60 N
Work done is average force x extra strain= (50 x 0.05) = 2.5 J

When a load is allowed to fall on to a spring which is pre-strained, the resulting

additional maximum deflection will be different from what it would be if the spring
just carried an initial load.
Example. A spring of stiffness 400 N m- l is pre-compressed by 0.1 m and held
between rigid plates, as shown. A body having a mass of 0.4 kg is held a height
h = 0.05 m above the plate attached to the top of the spring and allowed to fall
on to it. Calculate the resulting additional maximum compression, A, of the spring,
and the corresponding additional load.

The diagrams show the two states: before the weight falls, and the maximum spring
compression, shown as A. Write the energy equation applicable to the problem. Work
in algebra, calling the mass m, stiffness k, height h, compression A. Remember that
the spring will have initial strain energy. To start you off, here is the equation in words.

Loss of potential energy = increase of strain energy

33
and the equation is seen to be a quadratic in A, which can be solved if all the remaining
values are given. So substitute the values and show that A is 5.28 mm. As with the
example of Frame 20, take the positive solution only of the quadratic.

237
 DYNAMICS

34
mg(h + Ll) = !kx6 + !k x 2x 0 Ll + !kil 2 - !kx6
= kx 0 Ll + !kil 2
!kil 2 - Ll(mg- kx 0 ) - mgh = 0
Ll 2 - Ll(2mg/k- 2x 0 ) - 2mgh/k = 0

Substituting values:

Ll2 _ Ll(0.8g _ 0. 2 ) _ 2 X 0.4g X 0.05 = O

400 400
Ll 2 + 0.18038 Ll- 0.000981 = 0
Ll = t( -0.18038) ± tJ {(0.18038) 2 + 4 X 0.000981}
= -0.09019 ± 0.09547
=0.00528 m
Ll =5.28 mm

Using the same calculation as in Frames 19 and 20, you can prove for yourself that
if the same weight were to fall from the same height on to the same spring, this time
with no pre-compression, the resulting maximum deflection would be 42.63 mm.
The question arises: what amount of pre-compression would be necessary in order
that the falling weight produced no additional compression. Think about this for a
moment. The answer is simple when you realise that in all these calculations, we have
assumed that no energy is lost to the system.

35
There must always be a small additional compression, no matter
how small the weight, or the height from which it falls

If we assume no energy is lost, the loss of potential energy of the falling weight must
result in an increase of strain energy of the spring, which in turn must mean a further
compression.
Of course, in practice, some energy is dissipated, and lost to the system. If a weight
is dropped on to a plate, it will inevitably bounce to some extent; this itself means a
loss of kinetic energy, with the result that the increase of strain energy of the spring
will be less than the calculated amount.
A reminder: remember that in all these calculations we assume that the force-
deformation graph for the spring is a straight line.

238
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

36
Here is a summary of the work so far on strain energy.
Strain energy Estr in a spring of stiffness k (N m -l) extended or compressed an
amount x within the limit of proportionality is given by:

When a load falls on to a spring, the loss of potential energy of the weight is assumed
to be converted to strain energy and kinetic energy. It is assumed that no energy is
lost to the system.
When a load falls on to a spring, the kinetic energy will be zero when the spring
suffers maximum deformation: the strain energy is then equal to the loss of potential
energy.
When a load falls on to a spring which already carries a load, the additional spring
deformation can be calculated as if there were no initial load on the spring.
When a load falls on to a spring which is pre-strained, the additional maximum
deformation may be calculated by assuming the loss of potential energy to be equal
to the increase of strain energy.

37
All the work on springs, beginning at Frame 15, has assumed that the graph of load
against deformation (i.e. extension or compression) was a straight line. This was not
a mere matter of convenience, to make the work simple. A laboratory test on most
springs would show this linear relationship between load and deformation. When a
material, or a device exhibits this characteristic, it is said to conform to Hooke's Law.
You have probably come across Hooke's Law in work on Stress Analysis concerned
with the extension of a bar under a tensile load. There are limits to the validity of
assuming Hooke's Law. A spring can be loaded so much that all the coils are pressed
together, and the law then ceases to be valid. Also, when subjected to a tensile load,
the coils could be stretched so much that a graph of load against extension would
begin to depart from the straight line. The load at which this begins to occur is called
the Limit of Proportionality, and again the law would not apply. But in all the work
in this programme, it is to be assumed that the loads applied are within the limit of
proportionality.

239
 DYNAMICS

38

PROBLEMS

1. A spring of stiffness 1200 N m- 1 rests on a rigid surface with its axis vertical. A
body having a mass of0.9 kg falls on to the top ofthe spring from rest from a height h.
(a) Calculate the maximum instantaneous compression of the spring if h = 15 mm.
(b) Calculate what value of h would result in a maximum compression of the
spring of 40 mm.
In each case calculate the value of the Equivalent Static Load, i.e. the force which
would cause the same value of maximum compression. [Ans. (a) 23.94 mm;
28.73 N. (b) 68 mm; 48 N.]
2. A spring of stiffness 850 N m - 1 hangs vertically with a load of 12 kg hanging
from the lower end. A weight of 0.5 kg is held above the 12 kg load and dropped
on to it from a height of 50 mm. Assuming no loss of energy on impact, calculate
the resulting maximum force in the spring. [Ans. 143.63 N.]
Hint: solve as problem 1, and then add the weight of the 12 kg load (see Frame 29).
3. A load of 6 kg hangs vertically from the lower end of a spring of stiffness
1100 N m - 1 . The upper end of the spring is moving downwards at a steady speed
of 1.5 m s - 1 when it is suddenly brought to rest. Determine the resulting maximum
load in the spring. [Ans. 189.4 N.]
Hint: equate the kinetic energy to increase of strain energy -loss of potential
energy.
4. A spring of stiffness 1300 N m- 1 is pre-compressed by 15 mm and held between
rigid plates. A weight of 1 kg is held a height h above a plate connected to the top
of the spring, and released from rest.
(a) If h =50 mm, calculate the resulting instantaneous maximum force in the
spring.
(b) What value of h would result in an instantaneous maximum force in the spring
of 100 N?
[Ans. (a) 46.81 N. (b) 315.25 mm.]
Hint: see Frames 32 to 34.

240
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

39
In all the examples and problems so far on strain energy, we have dealt with springs.
But in this context, a spring is merely a component which conforms to Hooke's Law,
that is, it has a straight-line graph of force against deformation. So provided this
condition applies, we may use the same methods of calculation for any member or
structure which conforms to Hooke's Law. A steel bar under a tensile load; a beam
subject to a transverse load; a bridge; a building; provided that the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded, we may adopt the same methods of calculation to
determine the effects of suddenly applied loads. Of course, care is required in
determining stiffness. For example, the stiffness of a beam subject to a transverse load
is not a constant quantity: it depends on where the load is applied. In calculating the
stiffnesses of bars in tension and torsion, we shall have to trespass into Stress Analysis
theory. An example follows in Frame 40.

40
Example. A uniform steel bar has a length of 1.5 m and is 12.5 mm diameter. It is
mounted vertically with its upper end attached to a rigid mounting, and a light plate
attached to the lower end allows a weight to drop suddenly on to the bar. A weight
of 20 N is held 15 mm above the plate and released from rest. Calculate the resulting
maximum stress in the bar, and the value of the corresponding static load (the
Equivalent Static Load) which would produce the same value of stress. It may be
assumed that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded. Assume a value of E of
200 GN m- 2 for the bar material.
We are not given the stiffness of the bar, but can calculate it from simple Stress
Analysis theory. A load F on a bar produces an extension x given by:

FL
x=-
aE

where Land a are the length and cross-sectional area of the bar, and E is Young's
Modulus. Re-arranging:

F aE
X L

But F jx is of course the slope of the load-deformation graph, i.e. the stiffness, k. So,
begin your solution by calculating k. Watch your units; particularly the multiples of 10.

241
 DYNAMICS

41
k= a£= (n/4 X (12.5) 2 X 10- 6 ) X (200 X 10 9 ) = 16362 X 10 6 N m-1
L 1.5

Perhaps you arrived at this figure and thought it must be wrong, being so large. But
of course, a steel bar will have a much greater stiffness than a spring, and the figure
is not unreasonable.
Now you have a value for k, you can use the same energy equation we used in
Frame 19. This was:
mg(h + M = !kLl 2
Do this; substitute values and determine Ll. The value you should get is 0.1927 mm.

42
Working is easier if we re-arrange the quadratic in Ll with the coefficient of Ll 2 equal
to 1:

Ll2- Ll(2:g)- 2~gh = 0

We can write the solution of the quadratic algebraically:

Ll = J{(2~g)
~( 2~g ± 2
+4 X 2~gh})
= (:g y 2:gh}
:g ± J{ +

=
20 J{(
16.362 X 10 6 +
20
16.362 X 10 6
) 2

+
2 X 20 X 15 X 10- 3
16.362 X 10 6
}

= 10- 6 (1.2223 + vf {1.4942 + 36670})

= 10- 6 (1.2223 + 191.5)
= 0.1927 x 10- 3 m

Ll = 0.1927 mm

As with earlier examples, we reject the alternative negative root. The resulting stress
a is simply determined:
LlE (0.1927 X 10- 3 ) X 200 X 10 9 6 _2 -2
a =- = 1.5 = 25.69 x 10 N m = 25.69 MN m
L
To complete, calculate the static force F eq required to produce this stress.

242
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

43

F eq = O"a = (25.69 x 10 6 )(n/4 X ( 12.5) 2 x lO - 6 ) = 3152.6 N

where O" = stress and a= area of cross-section.

This is the Equivalent Static Load that we have referred to earlier. When you recall
that the magnitude of the falling weight is 20 N, it is seen that the effect of dropping
this weight on to the bar from a height of a mere 15 mm has the effect of magnifying
the weight by a factor of about 158 times. It should come as no surprise that
engineering designers faced with the possibility of sudden loads, or shock-loads, allow
very generous safety-factors in their calculations.

44

A close look at the calculations in Frame 42 reveals the reason for such a high value
of stress, and also of equivalent static load. In Frame 19, we calculated the effect of
a weight of 0.5 kg falling on to a spring of stiffness 120 N m- 1 from a height of
50 mm. You can easily show that the resulting spring deformation of 116.76 mm
corresponds to an equivalent static load of 14.01 N. Since the weight of a mass of
0.5 kg is 4.905 N, the magnifying effect of dropping this load is about 2.5. The reason
for the much higher equivalent load in this case is seen to lie in the value of stiffness,
k. It is clear that the stiffer the spring, or bar, the greater is the stress, and the greater
the equivalent static load. A steel bar is obviously very much stiffer than a spring,
and for this reason, the damaging effect of a sudden load acting on it is likely to be
very much greater than a sudden load on a spring. This is, of course, the reason for
the inclusion of springs into places where shock-loads are to be expected: railway
buffers, for example.

243
 DYNAMICS

45
The previous problem was solved by calculating deflection A by solving the quadratic,
and from this, the stress was calculated. We could derive a formula which enables us
to calculate stress directly. Given that A = a L/ E, and that stiffness k of a bar is aE I L,
you can prove for yourself that the stress, a, can be determined directly from the
formula:

_mg
(1--+
a -
j{(mg)
- +---
a
2
2mghE}
aL

and this formula also shows clearly that the very high value of E is responsible for
the high stress arising in this particular case. Stiffness, k, is of course directly
proportional to E. This expression shows clearly that the term outside the root is the
stress resulting from the static weight of the falling body. In the example in Frame 42,
this component is almost negligible in comparison with the effect of the falling load.
The expression above also reveals the result of 'dropping' the weight from a height
ofzero, namely a stress exactly double the stress due to the static weight. We looked
at this effect on a spring in Frame 22.
Expressions such as the one above for stress offer a useful exercise in dimensions.
Show that all terms have dimensions of ML -IT- 2.

46
_force_ mass x acceleration_ M x L/T 2 _ _1 _ 2
a-area= L2 = L2 =ML T

mgja has the same units: a weight, or force divided by area.

Similarly, j{(mgja) 2} is dimensionally the same as mgja.

. .
D ImensJOns --;;c- are:
o fJ(2mghE)

J( (M)(LjT 2)(L)(M/LT 2))

(U)(L)
= J( M 2L) = ML -IT-2
T4 L 3
(Dimensions of E are those of stress, derived in the first line.)

Another and slightly less obvious aspect of the expression for stress in Frame 45
is that the length, L, is on the bottom line. So that, a larger value of L will reduce
the stress due to a sudden or shock load. If you think about it, this is right; a long
bar stretches more for the same load than does a short one. We make this the subject
of the next example.

244
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

47
Example. A tow-rope used for towing vessels can withstand a maximum safe load
of 75 kN. When a length of 1 metre of the rope is tested in a machine, it is seen
that a load of 1 kN causes an extension of 0.62 mm. In use, the rope connects a tug
to a stationary vessel. The tug has a mass of 45 tonnes, and the rope tightens
suddenly, while the tug is moving away at 2.5 m s- 1• Assuming all the kinetic
energy of the tug to be converted to strain energy in the tow-rope, calculate the
minimum length of the rope, if the maximum safe load is not to be exceeded.
Begin by calculating the kinetic energy of the tug. In this example, we shall not need
to determine the stiffness of the rope. We know that the maximum force in the rope
will be the maximum safe load. So we can use the expression for work done by a
force F extending an elastic rope by a distance x. Look back to Frame 15 if you
can't remember this. Then, equating work done to kinetic energy, you can calculate x.
This value of x is the stretch for the maximum allowable load of 75 kN. So from it,
calculate the extension for a load of 1 kN. And from this last figure, you should easily
be able to calculate the length of rope. The final answer should be 80.65 m. See if
you can get this answer without referring to the solution following.

48
! X 45 000 X (2.5) 2 =!X 75 000 X X

X= 6.25 X 45/75 = 3.75 m

Extension per kN of load= 3.75/75 = 0.05 m =50 mm

Given that 1 m of rope extends 0.62 mm per kN:

required length= 50/0.62 = 80.65 m

and if the rope were shorter than this, the kinetic energy of the tug would cause the
safe load to be exceeded. This is perhaps a pessimistic conclusion. What would
probably happen is, that as the rope tightens, the towed vessel would begin to move
also, so that when the rope is at maximum stretch, both vessels are moving. The
problem is actually one of momentum, and we shall undertake a more accurate
analysis in Programme 8. But it is worth remembering that in energy calculations of
this kind, it is not a bad procedure to assume no energy loss or dissipation, because
then, your solution is assuming the worst possible circumstances, which is always
sound practice in engineering design.

245
 DYNAMICS

49
Example. A load of 1 tonne is placed at a point on a horizontal steel beam and it
is observed that the resulting deflection due to this load is 3.65 mm. If the load is
then removed, and a load of 10 kg is dropped on to the beam at the same point
from a height of 10 mm above the beam, what will be the resulting maximum
deflection?
Apart from the circumstance that we are now considering a beam instead of a vertical
steel bar, the problem is essentially similar to the one set out in Frame 40. It is actually
simpler, as in this case, we do not have to use Stress Analysis theory to find the
stiffness; this can be very simply determined from the data in the first part of the
question.
So see if you can work through the complete problem yourself, first calculating the
Ll
stiffness, and then using the general expression for deflection which we set out in
Frame 21. The answer should be 0.8916 mm. The solution follows in Frame 50, but
obviously, it is much better for you to obtain the answer yourself, rather than merely
follow someone else's solution.

50
stiffness k = load ( 1OOOg) = 2.688 x 10 6 N m- 1
deformation 3.65 x 10 3

Ll = :g ± J{(:g) 2
+ 2:gh} (refer to Frame 21)

=
lOg
2.688 X 10 6 ±
j{( lOg
2.688 X 10 6
) 2

+
2 x lOg x 10 X 10- 3
2.688 X 10 6
}

= w- 6 (36.50 + J {1332 + 729 911})

= 891.6 X 10- 6 m
Ll = 0.8916 mm
The answer informs us that dropping a 10 kg load from a height of only 100 on to
the beam produces a deflection (and therefore a corresponding stress in the beam)
which is roughly one-quarter of the deflection produced by a static, or 'dead' load
of 1000 kg. This is another illustration of the tremendous capacity for damage of
falling, or suddenly-applied loads. In this case, the effect of dropping 10 mm has a
magnifying effect of approximately 25 times the weight of the load itself. If you have
ever watched a crane operator at work, you will have observed the great care with
which loads are very gently lowered on to the floor of a building. And of course, the
problem is reversed when a load is raised. Then, the sudden load acts on the crane
itself, and carelessness could result in the crane being pulled from its mounting.

246
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

51
It has been seen in all the examples how stiffness of a member is directly related to
the effects of sudden loads, or falling loads. The greater the stiffness, the worse the
effect of the load. When the effect of a sudden load is to be kept as small as possible,
then the stiffness must be kept low. In Frame 47, we find that the stiffness of a tow-rope
can be kept down by making the rope longer. It must be understood that this does
not increase the static strength of the rope, which remains the same; it merely makes
it more suitable to accept sudden loads. If you were to examine a tow-rope, or the
cable of a crane, you would see that it is made of a number of strands of wire, which
are wound spirally, around a core of hemp, or rope. This is not merely to make the
cable flexible, but to make it less stiff; winding on a spiral makes it more like a spring.
Sometimes, a prudent car driver towing a vehicle will insert a spring in the rope itself,
to minimise the chance of the rope breaking, or a bumper being torn off, due to a
sudden start. If you take a piece of fairly thin string, and wrap it around both hands,
you could break it by pulling your two hands smartly apart. But if you were to insert
a spring in the string, you would find it quite impossible to break the string this way.

247
 DYNAMICS

52
PROBLEMS

1. A truck having a mass of 22 tonnes runs on a rail, and is brought to rest from a
speed of 1.8 m s - 1 by spring buffers which have a total stiffness of 300 kN per
metre. Calculate the value of the equivalent static load (the force which would
cause the same maximum compression of the buffers (a) if the rail is horizontal;
(b) if the rail slopes down at an angle of 2o to the buffers. [Ans. (a) 146.23 kN;
(b) 153.96 kN.]
Hint: for (b) there is also a loss of potential energy.
2. The cable of a crane has a stiffness per metre length of 2 MN per metre. It is
lowering a load of 4500 Nat constant velocity of 2m s- 1 when the rope is suddenly
stopped. The length of cable extended at this instant is 6 metres. Calculate the
value of the equivalent static load which would produce the same maximum
extension of the cable. [Ans. 29.23 kN.]
3. A horizontal steel cantilever supports a load at its free end of 1.5 kN. The load
causes a static deflection at this point of 4.22 mm. If the maximum safe load at
this point is 5 kN, calculate from what height above the cantilever a weight of
20 N may be allowed to fall on to the cantilever at the same point, (a) with the
1.5 kN load removed; (b) with the 1.5 kN load still in place. [Ans. (a) 1.7443 m;
(b) 0.8517 m.]
Hints: see Frame 28 et seq. Calculate the maximum allowable deflection (i.e. for
a load of 5 kN); this is then L1. For (b) reduce this by the 4.22 mm initial deflection.
4. Show that when a uniform bar is subjected to a tensile stress (J which is within
the Limit of Proportionality, the strain energy in the bar, £ 51 " is given by:

(J2

Estr = 2E x volume of bar

Two steel bars are each 1 m long. Bar A is 10 mm diameter for the whole of its
length. Bar B is 10 mm diameter for half its length and 20 mm diameter for the
remaining half. The maximum permissible stress in the material is 30 MN m- 2 •
Show that when the bars are subjected to the maximum permissible tensile load,
the work done on bar A is 1.6 times that done on bar B. If a load W is allowed
to fall from a height of 20 mm, show that if the maximum stress is not to be
exceeded, the value of W for A will be 8.77 N, and for B, 5.50 N. Take a value
of 200 x 10 9 N m- 2 for E.
Hints: the first part of the problem may be solved algebraically, calling the area
of bar A a, and calculating the area and corresponding stress in the larger half of
the bar B.

248
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

53
In the final part of this programme, we shall look at some situations in which the
energy equation is not so simple to derive, or so easy to solve. Look at this, for a start.

A body is constrained to slide along a frictionless vertical rod, and a spring, anchored
at one end, is attached to the body. We shall assume that initially, the spring is
horizontal, and just unstrained. Clearly, when the body is released, the spring will be
stretched, and eventually, the body will be brought to rest. We shall determine how
far the body falls, and also the maximum speed of its fall.
Imagine the body to fall a distance h, as shown, causing the spring to stretch by
an amount x. Begin by deriving expressions for h and x in terms of the angle and e
the distance a. The first is simple; the second, not quite so simple. The triangle drawn
by the diagram will help.

54
It is clear that h = a tan e
The length of the hypotenuse is (a + x)
X= a sec 8- a
=a(sec8-1)

Potential energy can be expressed in terms of h, and strain energy can be expressed
in terms of x. If we call the velocity at this point v, we can write the energy equation.
Try to do this yourself before turning to Frame 55. Begin (as you ought to begin
every energy equation) by writing it in words first.

249
 DYNAMICS

55
Loss of potential energy = gain of strain energy + gain of kinetic energy
mgh = tkx 2 + tmv 2

Don't be concerned if your wording of the equation wasn't exactly as it is given here;
just make sure that the meanings are the same. For example, you may have written
something like:

Initial energy (Epot) =final energy (Ekin + Estr)

which of course is exactly the same.

We can now substitute for h and x:

(1)

If we begin by determining how far the body will fall, what is the first thing to do
with this equation?

56
I We must write, velocity v = 0 I
At this point, let's put in some actual values. Take values of m = 4.2 kg, k = 400 N m- 1,
and a= 0.75 m. Of course, v = 0.

4.2g(0.75 tan 8) = t x 400 x (0.75) 2 (sec 8 -1) 2

The equation will be slightly easier to handle if we put all the numerical terms to
one side, and the 'trig' terms to the other:

tan 8 = t x 400 x (0.75) 2 = 3.6406

(sec 8 -1) 2 4.2 x 9.81 x 0.75

There is no simple mathematical solution to this equation; we resort either to

plotting or to a process of trial and error. With a programmable calculator, this latter
process is not difficult. But to save you trouble at this stage, verify for yourself that
a value of 8 = 50.7r will satisfy the equation. It is also left to you to show that this
corresponds to a value of h = 0.917 m.

250
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

57
Suppose we now wish to determine the maximum speed at which the body falls. Then,
we can go back to equation ( 1), Frame 55 and re-arrange it to make v the 'subject'.
We can then differentiate v with respect to (), which is the condition for maximum
or minimum. Actually, we do not need to go quite so far as this; we can leave the
'subject' as v 2 • If v has a maximum value, then so must v2 , and we can therefore
differentiate v 2 with respect to e.
See if you can show that the general equation can be written:

v 2 = 14.715 tan()- 53.57 (sec()- 1)2

and if you can, continue by differentiating this, to find the condition for maximum
v 2 • You ought to be able to prove that:

tan()- sin()= 0.1373

58
Here is the working.
From equation ( 1) of Frame 55, re-arranging and substituting the given values:

t x 4.2v 2 = 4.2g x 0.75 tan()- t x 400 x (0.75) 2 (sec ()- 1) 2

Dividing all terms by the coefficient of v2 reduces the equation to:

v 2 = 14.715 tan f)- 53.57 (sec()- 1) 2

Differentiating:

d(v 2 )
de= 14.715 sec 2 f)- 53.57 x 2(sec ()- 1) (sec() tan())

Equating to zero (for maximum v2 ), re-arranging and cancelling sec() gives:

14.715 sec()= 107.14(sec{)-1) tanfJ

and bringing the arithmetical terms to one side and the trig. terms to the other:

0.1373 =tan f)- tan f) cos f)

= tan f) - sin ()

251
 DYNAMICS

59
Although the final equation of Frame 58 could be reduced to a quadratic in sin 0, it
is simpler to solve by trial and error, and you can do this, or just check for yourself
that a value of e= 35.89° is a satisfactory solution to the equation. You can complete
the solution by substituting this value of e in the expression for v2 in the previous
frame, and thus showing that the maximum velocity vmax is 2.776 m s- 1.
Now complete the work on this example, firstly, by taking e = 50.72° and showing
that the energy equation balances, assuming kinetic energy to be zero; and secondly,
by taking 0 = 35.89° and checking again that the energy equation balances. If your
equations don't balance, check against the work in Frame 60.

60
Taking e= 50.72° (the condition for maximum displacement):
h = 0.75 tan 50.72° = 0.917 m
x = 0.75(sec 50.72°- 1) = 0.4346 m

Epot = mgh = 4.2 X 9.81 X 0.917 = 37.78 J

Estr = 1kx 2 = 1 X 400 X (0.4346) 2 = 37.38 J
loss of Epot =gain of Estr

Taking e= 35.89° (the condition for maximum velocity):

V~ax = 14.715 tan 35.89°- 53.57(sec 35.89° -1f = 7.7056
Vmax = 2.776 m S-l

h = 0.75 tan 35.89° = 0.5427 m

x = 0.75(sec 35.89°- 1) = 0.1758 m
Epot = mgh = 4.2 X 9.81 X 0.5427 = 22.36 J
Estr 1 X 400 X (0.1758) 2 = 6.18 J
= 1kx 2 =
Ekin = 1mv 2 = 1 X 4.2 X 7.7056 = 16.18 J

E pot = 22.36 J
Estr + Ekin = 6.18 + 16.18 = 22.36 J
loss of Epot =gain of Estr +gain of Ekin

The second calculation is based on a potential datum which is 0.3743 m higher

than the first. Relative to the first datum, the additional potential energy ts
(4.2 x 9.81 x 0.3743) = 15.42 J. This accounts for the difference of the two totals.

252
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

61

With the previous example as a guide, you ought to be able to complete this next
one without help. Follow the same procedure, and particularly note that you are not
required to determine the significant values of the angle 8, but merely to verify that
the values stated satisfy the appropriate equation. A brief solution of the problem
follows in Frame 62.
Example.

a a

Two springs, each of stiffness k = 1200 N m- 1 are joined, and the outer ends
attached to two fixed mountings so that initially, they are horizontal and unstrained,
the initial length of each spring being a = 2.4 m. A weight of mass m = 65 kg is
held vertically above the centre-point a vertical height h = 0.5 m and is released
from rest. When it strikes the springs, it remains attached and does not rebound.
The lines of the springs deflect an angle () from the horizontal, as shown in the
diagram. Using an energy equation, show that when () = 50.04 °, the weight will
have a maximum displacement of 2.864 m. Also show, by calculating the forces
acting on the weight, that a value of() = 33.5r corresponds to a maximum velocity
of the falling weight of magnitude 5. 704 m s- 1 . Assume that the springs are not
extended beyond the limit of proportionality.
The reference to calculating forces should remind you of Frame 26. At maximum
velocity, the acceleration (which of course is dv/dt) must be zero, which means that
the resultant force on the body at this instant must also be zero.

253
 DYNAMICS

62
For()= 50.04°:
Distance weight falls = h + a tan () = 0.5 + 2.4 tan 50.04 o = 3.364 m
Epot = mgh = 65 X 9.81 X 3.364 = 2145 J
Spring extension x = 2.4( sec 50.04 o- 1) = 1.337 m
Estr =2 X !kx 2 = 1200 X ( 1.337) 2 = 2145 J
no Ekin• i.e. maximum displacement
For()= 33.5r:
x = 2.4( sec 33.57°- 1) = 0.4804 m
spring force F = kx = 1200 x 0.4804 = 576.5 N
nett force on body= mg- 2F sin()
= 65 x 9.81-2 x 576.5 sin 33.57o = 0.09 N ~ 0
Energy equation:
mgh = 2 x tkx 2 + tmv 2
65g(0.5 + 2.4 tan 33.57°) = 1200 x (0.4804) 2 + t x 65v 2
Vmax = 5.704 m S-l

Frame 63, which consists of four problems, completes the programme.

63 PROBLEMS

I· 2m ·I
o~m

(a) (b) (c)

1. Figure (a) above illustrates a truck of mass 900 kg which rests on a frictionless
inclined plane of slope 30°. It is connected to an elastic spring of stiffness
k = 4 kN m- 1 which is anchored at its upper end and is initially vertical, unstrained,
and 3 m in length, when the truck is at rest at the top of the incline. Show that if
the truck is released from this position, it will descend a maximum distance of
3. 787 m down the slope before coming to rest.

254
 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Hint: use the Cosine formula to solve the triangle abc; hence determine the spring
extension and show that Epot +E.,,.
2. In problem 1, show that when the truck has descended a distance of 2.0175 m
down the slope, its velocity will be at maximum value, and calculate this value.
[Ans. 3.378 m s- 1.]
Hints: solve the triangle as for problem 1; calculate the corresponding spring force,
and show that there is no resultant force acting on the truck. Then Epot =E.,,+ Ekin·
3. In figure (b) opposite, a swing door hinged at one side is shown. The mass of the
door is 350 kg, it is 2.2 m long, and may be considered as a uniform bar rotating
about one end. When horizontal, the door is partially restrained by a spring of
stiffness k which is attached to the door at a point 0.8 m from the hinge, and to
a fixed anchorage 1.2 m vertically above the hinge. In the position shown, the
spring is unstrained. The door is released from rest in the horizontal position.
Calculate the required value of kin order that the door will just reach the vertical
position as it comes to rest. For this spring stiffness, show that the maximum
angular velocity of the door will occur when it has descended through an angle
of 27.35° from the horizontal, and calculate this velocity. [Ans. 24 279 N m- 1 ;
1.674 rad s- 1.]
Hints: fully-stretched spring is clearly 2 m long; unstretched length is simply
calculated, as the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. For second part, use Sine
formula to solve triangle.
4. In figure (c) opposite, a simple 'up-and-over' door is shown, which may be
considered as a uniform bar of length 2 m and mass 160 kg. It is attached to the
hinge at 0 by a light rigid rod l m long. A spring of stiffness 4 kN m - l is attached
to the mid-point of this rod and to a fixed anchorage as shown. The door is pulled
down manually, anti-clockwise, through 90° and locked in the vertical position.
Calculate the required pre-load in the spring in order that, when released from
the closed position, the door reaches the horizontal open position with an angular
velocity of 1 rad s - 1 • [Ans. 1477 N.]
Hints: calculate the increase of spring stretch from geometry of figure (0.618 m).
Initial E.,,= gain of Epot +gain of Ekin· Calculate I with respect to axis through 0
using the Parallel Axis theorem. For a spring with a pre-load, refer to Frame 31.

255
Programme 8

MOMENTUM

257
 DYNAMICS

1
This programme begins with a summary of what has already been covered in
Programme 1 on Momentum and we shall examine some problems which need a
little more ingenuity to solve. We shall introduce and define the Coefficient of
Restitution. Then Angular Momentum will be defined and discussed, and the results
of 'collision' of two rotating systems, or one rotating and one translating system.
This will require a close investigation into the principle of Conservation of Angular
Momentum, and an explanation will be required for this principle apparently failing
to apply to certain situations. We shall look at some examples which emphasise the
vector aspect of momentum, and finally, we shall examine the effect of an impulsive
blow on a single body which rotates, or which simultaneously rotates and translates.
Without looking back, answer these three simple questions.
1. A body of mass m having a velocity u has momentum of magnitude ...
2. A body of mass m, having initial velocity u and final velocity v suffers a change of
momentum of ...
3. Change of momentum in unit time (i.e. rate of change of momentum) is ...

2
t. mu; 2. mv-mu=m(v-u); 3. force

and if by chance, your answer to 2. was mu - mv, then this is wrong. The change is
always the final value minus the initial value.
We showed in Programme 1 that force= rate of change of momentum. This may
be written as follows:

f = fd(mu)
dt

which may be written:

I (f dt) = mv - mu

and the quantity J(f dt ), the time-integral of force, is called the impulse. This term
is useful in cases of sudden blows, such as hammer-blows, or forces experienced
when bodies collide.

258
 MOMENTUM

3
The Conservation of Momentum is a principle which follows from the definition of
momentum. If force= rate of change of momentum, then if no force acts on a body,
it cannot experience a change of momentum. A more familiar way to express this is,
that change of momentum must be the result of the action of an external force. This
is Newton's Second Law stated another way. The word 'external' becomes important
when we begin to consider systems instead of a single body.
Consider a 'system' of two bodies. If they collide, the force between them due to
the collision is an internal force, and thus cannot affect the total momentum of the
two bodies, although the momentum of each single body may change.
Consider an explosive shell moving at high speed. When it explodes, it is an internal
force which blows the shell into many fragments which all move off at different speeds
in various directions. But this principle tells us that the total momentum remains
unaltered; thus, the centre of mass of the various fragments continues along the same
path, at the same speed, as the whole shell did before the explosion.

4
The principle of Conservation of Momentum makes no pronouncement about energy,
and must not be confused with the principle of Conservation of Energy. When two
bodies collide, the Conservation of Energy applies, as always. But frequently, we
cannot make use of this, because we may be unable to calculate some of the energy
involved. If a bullet is shot into a sandbag, although we know that a great deal of
the initial kinetic energy is converted to heat in the sand, we have no direct way of
calculating this; all we can be certain of is, that the final kinetic energy of the system
(bullet and sandbag) is much less than the initial. An energy balance equation cannot
be used. Similarly, it is highly probably that the total kinetic energy of the fragments
of an exploding shell will be much greater than the initial energy of the whole shell.
But we don't know by how much. Again, an energy balance equation cannot be used.
You should not forget that momentum, because it is a function of velocity, is a
vector, whereas energy is not. Two bodies of equal mass, moving in opposite directions
at the same speed, and colliding, have a total momentum of zero, both before and
after collision. This is true whether they remain together, and bring each other to a
stop, or whether they rebound with the same velocity. The kinetic energy lost will
be total in the first case, and zero in the second.

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 DYNAMICS

5
Here is a revision example which you ought to be able to solve.
Example. A body of mass 20 kg moving at 4 m s- 1 along a straight track collides
with a body of mass 30 kg moving at 2 m s- 1 in the opposite direction. Calculate
the final velocities of the two bodies, (a) assuming that they remain together
after collision; (b) assuming that no kinetic energy is lost to the system on collision.
In solving part (a) you ought to be able to show for yourself that the two bodies
move together at 0.4 m s - 1 in the direction of the first body. For part (b), you will
be able to produce two equations: call the two unknown velocities v 1 and v 2 • The
first equation is obtained from the Conservation of Momentum, and the second from
the Conservation of Energy. The solution of the pair of simultaneous equations
should give you the results that v 1 is -3.2 m s- 1 and v 2 is + 2.8 m s - 1 . An abbreviated
solution follows in Frame 6.

6
Part (a) Calling the common final velocity v, the momentum equation is:

20 X 4 + 30 X ( -2) = (20 + 30) XV

which can be simplified to:

80-60 = 50v
v= +0.4 m s- 1

Part (b)
Momentum:

20 X 4 X 30 X ( - 2) = 20v 1 + 30v 2
which can be simplified to:

(1)

Energy:

! X 20 X (4) 2 +!X 30 X (2) 2 = !20vf +!X 30v~

which can be simplified to:

2vf + 3v~ = 44 (2)

We can re-arrange equation (1) to give:

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 MOMENTUM

and we substitute this into equation (2):

This can be simplified to the quadratic:

vf-0.8v 1 -12.8=0

which gives the two solutions:

v 1 = +4.0 or -3.2

The first solution is the original velocity, so we adopt the second. Substituting
v 1 = -3.2 into equation ( 1) gives a value of v 2 = + 2.8

v 1 = 3.2 m s- 1 in reverse direction: v2 = 2.8 m s - 1 also reversed

We shall find later that there is a simpler method for solving this second part.

7
We used the term 'impulse' in Frame 2. The equation of Conservation of Momentum
is obtained by eliminating the impulse when two bodies collide, but it can be interesting
to make an approximate calculation of the order of force in a typical impulsive blow.
For an example, let us consider striking a golf ball with a club. A golf ball has a
mass of approximately 0.045 kg. When driven off from a tee, we may assume that it
attains a velocity of approximately 60 m s- 1 . The length of time that the ball is in
contact with the club is speculative. Modern instrumentation, or high-speed photography
could determine this reasonably accurately, but for this example, let us assume that
the contact-time is one-thousandth of a second. Since impulse= change of momentum:

impulse= m(v- u) = 0.045(60- 0) = 2.7 kg m s- t

Although this change of momentum seems a very modest figure, if we recall that it
takes place in 0.001 seconds, the average force F av is given by:

Impulse= Fav x time= Fav x 0.001 = 2.7

Fav = 2700 N

A reasonable assumption would be, that the maximum value of the force would be
approximately twice this figure, i.e. 5400 N. Reverting to old-style Imperial units for
a moment, the ball is subjected to a force of about half a ton!

261
 DYNAMICS

8
When two bodies collide, we can determine something about the nature ofthe collision
by finding the Coefficient of Restitution. During collision, bodies deform to some
extent, and this coefficient is an index of the degree to which they recover from this
deformation. ('Restitution' means recovery.) If for example, two billiard-balls collide,
we expect that the recovery of any deformation is very high; if you examine a
billiard-ball, you would have difficulty in finding obvious signs of distortion. This
suggests a high value of Coefficient of Restitution. On the other hand, the impact of
a billiard-ball on a wooden surface would involve quite a high degree of deformation;
one should not make a regular habit of dropping billiard-balls on to polished-table
tops. In such a case, a low value of Coefficient of Restitution would be expected.
Quantitatively, the Coefficient of Restitution (denoted by e) is defined as the ratio of
the relative velocity of separation to the relative velocity of approach:

relative velocity of separation v 2 - v 1

- e= = -=---=-
relative velocity of approach u2 - u1

and you should particularly note the negative sign before e. When bodies collide and
rebound, the relative separation and approach velocities must clearly be in opposite
directions, and this is recognised by including the negative sign.

9
The Coefficient of Restitution, e, can be determined only by experiment, and various
values can be found in data-tables and books. When e = 1, there is no deformation
which is not fully recovered, and hence no kinetic energy loss to the system when
bodies collide. Such a collision is called a perfectly elastic collision. When e has the
lowest possible value of 0, colliding bodies remain in contact after collision, and the
collision is said to be perfectly plastic. This does not mean that all the kinetic energy
is necessarily lost to the system, as some examples will show later.
Example. Two steel balls, each having a mass of 0.4 kg, collide on a straight
frictionless track. Ball A has an initial velocity of 1.5 m s- 1, and ball B is initially
stationary. Calculate the velocities of both balls after collision (a) if e = 1; (b) if
e = 0.9. Calculate the loss of kinetic energy to the system in both cases.
The solution of this example follows in the next frame.

262
 MOMENTUM

10
For two bodies of masses m 1 , m 2 in collision, Conservation of Momentum gives:

Substituting values: 0.4 x 1.5 + 0 = 0.4v 1 + 0.4v 2

(1)

Substituting values given in the Restitution equation of Frame 8:

-1=v2-vl=v2-vl
u 2 -u 1 0-1.5
v 2 -v 1 =1.5 (2)

Adding the equations: 2v 2 = 3

v2 =1.5ms- 1
Substituting in equation (1 ): v 1 = 0
A calculation of energy is unnecessary. It is clear that all the kinetic energy is transferred
from A to B.
Part (b) Momentum: substituting terms results in the same equation ( 1) as before.
Restitution:

-0.9 = v2- vl
0-1.5
(1)

Adding the equations: 2v 2 = 2.85

v 2 = 1.425 m s-•

Substituting in equation (I) gives: v 1 = 0.075 m s- 1

Initial Ekin t = x 0.4( 1.5) 2 = 0.45 J

Final Ekin = t x 0.4(1.425) 2 +t x 0.4(0.075) 2
=0.40725 J
loss of Ekin = 0.04275 J

Now, with the above calculations as a guide, solve the example again, this time
taking the mass of A as 0.4 kg (as previously) but mass B as 0.8 kg. Answers: (a)
v1 = -0.5 m s- 1, v2 = + 1.0 m s- 1 ; (b) v1 = -0.4 m s- 1, v2 = +0.95 m s- 1. For
(a) and (b), equation (1) is v 1 + 2v 2 = 1.5, and equation (2) is (a): v 2 - v 1 = 1.5;
(b) v 2 - v 1 = 1.35. Energy loss for (b) is 0.075 J. The solution is not given.

263
 DYNAMICS

11
PROBLEMS

1. Two bodies, A and B, located on a straight frictionless track, collide. Initially, B

is stationary and A moves towards B with velocity u. The coefficient of restitution
for the collision is 1. Show that (a) if the masses are equal, the final velocity of B
is u, while A is brought to rest; (b) if the mass of B is three times that of A, both
bodies recoil with velocity !u.
2. Bodies A and B, respectively of mass 6 kg and 9 kg, collide on a straight level
track. Initially, A moves towards B at 2 m s - 1 and B moves towards A at 1 m s- 1 .
After collision, A recoils with a velocity of 1.24 m s- 1 . Determine the coefficient
of restitution and calculate the kinetic energy lost at the collision. [ Ans.
e = 0.8 5.832 J.]

12
The Coefficient of Restitution is really a constant for a particular material, or a
particular combination of two materials. Thus, it is correct to state a value of e for,
say, steel on steel, or steel on glass, but it is not strictly correct to refer to the coefficient
of restitution when two trucks on a rail collide. But if two such trucks collide with
a perfectly elastic impact, it is convenient to assume that the relative velocity of
separation of the collision is the same as the relative velocity of approach. Here is a
simple proof that this is so, which does not assume a value for e.
Considering two bodies, of masses rnA, m8 , with initial and final velocities uA, u 8 ,
vA and v8 , the equation of conservation of momentum is:

(1)

For a perfectly elastic collision, there is no loss of kinetic energy.

(2)
Equation ( 1) can be written:

Equation (2) can be re-arranged and simplified:

264
 MOMENTUM

and the crossed-out terms are seen to cancel, which gives:

which is the result we would obtain if we assumed a value of e = 1. The use of this
equation makes a simpler solution to problems of perfectly elastic collision when it
is incorrect to assume a value for e. The problem solved in Frame 6 is solved much
more easily using this method, and you should satisfy yourself that you can solve it
this way.

13
Now we shall look at some problems which require some extra thinking.

uA=4ms-1

.,,l,h2,~,,h·~J,,,~#h:,rh~m>~m,:,~~l,,,,,
Example. Three trucks, A, B and C, are located on a straight level frictionless track
in that order. The masses are A, 150 kg, B, 50 kg, and C, 100 kg. Initially, Band
C are stationary, and A moves towards B at 4 m s- 1 . Assuming all collisions to
be perfectly elastic, determine the final speeds of the trucks after all collisions have
ceased.
It is immediately clear that A collides with B, so you can begin the solution by
determining the final velocities of A and B after this first collision. Since collision is
perfectly elastic, you can use the equation at the end of the previous frame, together
with a simple momentum conservation equation. You should obtain values of
vA= 2 m s- 1 and v8 = 6 m s - 1, both to the right. This part of the solution follows,
for you to check on.

265
 DYNAMICS

14
Momentum:
J50 X 4 + 50 X 0 = J50v A + 50vll
Simplifying: 3vA+vll=12 ( 1)
For perfectly elastic collision:

V8 - VA=- 1(u 8 - UA) = UA- U8 = 4 (2)

Use equation (2) to substitute for v8 in equation (1):
12 = 3V A+ ( 4 +VA)= 4V A+ 4
v A = t( 12 - 4) = + 2 m s- 1 (i.e. to right)
Substituting in equation (2): v8 = 4 + vA = +6 m s- 1 (i.e. to right)
From this result, it now becomes clear that B must collide with C. So continue by
calculating the result of this second collision. u 8 will now be + 6 m s- 1 , and uc is 0.
The calculation follows exactly the same lines as the first one so it is not given this
time, but the answers are: v8 =-2m s- 1 and vc is +4 m s- 1•
From this second result, it emerges that A and B will collide again. This time, uA
will be + 2 m s- 1 (following the first collision) and u 8 will be -2 m s- 1 • So go
through this third calculation: v8 should be +4 m s- 1 (i.e. to the right) and vA should
be zero. This calculation follows.

15
Momentum: 150 X 2 + 50 X ( - 2) = 150v A + 50v 8
Simplifying: 3vA + v8 = 4 (1)
Elastic impact: V8 -VA= -1(u 8 -UA)= -1(-2-2)=4 (2)
Using equation (2) to substitute for v8 in equation ( 1):
3vA+(4+vA)=4
VA =0
Substituting in equation (2):
v8 = 4 + vA = 4 m s- 1
Thus, the final situation is, that A is stationary, while B and C both move to the right
at 4 m s- 1. So B will not catch up with C and there will be no more collisions.
Finally, you should check for yourself that the final kinetic energy (of B and C) is
equal to the initial kinetic energy (of A).

266
 MOMENTUM

16
Here is another problem, rather different from the previous one.

u.=4 m s-1

Example. Two trucks, A and B, are on a straight frictionless horizontal track. The
masses are, A, 100 kg, B, 200 kg. Initially, B is stationary and A is moving towards
B at 4 m s- 1 . To the right of B is a perfectly elastic buffer. Determine the final
speeds of both trucks, after all collisions have ceased.
Again, it is clear that the first collision must be between A and B, and it is left for
you to show that the speeds after this first collision will be I!- m s- 1 to the left for
A, and 2i m s - 1 to the right for B. The calculation follows exactly the same lines as
for the previous example.
After the first collision, B strikes the buffer, and because this is perfectly elastic,
no energy is lost, and B recoils at the same speed. Because this is greater than the
speed of A, it must catch A up, and a second collision will take place. For this,
uA = - I!- m s- 1 (following the first collision) and u 8 = - 2 i m s- 1 . So analyse this
second collision. You should obtain values of vA= - 3~ m s - 1, and v8 = - 1 ~ m s - 1.
As previously, the calculations are quite straightforward, and so the solution is not
given. Since both trucks are now moving to the left, and A is faster than B, this
second collision must be the last one. It is also left for you to check that the final
kinetic energy of the two trucks is the same as the initial kinetic energy of A before
the first collision.

17
Calculations of collisions are always simpler when there is no energy loss. As a small
exercise involving energy loss, take the first part of the previous example-A moving
at 4 m s - 1 towards B which is stationary-and calculate the velocities after collision
if20% of the initial kinetic energy is lost to the system on collision. The answers are:
vA = 0.8977 m s- 1 in the reverse direction, and v8 = 2.449 m s- 1• You will have to
revert to the method we used in the solution in Frame 6. The working follows in
Frame I8.

267
 DYNAMICS

18
Here is the working for the example of Frame 17.
Momentum: 100 x 4 + 200 x 0 = 100vA + 200v 8
Simplifying: vA + 2v 8 = 4 (I)
Initial £kin= t x 100( 4 )2 = 800 1
With 20% loss: residual Ekin = 800 x 0.8 = 640 J
Energy: t x 100vi_ + t x 200v~ = 640
Simplifying: vi_+ 2v~ = 12.8 (2)
From equation ( 1): Vo = 2- tv A
Substituting in equation (2): vi+ 2(2- tvA) 2 = 640
Expanding: vi+ 8 +!vi- 4vA = 640
1!vi- 4vA- 4.8 = 0
- ( -4) ± J {(4)
2 - 4 X Jt( -4.8)} 4 ± 6.693
VA= 2x1t = 3

vA= +3.564 or -0.898

v8 =2-tvA= +0.218 or +2.449
The first pair of solutions is impossible; A cannot move to the right faster than B. Thus:
vA = -0.898 m s-• (i.e. to left); v 8 = +2.449 m s-• (i.e. to right)
Check final energy:
£kin= 1 X 100(0.898) 2 + t X 200(2.449) 2 = 640.08 J

19

Example. Two trucks, A and B, run on a smooth rail inclined at 20°. The masses
are, A, 150 kg, and B, 100 kg. They are initially 10m and 20m from the bottom of
the slope, where there is a perfectly elastic buffer. Collision between the trucks is
also perfectly elastic. The trucks are released from rest at the positions shown.
Calculate how far up the track B will come to rest after colliding with A.
This example requires some revision. You will need an energy equation, and also
some kinematic equations. The first part of the motion is clear. Both trucks must

268
 MOMENTUM

move with the same acceleration and speed until A reaches the bottom of the slope,
when it must rebound with the same speed it strikes the buffer. And B must have
this same speed, because it has descended the same slope for the same time. So begin
by determining this velocity.

20
Gain of £kin= loss of Epot
!mv 2 = mgh = mg x 10 sin 20°
v= .J (
2g x 10 sin 20 o)
=8.192 m s- 1
A diagram helps at this stage.

We assume the trucks meet at a point distance x from the bottom of the slope. We
shall need the value of x, and also the two velocities at the instant before collision,
which we may call uA, u 8 .
Use the kinematic equation x = v0 t + !at 2 for both trucks. The component of
weight down a slope of() on a mass m is mg sin e. So the acceleration for both bodies
will be (g sin 20°) down the slope. And, of course, the time t must be the same for
both trucks. This time will be 0.61 sand xis 4.373 m. See if you can do the calculations
yourself, before checking.

21
For A: x = v0 t + !at = 8.192t + !( -g sin 20°)t
2 2

ForB: IO-x=v 0 t+!at 2 =8.192t+!(gsin20°)t 2

Adding the equations: 10 = 2 x 8.192t
t=0.61 s
Substitute in 1st equation:

x = 8.192 x 0.61 - !g sin 20°(0.61 )2 = 4.373 m

Notice that velocity up the slope is treated as positive in the first equation, and
velocity down the slope positive in the second. It would be unnecessarily tedious to
adopt a rigorously correct sign convention for both equations.
Now calculate the two velocities, using the equation v = v 0 +at. These should work
out at 6.145 m s- 1 for A and 10.239 m s- 1 for B.
 DYNAMICS

22 v = v 0 +at
For A: uA = 8.192 + ( -g sin 20°)(0.61) = 6.145 m s - 1

ForB: u11 =8.192+(gsin20o)(0.61)= 10.239 m s- 1

Again, we have taken the initial direction in each case as positive. Thus, A is moving
up, and B is moving down the slope when they collide. But now, when we write the
momentum conservation equation, we must take care to use a correct sign convention.
Taking uA as positive, uB must be -10.239 m s - 1 . So now continue the solution by
writing the momentum equation and the equation of equal approach and separation
velocities (which you can find in Frame 12 if you have forgotten).

23 Momentum: mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

Substituting: 150 x 6.145 + 100( -10.239) = 150vA + 100vB
Simplifying (dividing throughout by 50):
3 X 6.145-2 X 10.239 = 3vA + 2VB
3vA + 2vB = -2.043 ( 1)

For perfectly elastic collision: uA- uB =- (vA- vB)

= -10.239-6.145
= -16.384 (2)
Since the equation requires the value of vB, we eliminate vA from the two equations.
From equation (2):
VA= VB- 16.384
Substituting in equation ( 1):

3(vB- 16.384) + 2vB = -2.043

5vB = - 2.043 + 49.152
= 47.109
VB = 9.422 m S- 1

The positive sign indicates that B rebounds up the slope.

A simple energy equation gives us the additional height gained after rebound:
mgh=!mv~
h = (9.422) 2 j2g = 4.525 m
The corresponding distance along the slope is 4.525/sin 20° = 13.23 m.
Adding this distance to x gives the final distance from the foot of the slope.
Distance from bottom= 13.23 + 4.373 = 17.603 m.
 MOMENTUM

24
In programme 7, Frames 47 and 48, we made a calculation of a ship being moved by
a tug. This was deliberately simplified. The problem is really one of momentum, and
we shall make a more accurate analysis here. We shall re-state the problem, somewhat
differently.
Example. A tug of mass 45 tonnes is connected to a vessel of mass 80 tonnes by a
tow-rope of length 80.65 m. The rope stiffness is determined from a tensile test on a
1-metre length, when it is found that a force of 1 kN causes an extension of
0.62 mm. Initially, the vessel is stationary, and the tug is moving away at
2.5 m s- 1 . Calculate the common speed of tug and vessel when the tow-rope is at
maximum stretch, and determine the corresponding tension in the rope.
The common speed is calculated simply from an equation of conservation of linear
momentum. Calling the common velocity v:

45 000 X 2.5 + 80 000 X 0 = 125 000 V

v = 0.9 m s- 1

We calculate the tension in the rope by equating the loss of kinetic energy to the
gain of strain energy.

Loss of Ekin =! x 45000 x (2.5) 2 - !(45000 + 80000)(0.9) 2 = 900001

The stiffness k of the rope (force per metre extension) is given by:

1000
k = (0. 62 x 10 _ 3 ) X 80.65 = 20 kN per metre
Estr = !kx2
90000 =! x 20000 x 2
x=3m
load= 3 x 20000 = 60 kN

The length was calculated previously on the basis of a maximum safe load of 75 kN,
with a corresponding stretch of 3.75 m. It was mentioned that this was a pessimistic
conclusion, based on the assumption that all the kinetic energy of the tug would be
converted to strain energy in the rope.
The problem is still over-simplified. We have assumed that the tug is 'coasting',
that is, it is not actually pulling the vessel. In practice, it would be pulling, but this
calculation of maximum tension is probably close to what it would actually be, and
certainly much closer than the figure of 75 kN in the earlier calculation.

271
 DYNAMICS

25
PROBLEMS

1. Two vehicles are on a straight horizontal frictionless track. Vehicle A has a mass
of 180 kg and is moving towards B at 2 m s- 1 . Vehicle B has a mass of 120 kg
and is moving towards A at 1.5 m s - 1 . Calculate the speeds of the vehicles after
they have collided (a) if the vehicles remain locked together after collision; (b) if
the collision is perfectly elastic; (c) if 20% of the kinetic energy before collisions
is lost in collision. [ Ans. (a) Both 0.6 m s-J; (b) v A = 0.8 m s-J, v 8 = 2. 7 m s -J;
(c) vA=0.633ms- 1,v 8 =2.45ms- 1.]
2. Three trucks, A, B and C, are located on a smooth horizontal rail in that order.
The masses are, A, 50 kg, B, 150 kg, and C, 100 kg. Initially, Band Care stationary
and A is moving towards them at 4 m s- 1 . Assuming all collisions to be perfectly
elastic, calculate the final speeds of all three trucks after all collisions have taken
place. [Ans. vA = -2 m s- 1 ; v 8 = +0.4 m s- 1 ; Vc= +2.4 m s- 1. Only two
collisions.]
3. Three bodies, A, B and C, are located in that order on a smooth horizontal rail.
The masses are respectively 100 kg, 200 kg and 150 kg. Initially, A moves towards
B at 6 m s- 1 and C also moves towards B at 3 m s- 1 . B is initially stationary.
Assuming that A collides with B before C does, calculate the speeds of all three
bodies after all collisions have ceased. Assume all collisions to be perfectly elastic.
[Ans. A and B, 2m s- 1 ; C, 5 m s- 1 in opposite direction. Two collisions only.]

26
Now we must examine the concept of momentum as it relates to a rotating body.
The general Equation of Motion for a body in pure rotation (see Programme 1,
Frame 111) is:

'L(M) = Irx

which can be written:

and this expression is analogous to that in Programme 1, Frame 116, where we defined
linear momentum. The quantity (Jw) we now define as angular momentum, and we
continue the analogy by stating:

Moment, or Torque= rate of change of angular momentum

272
 MOMENTUM

27
All the statements and conclusions in this programme in Frames 3 and 4 can be
exactly paralleled for angular momentum. Angular momentum of a body cannot be
changed except by the action of a torque or moment. The same applies to a system
of rotating bodies; only an external moment or torque can produce a change of
angular momentum. An internal moment or torque may alter the angular momentum
of components of a system, but the total angular momentum is not changed.
Again, an impulsive torque or moment acting on a component or a body may
frequently absorb some kinetic energy of a system, and consequently, an energy
equation should not be used to solve such a problem unless one is certain that there
is indeed no loss of kinetic energy.
Although the expressions in the previous frame are analogous to the corresponding
expressions relating to linear momentum, they are not identical, and the units are
different. Determine for yourself the units of I, the moment of inertia, and w, the
angular velocity, and show that the units of the product (lw/t) are those of moment, M.

28

[/]=MU; [Iw/t] = MUT- 2

Moment= force x length= mass x acceleration x length
[MJ = M X L/T 2 XL= MUT- 2

Solve this simple example.

Example. A flywheel has a moment of inertia of 2.6 kg m 2 • It rotates at a speed of
640 revolutions per minute. A retarding torque of magnitude 12 N m acts on the
wheel for six seconds. Calculate the speed at the end of that time.
You can, of course, use the general Equation of Motion (L(M) =/a), find the
retardation, and use a kinematic equation. But since we are investigating angular
momentum, use instead the equation in Frame 26. Your answer should be
375.8 rev /min.

273
 DYNAMICS

29
Transposing the equation of Frame 26:
Change of angular momentum= Mt = 12 x 6 = 72
Initial angular momentum= Iw 1 = 2.6(640 x 2n/60) = 174.3
final angular momentum= 174.3-72 = 102.3
Iw 2 = 102.3
w 2 = 102.3/2.6 = 39.35 rad s - l
= ( 39.35) x 60 j2n) rev /min= 375.8 rev /min

30
Now imagine two rotors, having moments of inertia of I A and I 8 , rotating at different
speeds about the same axis, and arranged so that they can be connected by a pair
of friction-plates, or 'clutch'.
Ia

Initially, the rotor speeds are w Al and w 81 . If one rotor is then moved axially, the
friction plates come together, and the speeds will change, and both plates will
eventually rotate at the same speed. If you think about this, you will see that it is
exactly analogous to two bodies colliding when moving at different speeds, with the
reservation that there is in this case no equivalent to rebounding; both bodies remain
together after 'collision'.
If A were turning faster than B, the right-hand rotor would be accelerated, while
the left-hand one would be retarded. This friction torque need not be constant; the
essential point is, that at any instant, the two rotors are subjected to the same torque,
but in opposite directions. Moreover, the torque acts for the same period of time on
each rotor. We can call the impulse of this torque J(M dt ). If we assume this torque
positive on the one rotor, it must be negative on the other. Thus we can write two
momentum equations:

(arbitrarily calling the torque on B positive). Eliminating J(M dt) gives:

IB(WBz-WBl)= -IA(WAz-WAl)

which gives:
which is seen to be an equation of Conservation of Angular Momentum.

274
 MOMENTUM

31
Example. In the system shown in the figure in Frame 30, I A is 12 kg m 2 and I 8 is
20 kg m 2 . The initial speed of A is 600 rev /min clockwise (looking from the left).
Calculate the common speed of the two shafts after being coupled, if the initial
speed of shaft B is (a) 300 rev /min clockwise; (b) zero; (c) 360 rev /min
anti-clockwise. In all cases, calculate the loss of kinetic energy to the system.
The solution to part (a) follows; you should be able to complete the remaining parts
unaided.
Part (a) Calling the final common speed w, the general equation can be written:

IAWAl +IoWBl =(JA +Io)W

Writing w = N x 2n/60, where Nisin rev/min, 2n/60 cancels throughout:

Substituting values:

12 X 600 + 20 X 300 = 32 X N
N = +412.5 rev/min, i.e. clockwise

The energy loss is determined by subtracting the final kinetic energy from the initial.

Loss of Ekin =! x 12(600 + 2n/60) 2 +! x 20(300 x 2n/60)

- !( 12 + 20)( 412.5 x 2n/60) 2
= !(2nj60) 2 { 12 X 600 2 + 20 X 300 2 - 32 X 412.5 2 }
= 3701 J

The anwers to (b) and (c) are: part (b): 225 rev/min, clockwise; 14.8 kJ
part (c): zero; 37.9 kJ
The calculations are similar, but note that in part (c), N 81 will be negative. Avoid the
mistake of 'cancelling' (2n/60) 2 in the energy calculations; although the conversion
factor cancels in the angular momentum equation, it does not in the calculation of
energy.
In this problem, the loss of kinetic energy is more obvious than in the case of two
translating bodies colliding. When the wheels are brought into contact, work is done
against friction at the friction plates, and this work must reduce the kinetic energy
of the system. In part (c), you can see that all the kinetic energy is lost.

275
 DYNAMICS

32
At this point, we shall summarise what we have established so far.
Change of linear momentum of a body occurs only by the action of a force.
When a force acts between two parts of a system of bodies, the total momentum of
the system is unchanged, although the momentum of each of the bodies may change.
Thus, change of linear momentum of a body or of a system of bodies requires the
action of an external force.
Change of angular momentum of a body occurs only by the action of a moment or
torque.
When a moment or torque acts between two parts of a system of rotating bodies,
the total angular momentum of the system is unchanged, although the angular
momentum of each of the bodies may change.
Thus, change of angular momentum of a body or of a system of rotating bodies
requires the action of an external moment or torque.

33
Now have a look at this situation:

<I===

Two wheels of moments of inertia I A and I 8 rotate side by side in the same plane,
close together, with initial speeds w AI, and w 81 . The wheels are then brought together
so that they contact at their rims, and are held together until there is no further slip
at the rims. We require the final speeds of the two wheels.
We have assumed that both wheels are initially turning clockwise. We may also
assume that the rim-speed of A is greater than that of B. (It doesn't actually matter
whether it is greater or smaller.) When the wheels are held together, each wheel will
be subjected to a tangential rim-force at the contact-point, which will be the same
force on both, but opposite in direction. Have a try at drawing the free-body diagrams
for the two wheels under these conditions.

276
 MOMENTUM

34
jfdt

~I
jfdt

As with the two wheels of Frame 30, the contact-force at the rims need not be a
J
constant force, and it is shown as an impulse (f dt ). If the rim-speed of A is greater
than that of B, the forces will be in the directions shown. As the diagram clearly
shows, the moments of the rim-forces are different for the two wheels.
Now, if we adopt a sign convention, for example, clockwise is positive, write down
the moment of the rim-force for each wheel about the wheel centre.

35
For wheel A: moment=- JU dt) x RA
For wheel B: moment=- JU dt) x R 6

and I hope you were not caught out by the fact that both these moments are negative:
each force exerts an anti-clockwise moment about the wheel centre.
We can now write a 'change of momentum' equation for each wheel:

- JU dt) x RA = IA(WAz- wAl)

- JU dt) x R = 18 (W 82 - w 8 d
6

Eliminating J(f dt) from the pair of equations results in:

The important feature of this equation is, that it is not an equation of conservation of
angular momentum. Look carefully at the diagrams above, and try to explain why the
principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum does not apply in this case. To
help you a little, concentrate your attention on the free-body diagram of just one of
the wheels.

277
 DYNAMICS

36
A tangential force on the wheel would cause a change of angular
velocity, and also would cause translation of the wheel

The diagram in Frame 34 is over-simplified, in fact. If you brought two such wheels
together in space, the two tangential forces would cause the pair of wheels to rotate.
With the directions of forces assumed, the left-hand wheel would move upwards and
the right-hand downwards; thus, the assembly would rotate clockwise. So, although
the only force shown is an internal force, we have not taken into account the additional
angular momentum resulting from this rotation.
If you mount the two wheels in a rigid framework so that the pair could not rotate
bodily, the rim friction forces would cause an induced reaction force at each shaft
between shaft and framework. Thus, you can stop the bodily rotation only by
introducing a pair of external forces.

37
Example. Referring to the diagram in Frame 33, IA is 12 kg m 2 , J 8 is 18 kg m 2 •
The rim radius of A is 0.1 m, and that of B is 0.12 m. Before contact, A is turning at
350 rev /min clockwise and B at 200 rev /min, also clockwise. Calculate the final
speeds of the two wheels if they are brought into rim contact, after all relative slip
has ceased. Calculate also the loss of kinetic energy to the system. Assume both
wheels to be in a rigid mounting.
In addition to the equation derived in Frame 35, you need a 'compatibility' equation
which connects the two final speeds, by virtue of the fact that the rim-speeds of the
two wheels must be the same, after slipping was ceased. But take care of your signs
when writing this equation! As was the case in the working in Frame 31, you can
cancel the conversion from radians per second to revolutions per minute, so you can
begin with the equation from Frame 35 in this form:

(I AI RA)(N A2- N Al) =UBI RB)(N 82- NBl)

and your compatibility equation can similarly be written in terms of N rather than w.

278
 MOMENTUM

38
Substituting values:

(12/0.l)(N A2- 350) = (18/0.12)(NB2- 200)

N A2- 350 = 1.25(N 82- 200) (1)

After rim-slip has ceased, the rim-speeds of both wheels must be the same, but they
must rotate in opposite directions.

(2n/60)N A 2 RA = - (2n/60)N 82 R 8
NB2 = -N A2(0.1/0.12) (2)

Substitute in equation ( 1):

N A2- 350 = 1.25(- N A2(0.1 /0.12)- 200)

N A2- 350 = -1.04167 N A2- 250
NA2(1 + 1.04167)= 100
N A 2 = + 48.98 rev I min
N 82 = -40.82 rev/min (from equation (2))

Initial Ekin = ~(f/w 2 )

= t x 12(2n/60) 2(350) 2 + t x 18(2n/60) 2(200) 2
= f(2n/60) 2{ 12 X (350) 2 + 18 X (200) 2 }
= 12008 J
Final Ekin = f + f x 18(2n/60) 2 (40.82) 2
x 12(2n/60) 2 (48.98) 2
= f(2n/60) 2{ 12 X (48.98) 2 + 18 X (40.82) 2 }
= 322 J
loss= 12008-322
=11686J

If you think you need practice, repeat these calculations, this time taking the initial
speed of A as previously, and the initial speed of B as 200 rev /min anti-clockwise,
instead of clockwise (i.e. N 81 is -200 rev /min). The calculations are not given, but
your answers should be 293.9 rev /min clockwise and 244.9 rev /min anti-clockwise
for the speeds of A and B, and 405 J for the loss of kinetic energy.
The calculation for energy loss may sometimes act as a check on the calculation
of the speeds. If the final kinetic energy is more than the initial value, it is time to go
back and find out where you made a mistake!

279
 DYNAMICS

39 We may use the same procedure when a translating body is coupled to a rotating one.

Example. A truck of mass m = 650 kg moves at a speed u = 4 m s- 1 along a straight

horizontal track. It is coupled by a rope, initially slack, to a drum of moment of
inertia I= 150 kg m 2 and radius R = 1.4 m, initially at rest. Calculate the final
speeds of drum and truck after the rope has tightened, and determine the loss of
kinetic energy to the system.
J
We assume an impulse f dt in the rope. This will reduce the velocity of the truck,
and exert an anti-clockwise impulse moment on the drum. Calling left-to-right positive
for the truck commits us to a compatible sign convention for the drum of anti-clockwise
positive. The equations are:
- J(f dt) = mv - mu
+ J(f dt) X R = I (w 2 - w d
Eliminating the impulse gives the single equation:
-m(v- u) = (// R)(w 2 - wd
Substituting values:
-650(v- 4) = ( 150/1.4)(w 2 - 0)
Compatibility: peripheral speed of drum= speed of truck:
w 2 R=v

650( 4 - v) = ( 150 I 1.4 )( v11.4)

2600- 650v = 76.53v
v(76.53 + 650) = 2600
v = 2600/726.53 = 3.579 m s- 1
w 2 = 3.579 I 1.4 = 2.556 rad s -I

Loss of Ekin=!mu 2 -(!mv 2 +!Iw~)

=!X 650(4) 2 -! X 650(3.579) 2 -! X 150(2.556) 2 = 547 J
Now you solve this problem, given that the wheel, instead of being initially at rest,
has a speed of 20 rev /min clockwise. The solution is not given, but your answers
should be, v = 3.27 m s - I , w 2 = 2.336 rad s - 1 , loss of £kin= 1644 J.

280
 MOMENTUM

40
Our next example shows the importance of the vector nature of momentum.
Example. A gun has a mass of 2650 kg and fires a shell of mass 225 kg with a
muzzle velocity of 640 m s- 1 . The barrel is aimed upwards at an angle of 40° to
the horizontal, and the gun rests on a smooth horizontal surface and is unrestrained.
Determine the true velocity of the shell, and its angle of flight, as it leaves the barrel.
When a shell is fired from a gun, the propelling force is an internal force, acting
forwards on the shell and backwards on the gun. If the gun were completely
unrestrained, a simple equation of conservation of momentum would allow the recoil
velocity to be determined. If the gun were aimed horizontally, we could do this. But
the fact that the gun is elevated means that firing the shell will result in an impulsive
reaction force between gun and ground, and this is an external force. If, however, the
ground is smooth, this impulsive reaction can only be vertical, and hence, there can
be no change of horizontal momentum, because there is no external horizontal force.
A smooth surface exerts a reaction perpendicular to the surface only; there is no
friction component.
The next point to realise is, that the shell fight will be at a steeper angle than the
barrel elevation angle of 40°. Because the gun is recoiling backwards, the shell velocity
relative to earth will be the sum of the muzzle velocity of 640 m s- 1 and the gun
recoil velocity. This should recall the work of Programme 2. Denoting gun, shell and
earth by the letters g, s and e, sketch the velocity diagram relating the three velocities.

41
s

g e

gs is the shell velocity relative to the gun, and therefore will have the value 640 m s- 1
and will be at an elevation of 40°. The vector eg shows the gun to be recoiling
backwards, as, of course, it must do.
One length of side and one angle only is not sufficient to solve a triangle. We must
find another relationship. We can obtain this from an equation of linear momentum.
Recalling the remark in the previous frame that there is no change of horizontal
momentum, write this equation.

281
 DYNAMICS

42
Horizontal momentum before firing= 0. After firing:
horizontal momentum of gun (to left) = horizontal momentum of shell (to right)
eg x 2650 = (es x 225) cos 8

This gives: eg/es = 0.0849 cos 8

Recalling that the external angle of a triangle is the sum of the two opposite angles:

angle at s = (8- 40°)

Using the Sine formula:

egjes =sin( 8- 40°)/sin 40° = 0.0849 cos 8

Expanding and re-arranging:

sin 8 cos 40 o - cos 8 sin 40 o

cos 8 sm. 400 = 0.0849

tan 8 - l = 0.0849
tan 40°

Now we have all the angles, the Sine formula enables you to show that the required
velocity of the shell, es, is 611.1 m s -I, but the working follows in Frame 43. Although
it is not asked for, also calculate the value of the recoil velocity, eg.

43
640 es
sin( 180°- 8) sin 40°
sin40° )
es = 640 ( . 2 3 o = 611.1 m s -I
sm4 . 1
640 eg
sin 42.31 o sin 2.31 o
sin 2.31 o ) _ 1
eg = 640 ( . 42 3 = 38.32 m s
sm . 1o

For additional practice in this type of problem, you will find another example in
Frame 55 at the end of the programme.

282
 MOMENTUM

44
The methods used so far in this programme are inadequate to deal with the problem
of an impulsive blow on a body which does not rotate about a clearly-defined centre.
Suppose, for example, that a wheel rolls along a horizontal surface, and then strikes
a step, which gives an impulsive blow to the wheel. We need to expand our
understanding of angular momentum in order to deal with this situation.
The diagram following represents a body having a mass centre at Grand rotating
about a centre 0 with angular velocity w.

'}
I
~ /
v 0

Angular momentum, H, is given by:

where suffix 0 denotes the moment of inertia of the body with respect to an axis
through 0. The Parallel Axis theorem gives us:

where h is the perpendicular distance from G to 0.

The linear velocity v of the mass centre G is given by:

v=wh

Substituting for (wh) in the expression for H then gives:

H=law+mvh

and the second term is seen to be the product of linear momentum and perpendicular
distance h. The term is therefore appropriately called moment of momentum. In fact,
moment of momentum is an alternative name for angular momentum. But this idea
of multiplying linear momentum by a moment arm enables us to deal with the kind
of situation mentioned at the beginning of this frame.

283
 DYNAMICS

45

Let us look at the problem of a cylinder, rolling along a level surface, and then striking
a step. The diagrams show (a) the wheel immediately before striking, and (b)
immediately after.

(a) (b)

The collision of the cylinder with the step causes an impulsive blow on the cylinder,
causing a change of momentum. Recalling that:

impulsive moment =change of angular momentum

then, if we consider the total moment with respect to the contact-point, then there
will be no change, because the impulse will have no moment about its own point ofcontact.
In (a), before contact, the linear velocity u of the mass centre will be horizontal,
as shown. After striking, the cylinder will roll about the step corner, and the velocity
v must therefore be perpendicular to the radius to the corner. We must assume that
the cylinder does not rebound or slip.
So we require an equation of conservation of moment of momentum with respect
to the point P. Both before and after striking, the total moment of momentum will
be the sum of the angular momentum due to turning of the cylinder, and the moment
about P of the linear momentum of translation. Have a shot at writing this equation.
Moment of momentum is, as we would expect, a vector, and thus, direction is
important, but in this example, all components of the moment of momentum are
positive.

284
 MOMENTUM

46
Refer to diagram (a), Frame 45. The moment of linear momentum mu about the
point Pis mu x y = mu( R- h). In (b), the moment of linear momentum is mvR, since
the velocity of the cylinder centre must be at right-angles to the radius OP. The
resulting angular momentum equation is thus:

lw 1 + mu(R- h)= lw 2 + mvR

The two linear and angular velocities can be kinematically related:

Example. A uniform solid cylinder of mass 5 kg and radius 40 mm rolls along a

horizontal plane without slip at 2 m s- 1. It strikes a step of height 10 mm without
slip or rebound. Calculate (a) the linear velocity of the cylinder centre immediately
after striking the step; (b) its velocity after mounting the step.
You need first to recall that the moment of inertia of a uniform solid cylinder about
its axis of rotation is ... ?

47
Moment of inertia of uniform solid cylinder= 1mR 2

Substituting this, and substituting for u and v in the moment of momentum equation
gives an opportunity for cancelling m and R:

(1mR 2 )w 1 + mw 1 R(R- h)= (1mR 2 )w 2 + mw 2 R 2

w 1 (1R + R- h)= w 2 (1R + R)
w 1 (1!R-h)=w 2 x 1-lR
w 1= u/ R = 2/0.04 =50 rad s- 1

= ((lt x 40-10)(10-3)) =41.67 rad s-1

w2 50 ttx40x10- 3
v = w 2 R = 41.67 x 0.04 = 1.667 m s- 1

The remainder of the solution requires an energy equation. See if you can arrive at
the final answer yourself before reading on. This answer is 1.627 m s- 1.

285
 DYNAMICS

48
Before climbing step, total £kin= !Iw~ + !mv 2
!Jw~ = !(!mR 2 )w~ = t x 5(0.04) 2 (41.67) 2 = 3.473 J
!mv 2 =! x 5( 1.667) 2 = 6.944 J
Ekin (total) = 10.417 J

£pot= mgh = 5g X 0.01 = 0.491 J

final £kin= 10.417-0.491 = 9.926 J

Calling velocities at top of step w 3 and w:

!Iw~ + !mw 2 = 9.926

w3 = wj R = w/0.04 = 25w
i( i x 5(0.04 )2 )(25w) 2 +i x 5w 2 = 9.926
w2 ( 1.25 + 2.5) = 9.926
w2 = 2.647
w = 1.627 m s- 1

Now, using the same principle as in Frame 46, try this next example yourself. It
isn't difficult.
Example. A uniform solid cylinder rolling with angular velocity w along a plane
surface strikes a vertical rigid wall. Show that the impulsive blow causes the cylinder
to begin to roll up the wall with initial angular velocity tw.
Assume no rebound
or slip on collision.
Here is the diagram to help you. The impact point is P; the two figures show the
cylinder, (a) immediately before impact, and (b) immediately after.

(a) (b)
Remember: the principle to observe is, that the total moment of momentum with
respect to the point of impact must be unchanged by impact, because the moment
of the impact force about this point must be zero.

286
 MOMENTUM

49
Moment of momentum equation with respect to P:

I w 1 + mu x 0 = I w 2 + mv x R

Compatibility: for no slip:

Substituting for v, and also I= !mR 2 :

(!mR 2 )w 1 =(!mR 2 )w 2 +mR(w 2 R)

w 1 (! mR 2 ) = w 2 (! mR 2 + mR 2 )
ro 1 =3ro 2
Now try this next one. The method is the same, and the diagram should help you.

Example. A uniform solid cylinder rolling without slip along a horizontal plane
with angular speed w 1 suddenly contacts a plane inclined at angle () as shown.
Calculate the angular speed w 2 immediately after impact. Hence determine the value
of () which would bring the cylinder immediately to rest.

50
Taking moment of momentum about contact-point P:

Iw 1 + mu(R cos())= Iw 2 + mvR

!mR 2 (w 1 ) + mR cos ()(w 1 R) = !mR 2 (w 2 ) + mR(w2R)

w 1 (!+cos())= w 2 (! + 1)
W2 = w(t + icosO)
For w 2 = 0: ()=cos - 1 (-!) = 120°

287
 DYNAMICS

51
PROBLEMS

1. A solid uniform cylinder of radius 50 mm and mass 26 kg rolls along a flat surface
at constant speed u when it strikes a step of height 25 mm. There is no slip or
rebound at the impact.
(a) Calculate the linear speed of the cylinder after it has mounted the step if
u = 1.2 m s - 1 .
(b) Show that if u = 0.858 m s- 1 , the cylinder will just come to rest at the top of
the step.
[Ans. 0.559 m s- 1.]
Hint: solution will be exactly as in Frames 46 and 47.
2. A thin ring of outer radius 25 mm and negligible thickness rolls down a slope of
30° on to a horizontal surface. At the instant of touching the surface, the ring has
a linear velocity of 2.4 m s- 1 . Determine its linear velocity as it rolls along the
horizontal surface. Assume no slip or bouncing as it changes direction. [Ans.
2.239 m s- 1.]
Hints: analysis similar to that in Frame 50; prove that v = !u( 1 +cos 30°). I= mR 2 •

52
We can use the same method of approach for other bodies which strike fixed points.
tI V
G

At I
~u ts a
I·
I· L
:I
Example. A uniform rod of mass m and length L rests horizontally on two supports,
one at the left-hand end A, and the other at B, distant a from the right-hand end.
The right-hand end is raised a short distance and allowed to fall back on to the
support. If, at the instant of striking, the angular velocity of the rod is w 1 , derive
an expression for w 2 , the angular velocity immediately after striking.
The diagram shows u and v, the linear velocity of the rod centre G, before, and after
striking the support at B. All that is required is a simple equation of conservation of
moment of momentum with respect to the impact-point, which of course is B. The
solution follows, but try and derive the equation yourself.

288
 MOMENTUM

53
The situation, both before, and after the rod strikes the right-hand support, is
represented by the diagrams below.

v
-...,.,_w, f
,....,....,
/G

Ax
::::J c::: GJ w2
I
I £ AJk Jfs ~

+
u

1ust before the rod strikes the support at B, it has an angular velocity w 1 , and because
it is turning about point A, the linear velocity u of the mass centre G is given by the
compatibility equation:

( 1)

Immediately after hitting the support at B, the rod lifts off the support at A; it is
then turning about Bas a pivot. The angular velocity is then w 2 • The linear velocity
of the mass centre G is v. Because the rod is pivoting about B, the compatibility
equation will now be:

(2)

As with the previous three examples, since the support at B exerts an impulsive blow
on the rod, then the moment of momentum with respect to B must be unchanged
by the blow, because the impulse has no moment about its point of impact. So we
equate the total angular momentum both before and after the impact, taking B as
the point for the moment of linear momentum. But notice in this example that before
impact, whereas the angular momentum of the rod is clockwise, the moment of the
linear momentum about B is anti-clockwise. After impact, angular momentum and
moment of linear momentum are both clockwise.
So the required equation of moment of momentum with respect to B is:

Notice the negative sign for the moment of linear momentum before impact.
The rest of the problem consists of substituting for I 0 and algebraic manipulation,
to derive w 2 in terms of w 1 . You should be able to complete this yourself, but the
complete working is set out in the following frame.

289
 DYNAMICS

54
Substituting for u and v from the compatibility equations, equations ( 1) and (2) from
Frame 53, gives:

Substituting I 0 = lz mL2 , facto rising, and cancelling m:

and this expression could be used to determine the angular velocity for any given
values of L and a.
Use this result to find the value of w 2 for values of a of (a) tL; (b) tL.

55
(a) a= tL:

(b)a=tL:

Notice that in determining the changes of velocities in such examples, we never

take into account the constant forces acting, and this may cause you some anxiety,
after the emphasis on the necessity of drawing free-body diagrams and writing
equations of motion, in other programmes. But when dealing with impulsive forces,
they are almost always of extremely short duration, and to simplify analysis, we
assume in such cases that the changes of velocity occur instantaneously. The motions
of bodies before impact, and after impact, are of course determined by the ordinary
applications of Newton's Laws.
To complete this programme, Frame 56 consists of a couple of problems of this
type, followed in Frame 57 by some problems covering the work of the whole
programme.

290
 MOMENTUM

56

PROBLEMS

(a) (b)

a P

1. A uniform rectangular block of dimensions a= 2 m and b = t-!- m having a mass

of 240 kg slides horizontally along a smooth floor at a speed of 4 m s- 1 when the
corner P strikes a fixed stop, causing the block to rotate about the corner, as shown
in diagram (a) above. Calculate the angular velocity of this rotation, and the
corresponding loss of kinetic energy due to the impact. Find at what speed the
block would be required to slide in order that it should turn round through 90°
after striking the block. The moment of inertia of such a block about a transverse
axis through G is / 2 m(a 2 + b 2 ). [Ans. 1.44 rad s- 1 ; 1401.6 J. 6.028 m s- 1.]
Hints: after collision, linear velocity of G will be perpendicular to line GP, and
v = w x GP. For last part, gain of Epot =loss of Ekin; G is raised by (GP- -!b) as
shown dotted.
2. A ladder of length 4 m, standing vertically, falls from rest until it has turned through
45 o when it strikes a fixed projection at a point 1-!- m from the upper end, as shown
in diagram (b) above. Assuming there is no slip or rebound when it strikes,
determine the maximum height to which the centre will rise after the collision.
Assume the ladder to be a uniform thin bar. [Ans. 0.0386 m.]
Hints: treat similarly to the example in Frame 52; use an energy equation to
determine angular velocity before impact. Moment of linear momentum before
impact is negative. Calculate loss of Ekin• and thus height to which centre G will
be raised.

291
 DYNAMICS

57
FURTHER PROBLEMS

1. Two steel balls, A and B, hang vertically from light strings 0.8 m long, so that they
just touch. A has a mass of 1 kg and B a mass of 1t kg. A is pulled to one side
until the string makes an angle of 60° to the vertical and it is then released.
Determine the maximum angles the two strings make with the vertical after
collision, (a) if e = 1; (b) if e = 0.9. [Ans. (a) 11.48°, 47.15°. (b) 8.03°, 44.66°.]
2. Three bodies, A, Band C, having masses of 2 kg, 4 kg and 3 kg respectively are
in line on a smooth horizontal track. Band Care initially stationary and A moves
to the right at 8 m s- 1 and collides with B, which in turn collides with C. C moves
to the right after this collision at 5 m s - 1 . Assuming e to have the same value for
both collisions, determine e, and also the final speeds of the three bodies. [Ans.
e = 0.811. A: 1.661 m s- 1 to left; B: 1.080 m s- 1 to right.]
3.

A wheel A of moment of inertia 2.4 kg m 2 and radius 0.08 m is brought into

contact with the inner rim of a second wheel B of moment of inertia 11.5 kg m 2
and inner rim radius 0.23 m, as shown. Wheel B turns about a fixed axis, not
shown. The initial speed of A is 45 rev /min clockwise. Calculate the final speeds
of both wheels after all slip has ceased, if the initial speed of B is (a) zero;
(b) 12 rev /min anti-clockwise. Calculate the energy loss in both cases. [ Ans.
(a) 28.47 and 9.91 rev/min; 9.79 J. (b) 15.83 and 5.50 rev/min; 30.52 J.]
Hint: refer to Frame 35, but note that impulse-moments will be of opposite signs,
and final compatible speeds will be same sign.
4. A gun of mass 820 kg standing on smooth level ground fires a shell of mass 18 kg
with a muzzle velocity of 900 m s- 1 . If the shell is required to strike a stationary
target which is at an elevation of 35o to the gun, calculate the required elevation
of the gun barrel. Determine also the true velocity of the shell relative to earth.
[Ans. 34.42°; 886.9 m s- 1.]
Hint: see Frame 40.

292
 MOMENTUM

5.

A cylinder has an outer radius of 25 mm and a radius of gyration of 20 mm. It is

placed to roll down a plane inclined at 30°, up a similar plane, and back again. If
it starts from rest 2 m above the lowest point, calculate how far it will climb up
the same plane on return. [Ans. 0.4669 m.]
Hints: see Frame 49 et seq. Show that the approach velocity w 1 and the retiring
velocity w 2 are related by w 2 = w 1 (k 2 + R 2 cos 60°)/(k 2 + R 2 ). Thus calculate the
velocity reduction factor, which operates twice. Energy reduction proportional to
the square of the velocity ratio.
6.

H
G

6m
~
A uniform thin beam is 6 m long and has a mass of 400 kg. It rests horizontally
on two supports, A, 1 m from the left-hand end, and B, distant a from the right-hand
end, as shown. The right-hand end of the beam is raised a vertical height of 0.1 m
and then released, the beam being allowed to drop back on to the support. It
may be assumed that the beam does not bounce on the support at B.
(a) If a is 2m, calculate the maximum amount that the left-hand end of the beam
will be raised.
(b) Determine what value of a would be required in order that the beam would
not lift off the support at A when dropped on to the support at B.
[Ans. (a) 5.71 mm. (b) 11m.]
Hints: use the energy equation to calculate w 1 ; G will be raised two-fifths ofO.l m
(w 1 =0.3348 rad s- 1 ). Use the second energy equation after dropping to find
height G is raised; left-hand end will be raised four times this amount.

293
 Programme 9

COUPLED AND GEARED

SYSTEMS

295
 DYNAMICS

1
The work in this programme is a follow-on from that of Programme 1 on Kinetics.
Here, you will learn how to solve problems of kinetics when there is more than one
body involved, particularly when the different bodies, or 'elements' have different
accelerations. We looked at several problems in Programme 1 with two elements
connected, but in each case, it was quite clear that all the elements had the same
acceleration, as they were directly connected by a single string.
To begin with, remember that Newton's Second Law of Motion can be written
very concisely in the form of two Equations of Motion, one for cases of linear
acceleration, and the other for cases of angular acceleration. Write these equations
down, together with the units in which each term must be stated.

2
Linear motion: L(F) = ma; Angular motion: L(M) = Irx
F (force) expressed in newtons (N)
m (mass) expressed in kilograms (kg)
a (linear acceleration) expressed in metres per second per second (m s- 2 )
M (moment, or torque) expressed in newton metres (N m)
I (moment of inertia) expressed in kilogram metres squared (kg m 2 )
rx (angular acceleration) expressed in radians per second per second (rad s - 2 )

Now, by way of revision of work that you should know by now, solve this simple
example.
Example. Weights of mass 4 kg and 3 kg are connected by a light inextensible
string which passes over a frictionless light pulley, so that the weights hang vertically.
Determine the accelerations of the masses when they are released from rest.
Remember the technique: draw free-body diagrams for each body, showing all forces,
and also acceleration. Don't forget also that the acceleration must have the same
value for each mass, and that it must be upwards for one and downwards for the
other. Write the equations for each mass, remembering always to take the direction
of acceleration as positive. Eliminate T, the string tension, from the two equations.

296
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

3
T T

ft
4kg3kg

The equations of motion are:

I

afD
t
~
(4g) N
D1
t ta
!
(3g) N
I

4g- T=4a
T- 3g = 3a
Adding:
g = 7a
a= 1.401 m s- 2
There is a short cut to such a simple problem as this, which you may know already.
The total mass is (4 + 3) = 7 kg, and the nett force acting on the combined masses
is the unbalance of weight which is the weight of 1 kg, i.e. 9.81 N. So we can write
a single equation for the system:
9.81 = 7a
giving the same result. Much of the work of this programme will be concerned with
writing a single equation for a system involving more than one body.

We shall take the previous example, with an added complication-the same two
4
weights, but this time, connected to a compound pulley.
Example. Determine the accelerations of the two weights hanging from the
compound pulley; m 1 is 4 kg, m 2 is 3 kg, R 1 is 40 mm, R 2 is 50 mm. The inertia of
the pulley is negligible.

We now have two strings with different tensions, and two masses with different
accelerations. To obtain sufficient equations, we must draw a free-body diagram of
the pulley. See Frame 5.

297
 DYNAMICS

5
T, T2

t
I t
IE] ~~R,
+ B'
+a2

l l
a

a,+ ~ I
T, T2 m2g
m,g

Here are the three free-body diagrams. Note the following points before we write the
equations. First: although the three accelerations, a 1 , a 2 and r:x are all different, they
must be compatible. By this, we mean that if a 1 is downwards, as shown, then the
angular acceleration of the pulley must be anti-clockwise. And this in turn means that
the acceleration a 2 must be upwards. It does not matter if the direction a 1 is wrong;
this would simply mean that we obtain a negative value in the calculation. The next
point is, that they must also be compatible quantitatively, that is, we must write
kinematic equations relating the accelerations. These equations are called compatibility
equations. And finally, although the pulley has negligible inertia, we still have to write
an equation of motion for it, in order to relate T1 and T2 • In later examples, the
inertia will not be negligible.
So begin by writing the equations of motion for m 1 and m 2 • At this stage, work
algebraically; leave the numbers out for the present.

6
m 1 g - T1 = m 1 a 1 ( 1)
T2 - m 2 g = m 2 a 2 (2)

Now we write the equation of motion for the pulley. The general form of the equation
is L(M) = /r:x because it is a rotating body. But because the inertia is negligible, I= 0,
and the equation reduces to L(M) = 0, which is an equation of static equilibrium.
So the required equation will be ... ?

7
(3)

You should be able to write the kinematic equation of compatibility relating the
three accelerations. You may need to look back at Programme 1, Frame 63 to refresh
your memory.

298
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

8
a 1 = r:xR 1 ( 4)

a2 = r:xR 2 (5)

Careless manipulation of five equations can land you in trouble. We reduce the last
two to a single equation by eliminating r:x and substitute numbers:

r:x=a1IR1 =a2/R2
a2 = a 1 ( R 2 I R d = a 1 (50 I 40) = 1.25a 1

Now use the first two equations to substitute for T1 and T2 in equation (3 ):

We substitute numbers, expand and substitute for a 2 •

40 X 10- 3 ( 4g - 4a d- 50 X 10- 3 ( 3 X 1.25a 1 + 3g) = 0

Cancel 10- 3 and collect the a 1 terms on the right-hand side:

160g- 150g = a 1 (160 + 187.5)

10X 9.81 _2
a1 = 34 7.5 = 0.2823 m s ;

9
PROBLEM

I.

A block of mass m 1 = 400 kg rests on a horizontal surface. A cord attaches it to

the smaller pulley of a compound pulley. A weight, m 2 , of mass 90 kg hangs from
the larger pulley. The pulley radii are, R 1 = 0.2 m, R 2 = 1.0 m. Calculate the
accelerations of the two bodies (a) if the surface is smooth; (b) if the friction
coefficient between block and surface is 0.1. Neglect the inertia of the pulley. [ Ans.
(a) 1.666 m s- 2, 8.329 m s- 2• (b) 1.518 m s- 2, 7.59 m s- 2.]

299
 DYNAMICS

10
Now we shall introduce a further complication by assuming that the moment of
inertia of the rotating element is not negligible. We shall assume the same data as
the example of Frame 4 except that the pulley now has a moment of inertia of
0.02 kg m 2 .
The free-body diagrams in Frame 5 will be the same, except that the pulley should
be marked /. The equations will also be the same except for no. 3 in Frame 7. This
will now read:

(3)

noting the importance of treating an anti-clockwise moment as positive, because that

is the direction of the assumed acceleration. Substituting for T1 and T2 in equation ( 3)
as we did before now gives:

R 1 (m 1 g- m 1 a 1 ) - R 2 (m 2 a 2 + m 2 g) = Irx
In this case, it is probably easier to use the compatibility equations to substitute for
a 1 and a 2 in terms of rx. It will also be instructive this time to retain algebraic symbols.
So, expanding the equation, and substituting:

m 1 gR 1 - m 1 R 1 (exRd- m 2 R 2 (rxR 2 ) - m 2 gR 2 =lex

Collecting all terms with ex on the right-hand side gives:

m 1 gR 1 - m 2 gR 2 =ex(!+ m 1 Rf + m 2 R~)
and if this last equation is examined, it is seen to be a single equation, of the general
form l:(M) =lex, the left-hand side being the nett or resultant moment on the pulley,
and the bracketed terms on the right-hand side being the combined inertial effect of
all three elements. We may indeed think of m 1 Rf and m 2 R~ as the effective or
equivalent inertias of the masses m 1 and m 2 . We shall meet this term 'equivalent
inertia' again later.
Now substitute the given values.
9.81 ( 10- 3 )(4 X 40-3 X 50)= ex(0.02 + 4(40 X 10- 3 ) 2 + 3(50 X 10- 3 ) 2 )
0.0981 = ex(0.02 + 0.0064 + 0.0075)
0.0981 -2
rx = 0.0 339 = 2.894 rad s

a 1 = exR 1 = 2.894 x 40 x 10- 3 = 0.1158 m s- 2

and a 2 = exR 2 = 2.894 x 50 x 10- 3 = 0.1447 m s- 2
These values for acceleration are less than the answers calculated in Frame 8. This
is to be expected, as the same resultant force acts on a system which now includes
another inertial element. You can check that making I zero in the equation derived
above will result in the same answers for a 1 and a 2 as before.

300
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

11
Here is a procedure for solving problems of this kind.
1. Examine the system, and identify all inertial elements, i.e. masses, rotors, pulleys.
2. Examine the kinematics of the system, and write equations of compatibility, relating
all accelerations.
3. When the direction of acceleration is not known, assume it for one element, but
ensure that directions of all others are compatible.
4. Draw free-body diagrams for all elements. Distinguish arrow for acceleration from
arrows for forces.
5. Write equations of motion (I.( F)= ma, I.(M) = Ia) for all elements, taking the
assumed direction of acceleration as positive in every case.
6. Where necessary, write equations of equilibrium for elements in direction
perpendicular to that of acceleration.
7. Check that you have as many equations as unknown terms. Then manipulate
algebraically to find the unknown terms.
We shall go through one further example, to illustrate this procedure.
Example. Details of a simple inclined hoist are shown.

The load, m 1 , 600 kg, is hauled up the inclined plane by means of a hanging weight
of mass m 2 , 140 kg, via a compound pulley which turns about a fixed axis, and has
a moment of inertia of 95 kg m 2 . The pulley radii are 0.45 m and 0.12 m. The
coefficient of friction between load and plane is 0.15. How long will it take to haul
the load up the plane a distance of 6 m starting from rest?
Check-point 1: we see there are three elements: load, weight and pulley.
Check-point 2: the kinematic equations are derived exactly as in the previous example.
Write these down, and then check in the next frame before proceeding.

301
 DYNAMICS

12
Calling the angular acceleration of the pulley r.x and the two linear accelerations
a 1, a2 :

a 1 = rxR 1 = 0.12rx (1)

a 2 = rxR 2 = 0.45rx (2)

Check-point 3: the conditions of the example indicate that the acceleration of the
load must be up the plane. So the angular acceleration of the pulley must be clockwise,
and the acceleration of the hanging weight must be downwards.
Check-point 4: the three diagrams are drawn in Frame 13, but attempt them yourself
first. There will be four forces acting on the load, there are also four forces acting on
the pulley, but only two are relevant to the problem.

13
Here are the three diagrams.

Check that you have included all forces on your diagrams; find where you were
wrong, if you were. Note that forces on the pulley will include weight, and reaction
at the pulley bearing. These are shown as a pair of arrows, but since the pulley rotates
only, we do not need these forces for the solution.
Check-points 5 and 6: write the equations of motion, and also, the equation of
equilibrium normal to the plane, for the load. Remember that the direction of
acceleration is to be taken as positive.

14
Load: T 1 - J1N- m 1 g sin 40° = m1a 1 (3)
N = m 1 g cos 40° (4)
Pulley: T2 R 2 - T1 R 1 = I r.x (5)
Weight: m2g- Tz = mzaz (6)

302
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

15
Check-point 7: six equations. Unknown terms are: T1 , T2 , a 1 , a 2 , a, and N.
The algebraic manipulation follows the same form as in Frame 10: we may first
use equations (3) and (6) to substitute for T1 and T2 in equation (5).

Now use equations (1) and (2) to express a 1 and a 2 in terms of a, and equation (4)
to substitute for N, which reduces our six equations to one:

Transferring all terms in a to the right-hand side:

Again, we have a single 'system' equation of motion, with the left-hand side
constituting the resultant moment, and the right-hand side an effective, or 'equivalent'
inertia of all three elements. There are checks to verify correct algebra, or to highlight
mistakes. Firstly, a simple dimensional check. All terms on the left are seen to have
dimensions of moment, i.e. force x distance, while all terms in the right-hand bracket
are inertial terms (mass x length 2 ). Next, all inertial terms are positive; you cannot
have negative mass or inertia. On the left-hand side, we have one positive and two
negative terms. This agrees with the data provided: the weight of m 2 is the positive
driving force, while the weight component of m 1 , and the friction term, are both
retarding effects.
Substituting values:

9.81(140 x 0.45-600 sin40o x 0.12-0.15 x 600 cos40° x 0.12)

+ 600(0.12) 2 + 140(0.45) 2 )
= a(95
9.81 (63- 46.28- 8.27) = a(95 + 8.64 + 28.35)

= 9.81 X 8.45 = 0 628 d -2

a l31. 99 . ra s
From equation ( 1): a 1 = 0.12 x 0.628 =0.0754 m s - 2

The solution is completed in the following frame, but you can complete it yourself
first. A simple kinematic equation is all that is required. You can no doubt recall this,
and substitute the values, but if you can't look up the four equations in Programme 1,
Frame 48. You now have acceleration, distance ( 6 m) and initial velocity (zero-starts
from rest) and you require time.

303
 DYNAMICS

16
X= v0 t + Jat 2
6 = 0 + J X 0.0754t 2
t = j( 12/0.0754) = 12.62 s

A few problems follow.

17
PROBLEMS

1. A simple lift, or elevator, comprises a loaded cage of mass 750 kg, and a
counter-weight of the same mass, connected by a cable which passes round a pulley
of radius 1.1 m and moment of inertia 260 kg m 2 . Cage and counter-weight hang
freely. Calculate the torque required at the pulley axis to raise the cage with an
upward acceleration of 0.5 m s- 2 . Neglect friction forces. [Ans. 943.2 N m.]

(a) (b)

2. In diagram (a) above, bodies A and B, respectively 20 kg and 65 kg, hang from a
compound pulley of moment of inertia I= 2.6 kg m 2 which turns about a fixed
axis, the pulley radii being 0.082 m and 0.24 m. Calculate the accelerations of A
and B. What clockwise torque M would be required about the pulley axis to raise
A with an acceleration of0.5 m s- 2 ? [Ans. 0.298 m s- 2 , 0.102 m s- 2 . 3.528 N m.]
3. In diagram (b) above, a load A of mass 1200 kg is hauled up a 25° slope by a
torque M on a compound pulley of moment of inertia 240 kg m 2 and radii 0.25 m
and 1.2 m. Neglecting friction forces, calculate the value of M to haul A 10m from
rest in 15 s if the hanging weight B has a mass of (a) zero; (b) 100 kg. [Ans.
(a) 1355.8 N m; (b) 229.8 N m.]

304
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

18
A pulley system is a device consisting of ropes or cables, and wheels, so arranged
that when a force or torque is applied at one point, motion is produced at another.
An example is a pulley system used for raising or lowering loads, such as is found in
almost every engineering workshop or building site, where the pulley system forms
part of a crane. The functions of a pulley system are:
I. To 'magnify' force; that is, by means of applying a relatively small force to a pulley
system, to produce a much greater force.
2. To change the direction of a force.
The second of these is not of importance in this text. An example is the simple pulley
system used by builders raising small loads such as buckets of sand to the top of a
building. A wheel is fixed to the top of the building, and a rope tied to the bucket,
the rope passing round the wheel. The advantages are, that the load can be raised
by pulling downwards, instead of pulling upwards, and that the load can also be
raised by someone at ground level. There is no 'mechanical advantage', that is, the
operator has to apply a force equal to the weight of the load. We shall define
'mechanical advantage' shortly.
When pulley systems are used for the first function listed above, we use the following
terms.
The force applied to the system is called the Effort.
The force to be overcome (e.g. the weight of a load to be lifted) is called the Load.
Clearly, the advantage of a pulley system used in this way is that the load is much
greater than the effort. A mechanic can raise the very heavy engine from a car merely
by pulling on a rope with a force much less than the weight of the engine. For this
reason, the ratio of load to effort is called the Mechanical Advantage.

. Load
Mechamcal Advantage= - -
Effort

Mechanical advantage in a pulley system is achieved simply by arranging that the

effort moves very much further than the load. To raise the car engine of the above
example a few centimetres, the mechanic may need to pull several metres of rope
through the pulley. The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the corresponding
distance moved by the load is called the Velocity Ratio.

. . distance moved by effort

Ve Ioc1ty ratiO = . . . ,. ,. _- - - - - - - c - - - , - - - - - - c -
distance moved by load

305
 DYNAMICS

19
We can apply the principle of energy to a pulley system. If we assume that the work
put in during an operation is equal to the work done at the output, then, if we call
the effort F, and the load W, we may write:

F x distance moved by effort = W x distance moved by load

distance moved by effort W
distance moved by load F

But the ratio WI F has been defined in Frame 18 as Mechanical Advantage

velocity ratio = mechanical advantage.

This is assuming that the work that goes in is the same as the work that comes
out, i.e. no loss. You should know by now that this can never be achieved. Every
device involves some loss due to friction. This cannot affect the velocity ratio. On a
pulley with velocity ratio 6, moving the load 1 m will always require the effort to
move 6 m (apart from such negligible effects as stretching of the ropes). The energy
loss is manifested by having to apply an effort which is greater than one-sixth of the
load. So the mechanical advantage will be less than 6. In real devices, the mechanical
advantage is always less than the velocity ratio. The ratio of the two is called the
efficiency of the device.

. G k mechanical advantage
effi c1ency, '1 ( ree eta)= . .
ve 1oc1ty ratiO

and clearly, the efficiency must always be less than 1, although it is frequently expressed
as a percentage. An efficiency of 85% means that '1 = 0.85. Efficiency of a pulley
system can vary considerably. The efficiency of the pulley system of an industrial
crane might be as high as 0.85 or 0.9, but that of a pulley used by a mechanic to lift
a car engine, where ropes are replaced by chains running over specially-designed
wheels, could be 0.4 or less.
Pulley systems can sometimes be used with a velocity ratio of less than 1, with the
result that the effort is greater than the load. This is done where a relatively small
motion is desired to produce a relatively large one, and the load is very small. An
example is the system used to draw curtains. Pulling the cord a certain distance causes
the curtains to move twice or three times as far. All the examples in this programme
will involve pulley systems with a velocity ratio greater than 1.

306
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

20
Pulley systems are used on cranes and hoists. The commonest form is the multi-sheave
block, consisting of a pair of blocks, each with several pulley wheels, one block usually
fixed, and the other attached to the load, a single rope being passed alternately
from fixed to moving block. The figure below shows two examples, (a) and (b). The
pulley wheels are all the same size and turn about the same axis but for clarity, to
illustrate the rope run, they are shown separated and different sizes.

Upper block

'---------JI
I
I I
, ________ .J

(a) (b) (c)

The determination of the velocity ratio of a pulley system can sometimes be a

matter of some difficulty, but with the multi-sheave block, there is a very simple rule.

velocity ratio = number of ropes supporting the lower block

You can understand why this is so by imagining that, instead of pulling the effort-rope
to raise the load a certain distance, you raise the load first, then haul in the 'slack'
rope. This is shown at (c) above, for a system with four ropes supporting the hanging
block. If you raise the load a height x, then each single rope attached to the lower
block will have a bight of slack rope of length x. It is then clear that the total slack
is the distance x multiplied by the number of supporting ropes.
State the velocity ratios of the two systems shown at (a) and (b) above.

307
 DYNAMICS

21
For (a): velocity ratio= 5
For (b): velocity ratio= 4

It can be seen that the ratio of displacements of the input and output of a pulley
system must be the same as the ratio of velocities (since the two motions occupy the
same time); hence the name Velocity Ratio. The two accelerations also have the same
ratio. This enables compatibility equations to be written for dynamic systems involving
pulleys.
Example. A pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6 carries a load of 1200 kg.
Calculate the effort required to raise the load 2 m from rest in 3 seconds with
constant acceleration. Neglect any friction loss.
We calculate the required acceleration of the load.

2=0+!a(3) 2
a = 0.4444 m s- 2

Here is the free-body diagram of the load:

T

at t
a=0.4444 m s-2: ~
l
(1200g) N
The equation of motion will be:
T- 1200g = 1200 X 0.4444
T= 1200(0.4444+9.81)= 12305 N

and since there is no friction loss, we divide this by the velocity ratio for the required
force.

force required= 12 305/6 = 2051 N

We shall add a complication.
Example. What mass must be applied to the effort-rope to raise the same load with
the same acceleration?
The force required at the effort must be as before. So, draw a free-body diagram for
the unknown mass m. Remember: the acceleration will be different.

308
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

22

mg
The equation of motion will be:

mg-F=ma'
a' = 0.4444 x 6 (see Frame 21)
m(9.81- 0.4444 x 6) = F = 2051 N
m = 2051/7.144 = 287.1 kg

The same force applied at two different points in a pulley system will produce different
23
accelerations, as the next example will show.
Example. A pulley system of velocity ratio 5 carries a mass of 100 kg on the
load-rope and a mass of 20 kg on the effort-rope. Calculate the acceleration of the
20 kg mass if a force of 50 N is applied to it. Calculate the acceleration of the
100 kg mass if the same force is applied to it. Neglect any friction effects.
5T
T

I f
I D20kg
I t.
1 II
1 ~~
~ !120gl N ! I
50N (100g) N

The two free-body diagrams are shown. We know that the accelerations will be in
the ratio 5:1. And if the rope tension in the effort-rope is T, the tension in the load-rope
must be (5T). The diagrams are drawn accordingly. This enables us to write the two
equations of motion:

effort: 50+ 20g- T = 20(5a) ( 1)

load: 5T- 100g = lOOa (2)

Finish the problem by substituting for Tin equation (2).

309
 DYNAMICS

24 5(50 + 20g- 100a)- 100g = 100a

Expanding, and collecting a-terms on the right-hand side:
250 + 100g- 100g = a(lOO + 500)
250 -2
a= 600 = 0.4167 m s

effort acceleration= Sa= 2.0833 m s- 2

The free-body diagrams for the second part will be:

Sat tT
rT
110011
!
I D20kg
~v
I '(100g) N
(20g) N
~50 N
Write the two equations, and complete the solution yourself.

25 The equations: effort: T = 20g = 20(5a) (1)

\
load: 50+ IOOg- 5T = IOOa (2)

and substituting:
50+ 100g- 5( 100a + 20g) = 100a
50+ IOOg- lOOg =a( 100 + 500)
50 -2
a = 600 = 0.0833 m s

These answers show that if a force of 50 N is applied to the mass of 20 kg, the resulting
acceleration is the same as if the same force had been applied to a total mass of
24 kg (you can check this yourself). But when the same force is applied to the 100 kg
mass, the acceleration is the same as if the force had acted on a total mass of 600 kg.
So we see that when the force is applied to the high-speed end of the system, the
retarding effect of the larger mass is very much reduced. It acts like a mass of 4 kg.
But when the force acts on the low-speed side, the retarding effect of the smaller mass
is greatly increased. It behaves like a mass of 500 kg. The values of 4 kg and 500 kg
are called the equivalent masses of the 20 kg and 100 kg masses respectively. The
value of an equivalent mass is not constant, but as we shall see, depends on which
part of the system one considers, i.e. at which part of the system the force is applied.

310
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

26
We shall use the terms 'equivalent inertia' and 'equivalent mass' later, when we look
at the dynamics of gearboxes and wheeled vehicles.
Now look at this simple pulley system of velocity ratio 2.

Suppose that now, we assume that the mass of the pulley-wheel supporting the load
is not negligible, and that its moment of inertia is also not negligible. An example
will illustrate this.
Example. In the diagram, the load m1 has a mass of 68 kg, and the weight m 2 is
42 kg. The large moving pulley has a mass of 12 kg, a radius of0.24 m and a moment
of inertia of 0.85 kg m 2 . Determine the acceleration of the load, neglecting friction
and assuming no rope slip on the large pulley. The smaller fixed pulley-wheel has
negligible inertia.
We begin, as always, by drawing the free-body diagrams.
T, a
Ta

-!~.
a j 1 t I
IG I

I ! (42g) N
f28

(68g) N
!
(12g) N

The diagrams for the two masses need little explanation. We know the system is a
two-to-one pulley system, so that the acceleration of the 42 kg mass must be (2a).
This acceleration must be downwards because the weight is more than half the
combined weight of load and pulley. Force T1 is the tension in the rope connecting
the load to the moving pulley.
Examining forces on the pulley, we have the weight and the downward tension
force T1 . Forces T2 and T3 are the tension forces in the pulley-rope. In many earlier
examples, when a rope or string passes round a pulley, the string force has been
assumed to be constant throughout the length of the string. Why cannot we assume
this to be so now?

311
 DYNAMICS

27
The pulley-rope tension cannot be constant because the pulley
inertia is not negligible in this example.

Because the rope does not slip on the pulley, the pulley must turn, and with an angular
acceleration which is compatible with the linear accelerations. Therefore, there must
be a resultant moment acting on it, and this moment can be provided only by the
difference of tensions in the rope passing around it.
Also, the pulley motion consists of both translation and rotation, so that we shall
require two equations of motion for it.
So now, write four equations of motion for the three elements of the system.
Remember, as always, to take the direction of acceleration as positive.

28
For load (!:(F)=rna): T1 -68g=68a (1)
For weight (!:(F)= rna): 42g- T3 = 42(2a) = 84a (2)
For pulley (!:(F)= rna): T2 + T3 - T1 - 12g = 12a (3)
Forpulley(!:(M)=Jo:): T3 R-T2 R=lo:=0.85o: (4)

We see that we have five 'unknowns'-the three tension forces, a, and ex. A further
equation is needed. This is the kinematic equation of compatibility linking a and ex.
We can obtain this by first obtaining an equation of compatibility of displacement,
knowing that the same equation will apply to velocity and acceleration (see Frame 21 ).
Study these three diagrams.

(a) (b) (c)

What actually happens is, that the right-hand rope is pulled up, resulting in the
pulley being both raised and turned. If we take the motions separately, we can see
what happens. Diagram (a) shows the pulley, radius R, with the upper end of the
left-hand rope attached to the fixed point. Now imagine the pulley to be turned
anti-clockwise an angle (), but about a fixed centre. Diagram (b) shows what must
happen.

312
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

29
If the rope does not slip on the pulley, then the upper left-hand end of the rope must
be pulled down by the amount the rope is wound on to the pulley, which is f)R. This
is shown in diagram (b). To restore the rope-end to its fixed point, the pulley itself
must be raised by this amount. Thus, for the pulley:

x = f)R

and the equivalent equation of compatibility of acceleration is:

a= rxR
(The diagram incidentally makes it clear that the displacement of the right-hand end
of the rope must be 28R, because the turning of the pulley at (b) raises the right-hand
end by (OR), and raising the whole pulley as at (c) raises the end a further amount
(BR). This confirms that the velocity ratio of the system is 2.)
So we have our fifth equation:

a = rxR = 0.24rx (5)

We begin reducing our equations by substituting for rx in equation ( 4 ). Re-writing

this equation:

T3 - T2 = 0.85(a/ R 2 ) = 0.85a/(0.24) 2 = 14.757a (6)

Use equations ( 1) and (2) to substitute for T1 and T3 in equation (3 ):

T2 + (42g- 84a)- (68a + 68g)- 12g = 12a

Simplifying this gives:

T2 - 38g = 164a (7)

Use equation (2) again to eliminate T 3 from equation (6):

( 42g- 84a)- T2 = 14.757a (8)

Adding equations (7) and (8) eliminates T2 :

42g- 84a- T2 + T2 - 38g = 164a + 14.757a

4g = 262.757a
a= 0.1493 m s- 2

This example shows that when bodies move and turn, the kinetic analysis can be
quite complex. Sometimes, a simpler solution can be obtained by using an energy
equation. An example is a vehicle with large wheels, when the inertial effect of the
wheels themselves is not negligible. This will be examined in Frame 31. Some problems
on pulleys follow.

313
 DYNAMICS

30

PROBLEMS

(b) A

1. In diagram (a) above, the block A rests on a horizontal surface. A cord attached
to it passes round pulley B of radius R, which turns about a fixed axis. The cord
passes round a small pulley of negligible mass and inertia and is attached to a
fixed point. A body C hangs from the small pulley. The mass of A is 60 kg, R is 0.3 m,
the moment of inertia of B is 4.5 kg m 2 . Calculate the mass of C so that A accelerates
left to right across the surface at 1m s- 2 • Neglect friction. [Ans. 23.63 kg.]
Hint: since acceleration of A is given, find all accelerations numerically. Then
analyse A, B and C in turn, calculating intermediate forces as you go.
2. In diagram (b) above, load A is hauled up a slope of 15° by means of a pulley
system of velocity ratio 8: 1 by a weight B. The mass of A is 850 kg, and that of B,
30 kg. Calculate the upward acceleration of the load. Neglect friction throughout.
[Ans. 0.0708 m s- 2.]
3. In diagram (c) above, the figure shows a simple form of fire-escape. Load A hangs
from a pulley of negligible mass and inertia, and a rope round the pulley is fixed
at one end and wound round a large wheel B of radius R and moment of inertia /.
Given the load is 100 kg and is required to descend 8 m, calculate the required
value for I if the load must not be travelling at more than 1 m s - l when it reaches
the lowest point, assuming it starts from rest. The radius R is 0.1 m. Neglect friction
throughout. [Ans. 38.99 kg m2 .]
Hint: use kinematic equation to calculate acceleration. For wheel, ()( = 2a/ R.

314
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

31
The kinetic analysis of a wheeled vehicle, taking into account the inertia of the wheels,
is best accomplished by considering the energy of such a system. A truck of total
mass m with a number of wheels, of total moment of inertia /, and rolling radius R,
rolls along a surface. The kinetic energy will comprise energy of translation (!mv 2 )
and energy of rotation of the wheels (!I w 2 ). If the wheels roll without slip, the simple
kinematic equation:

v = wR

may be written. Thus, the total energy of the system is given by:

The bracketed term is seen to be the effective mass of the system, or the equivalent
mass. By using this expression, in place of m, the actual mass of the truck, we allow
for the inertia of the wheels. Remember that m, the truck mass, is the total mass of
the truck, including the mass of the wheels themselves. This is because the wheels
move translationally, in addition to turning.
If the wheels were of varying size and inertia, we would modify this expression:

Equivalent mass= m + L.(l / R 2 )

Here is an example to illustrate the use of the concept of equivalent mass.

Example. A wagon of total mass 1100 kg has four wheels, each of rolling radius
0.36 m, and moment of inertia 28 kg m 2 . It stands on a slope of 7! o. A force of
1450 N pulls it up the slope, starting from rest. How long will it take to move
6 m up the slope, and what will its speed be then? If the force is then removed, how
long will it take to return to its starting-point? Neglect all friction forces.
Begin by calculating the equivalent mass of the wagon, using the formula above; this
is straightforward. Then attempt to draw the free-body diagram. Be careful when
evaluating the weight.

32
Equivalent mass, mE=m+L.(ljR 2 )= 1100+(4 x 28)/(0.36) 2

mE = 1100 + 864.2
= 1964.2 kg

The free-body diagram is drawn in Frame 33.

315
 DYNAMICS

33
Here is the free-body diagram.
N

----~ --~a
1450 N

(1100g) N
The weight of the wagon is ( 1100g) N, not (1964.2g) N. This is why you were told
to be careful. The equivalent mass is an indication of the body's resistance to an
accelerating force. But the weight is not affected by the inertia of the wheels.
Complete the first part of the problem. Write the equation of motion, calculate the
acceleration, and use kinematic equations to determine the time and velocity after
6 m. The working is completed in the next frame; you should obtain an answer of
0.0211 m s- 2 for the acceleration, a time of 23.85 seconds, and a final speed of
0.5032 m s- 1 .

34
~(F)= rna: 1450- 1100g sin 7!o = 1964.2a
1450- 1408.5 -2
a= 1964.2 = 0.0211 m s

X= v0 t + !at 2
6 = 0 + !(0.0211 )t 2
t = .j( 12/0.0211) = 23.85 s
v2 = v6 + 2ac
= 0+2 X 0.0211 X 6
v = 0.5032 m s- 1

The upward force is now removed. We now have to calculate the new acceleration,
which will, of course, be down the slope. The free-body diagram will be like the first
one, except that the force of 1450 N is now removed. We need not re-draw the diagram
for such a simple adjustment. Write the new equation of motion, and calculate the
new acceleration, which you should find is 0.7171 m s- 2 . Don't bother to calculate
how far up the plane the wagon travels before coming to rest; this is not asked for.
Use the appropriate kinematic equation (the one relating v 0 , a, x and t), paying due
regard to sign, and calling motion positive up the plane.
Your answer should be 4.8522 s. The solution is completed in Frame 35.

316
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

35
Completing the solution: the new equation of motion is:
1100g sin 7! 0 = 1964.2a
1408.5
a= 19642 = 0.7171 m s- 2 down plane

Now taking direction up plane as positive:

x= -6 m; a = -0.7171 m s- 2 ; t is required.

Substituting in the kinematic equation x = v 0 t + tat 2 :

-6 = 0.5032t + t( -0.7171)t 2
Carry all terms to left-hand side and divide throughout by coefficient of t 2 :
t2 - 1.4034t- 16.734 = 0
t = 1.4034 ± .J {(1.4034 )2 - 4(- 16.734)}
2
= 0.7017 ± t.J(1.9695 + 66.936)
t = 4.8522 s

The alternative negative answer is not relevant to the question.

36
A single wheel can be treated in the same way.
Example

A small metal cylinder is mounted on a central spindle 4 mm diameter. The spindle

rests horizontally, on a pair of rails inclined at 12° as shown. When released from
rest it rolls down the rails a distance of 100 mm in 7 seconds. The mass of wheel
and spindle is 0.3 kg. Neglecting any resistance to motion, and assuming the spindle
rolls without slip and on the rails, calculate the moment of inertia of wheel and
spindle.
First calculate the linear acceleration using a kinematic equation. You should get
0.00408 m s- 2 . Check in the following frame.

317
 DYNAMICS

37
x = v 0 t + !at 2
0.1 =O+!a(7) 2
a= 0.2/49 = 0.00408 m s - 2

The free-body diagram is simple:

a~-

mg

We write the equation, noting that because the body is rolling in addition to moving
down the rails, we call the mass mE, the equivalent mass, which will be greater than
the true mass of 0.3 kg.

'I.( F)= rna:

_ 0.3g sin 12 o _ 1 97 k
mE - 0.00408 - 49 · g

Recall (Frame 31) that mE=m+'L(J/R 2 ) where R is the rolling radius.

Substituting: 149.97 = 0.3 +I /(2 X 10- 3 ) 2
I= 149.67 x (0.002) 2 = 0.0006 kg m2

Looking at the substitution of the figures above, it is seen that the effective mass of
the rolling wheel ( 149.67 kg) is so much greater than the actual mass of 0.3 kg that
the latter is negligible.
In drawing the free-body diagram, a slight simplification was made. Just as, with
a wheeled vehicle, we can dispense with drawing the free-body diagrams of the wheels
themselves, so in this case, we do not need to draw the details of the forces acting
on the spindle; the concept of equivalent mass allows us to simplify the analysis. The
true kinetic analysis of a rolling wheel or disc is examined in Programme 6. For the
present, it is enough to note that in order for the disc to roll, a friction force must
exist between rail and spindle, and it is this force which has been excluded from the
diagram.
Frame 38 comprises some more problems on the topic of rolling wheels.

318
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

38
PROBLEMS

1. A truck has a total mass of 1740 kg. It has six wheels; four are 0.8 m diameter,
each 95 kg, with a radius of gyration of 0.32 m; the other two are 1.2 m diameter,
each 150 kg, and radius of gyration 0.42 m. Calculate the force required to accelerate
the truck to a speed of 5 m s - t in a distance of 12m, along a straight level track.
Assume that there is no frictional resistance, and that the wheels roll without slip.
[Ans. 2219 N.]
Hint: see Frame 31 for the equivalent mass of various wheels. Calculate equivalent
mass, mE (2130.2 kg). (Recall I= mk 2 where k =radius of gyration.) Then
'1:-(F) =mEa.
2. A wheeled vehicle has a mass, including the wheels, of 1300 kg. A force of 3.5 kN
is required to haul it up a slope of !5° from rest a distance of6 metres in 9.6 seconds.
If it is then released from rest on the slope, how long would it take to roll back
down again, the same distance? Assume no frictional resistance to motion, and
that the wheels roll without slip. [Ans. 2.359 s.]
Hints: calculate the acceleration using a kinematic equation, and treat as in
Frame 34, to evaluate mE, the equivalent mass. You should get mE= 1530.5 kg.
Then use this to determine the acceleration down the slope.
3. A uniform solid cylinder is made of steel of density 7800 kg m- 3 • It has a length
of 40 mm and diameter 35 mm. It is mounted on a central spindle of diameter 6 mm.
It is arranged with the spindle resting horizontally on a pair of rails sloping at
10°. How long will it take for the disc to roll 1 metre down the rails? Neglect any
frictional resistance to motion, and assume that the spindle rolls without slip along
the rails. Neglect the inertia of the spindle itself. [Ans. 4.598 s.]
Hints: see Frame 36. The moment of inertia of a solid uniform disc is tmR 2 • So
determine I. Equivalent mass mE= I jr 2 where r is the spindle radius, not the disc
radius (mE= 5.4078 kg).
4. A car wheel of mass 6.5 kg, diameter 0. 75 m and radius of gyration 0.28 m is given
a rotating speed of 5 revolutions per second. It is then placed at the bottom of a
30° slope. How far up the slope will it travel before coming to rest? Assume no
slip at any time between wheel and slope, and neglect any frictional resistance.
[Ans. 22.037 m.]
Hints: calculate I, and hence mE (10.124 kg). Write equation of motion; weight
component down the slope is the only retarding force. Note that the problem could
be solved alternatively using an energy equation.

319
 DYNAMICS

39
A gearbox is a mechanical device for changing the speed of a rotating shaft. There
are many types, but the commonest form consists of a number of meshing toothed
wheels on parallel shafts.

A gearbox is necessary in a car because a petrol-engine operates efficiently only at

a much higher speed than the wheels rotate. Also the load varies considerably. For
example, when a car starts, the wheels need to move extremely slowly, and require
a high torque to move them, whereas when running fast, the torque needed is
comparatively small. Also, if the car ascends a steep hill, again a higher torque is
required at the driving wheels.
Think of some more examples of machines where a gearbox is needed.

40
An electrically-driven crane. Colliery winding-gear. A car lifting-jack.

Of course there are many others. In the first two of these, again, the need is to link
a high-speed driver-an electric motor-to a low-speed load-the crane load or the
mine cage. In the third, the speed is not relevant. As with pulley systems, as the speed
reduces, the force, or torque, is increased.
The following diagram shows a pair of gear-wheels 'in mesh', i.e. running together
without relative slip.
Ra

6A
If A turns through an angle () A• the corresponding movement at the rim must be
RA () A• and this rim movement must be the same for the mating wheel.

The displacement ratio() Af() 8 = R 8 / RA. This ratio G is called the gear ratio.

320
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

41
As with pulley systems, this ratio, G, applies to displacement, velocity and acceleration:

G=()A=WA=IY.A
()B WB IY.B

We now assume a torque M to act on the shaft of wheel A. As a consequence, the

system will accelerate, and we require the corresponding acceleration of wheel A. We
draw the free-body diagrams for both the wheels. The applied torque will cause a
tangential force F between the wheels at the rim, at the point of contact. This force
will act equally on both wheels but in opposite directions.

Ia

Ra

The equations of motion will be:

M-FxRA=IAaA
F X RB = !Br:J.B

Substituting for Fin the first, and also replacing a 8 by r:J.A/G

and we finish with a single system equation of the general form 1:(M) =Ia, the terms
in the brackets both having dimensions of moment of inertia ( G, the gear ratio, is a
number, and dimensionless). We call the sum of the terms in the bracket, the equivalent
inertia of the system, referred to shaft A. The system responds to a torque at this
point exactly as though it were a single inertia of this value. In the pulley system of
Frame 23, we had a similar result with masses; the effect of a 100 kg mass was the
same as that of a 4 kg mass at another point, and we used the term 'equivalent mass'.
Now repeat the analysis of this system, but this time, with a torque M applied to
wheel B instead of wheel A, and in terms of a 8 instead of r:J.A. This is done in the
following frame, but you should be able to find the answer yourself, as the working
is exactly similar throughout. Have a guess at the answer before you start.

321
 DYNAMICS

42
Here are the relevant free-body diagrams.

The equations now are:

M- F x R 8 = 18 a 8
FxRA=lAaA

Eliminating F as before, and substituting for aA with ( Ga 8 ):

M-RsC~:A )=1 8 a8

M = 18 a 8 + 1A(Ga 8 )G = a 8 (J 8 + G 2 lA)

43
From the results obtained in the previous frame, we see that the effect of an inertia
on a low-speed side of a gearbox is very much reduced when a torque is applied to
the high-speed side. Also, the effect of an inertia on the high-speed side of a gearbox
is very much enhanced, or increased, when a torque is applied to the low-speed side.
Car drivers will know the pronounced retarding effect that results when the engine
is engaged in 'low' gear as the car descends a steep hill. But if you want to start the
engine by pushing the car, you will find it almost impossible to move the car in 'low'
gear; you have to engage a 'higher' gear. (The words are in quote-marks, because
'low' gear to a driver means a high gear to an engineer, that is, a high ratio of engine
speed to wheel speed.)
For the remainder of this programme, we shall consider a gearbox simply as a
closed box, with input and output shafts, and the gear ratio, G, will always be the
ratio of the high speed to the low speed; that is, G will always be a number greater
than 1. Normally, the inertial effect of the moving wheels in the box is considered
negligible: if this is not so, allowance is made by including an equivalent inertia on
either the high-speed or low-speed shafts. The example in the following frame will
illustrate this.

322
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

44
1=7.4 kg m2
1=0.26 kg m2
~
/EO =0.08 kg m2
,-, 0
y G=5
I
~
- - - -
y I
MH
4
..,
),

0
Example. A gearbox having a ratio of 5 has wheels of moment of inertia 0.26 kg m 2
and 7.4 kg m 2 attached to the high-speed and low-speed shafts respectively. The
inertial effect of the box itself is equivalent to an added inertia of 0.08 kg m 2 on
the high-speed shaft. Calculate the torque M H required on the high-speed shaft to
bring the low-speed shaft up to 250 rev /min in 10 seconds. If this torque is removed,
calculate the braking torque required on the low-speed shaft to bring it to rest in
5 seconds.
Initially, the torque acts on the high-speed shaft, so we require the equivalent inertia
of the system referred to this shaft. For the second part, the torque is on the low-speed
shaft, and we shall want the equivalent inertia referred there.
So begin by calculating the two values of equivalent inertia, I Hand I L· Just substitute
the values in the two expressions of Frames 41 and 42. Then calculate the two angular
accelerations. The second (the retardation) will be twice the first because the same
change of speed takes half the time.

45
IH = 0.26 + 0.08 + (7.4/(5) 2) = 0.636 kg m2
/L = 7.4 + (0.26 + 0.08)(5) 2 = 15.9 kg m 2
Kinematic equation:

w 2 = 2n x N/60 = 2n x 250/60 = 26.18 rad s- 1

26.18 = 0 + Ct X 10
et = 2.618 rad s - 2 for the low-speed shaft

The high-speed shaft acceleration will be 5 times this.

MH = /HetH = 0.636(2.618 x 5) = 8.325 N m

For the second part, etL will be (2.618 x 2) rad s- 2

323
 DYNAMICS

46
There must be some energy loss in a gearbox. As with a pulley system, we take this
into account by defining the efficiency of the box.

'------+---" WL

A schematic diagram of a gearbox is shown. Note the direction of M L• the torque

on the low-speed side. If the output shaft transmits a clockwise torque to the load,
then the reaction torque on the box must be anti-clockwise, as shown. Assuming first
that no energy loss occurs, the work done at the high-speed input and the low-speed
output shafts per second must be equal. Thus:

So the torque is multiplied by the gear ratio as the speed is reduced by the same factor.
If we now assume some energy loss in the box, efficiency, IJ, is defined:

work done at output per second M LwL

IJ=
work done at input per second M HwH

M L = '7 ( : : ) M H = GI]M H

So the output torque is reduced by a factor of '7 from the theoretical value. This
assumes, incidentally, that the input to the gearbox is the high-speed shaft, which is
by far the most frequent case.

47
We shall now work through an example involving a gearbox with other components.
Example. A hoist comprises a drum of diameter 1.4 m and moment of inertia
34 kg m 2 . A load of mass 65 kg hangs from the drum, which is driven by a motor
through a reduction gearbox of ratio 124:1 and efficiency 0.9. The moving parts of
the gearbox are equivalent to an inertia of0.025 kg m 2 on the high-speed (input)
shaft. The driving motor has a constant output torque of 13.5 N m. Calculate the
upward acceleration of the load.
A schematic diagram of the arrangement is given in Frame 48, along with the
associated free-body diagrams. With this problem, it is simpler to complete all
calculations numerically as far as possible.

324
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

48

A clear diagram is essential to avoid errors. The motor output torque is shown as
M. The inertia corresponding to the gearbox moving parts is the rotor I 1 . M H is the
input torque to the gearbox, and M L the output torque. The drum inertia is I 2 • The
load acceleration is a, the drum acceleration is aL and the motor acceleration is aH.
We calculate all accelerations in terms of a, the required acceleration.
aL =a/ R = a/0.7 = 1.429a
aH = GaL= 124 x 1.429a = 177.2a
We may now write the equations of motion, starting with the inertia I 1, because we
are given the value of motor torque M.
M- MH =I I ctH
M H = M- I 1aH = 13.5-0.025 x 177.2a = 13.5- 4.43a
We use this expression for M H to write the equation for the gearbox.
ML = MH x G x 1J = 124 x 0.9( 13.5- 4.43a) = 1506.6- 494.4a
This enables the equation for the drum to be written:
ML-TR=I2ctL
T x 0. 7 = M L - I 2 rxL = 1506.6- 494a- 34 x 1.429a = 1506.6- 542.59a
T= 2152.3 -775.la
And finally, the linear equation of motion for the hanging load:
T-mg=ma
65a = 2152.3 -775.1a- 65 x 9.81
840.1a = 2152.3-637.7 = 1514.6
a= 1.8028 m s- 2
Some remarks concerning this solution follow in the next frame.

325
 DYNAMICS

49

Mistakes are easily made with this sort of problem, and it is worth spending a little
time discussing the procedures. You cannot be sure of a correct solution unless some
time is spent on careful and correct diagrams. Beginning with the load, the linear
acceleration is stated as being upwards. It follows that the rope tension, T, must be
greater than the load weight, mg. An upward rope tension on the load must mean a
downward rope tension on the drum (a rope, in any case, can only pull; it cannot
push). Further, an upward acceleration of the load is compatible with clockwise
drum acceleration, as drawn. Thus, the drum driving torque, M L, must be
clockwise, and opposite to the rope torque, T x R (R being the drum radius), which
of course tends to retard the drum. Since the gearbox drives the drum with
clockwise torque M L' the gearbox itself is subject to an equal and opposite
torque on the output shaft: this is Newton's Third Law applied to rotation. To make
this clearer, when a machine applies a torque to a load, the machine itself suffers an
equal and opposite reaction torque. Picture what happens when a hand-held drill
seizes up when drilling a hole: the drill is wrenched round in the opposite direction
to its rotation.
The diagram of the gearbox is not a free-body diagram, in that we do not need
the equation of motion, but only an input-output equation. The free-body diagram
of the small inertia on the high-speed input shaft again shows the equal and opposite
reaction torque to the gearbox input torque MH. And the motor output torque M
must exceed this by an amount sufficient to accelerate this inertia.
Although this problem may appear complex, the working is relatively simple because
each equation is developed, and used to substitute straight way in the next equation,
obviating the necessity of solving a number of simultaneous equations. Working is
simpler and clearer by substituting numbers and performing calculations where
possible. But it could be solved algebraically. If you prefer this kind of solution, you
should be able to show for yourself, by working sequentially as we did in Frame 48,
that the load acceleration, a, can be obtained from the equation:

where the terms are those used in the diagram, and the solution. Substituting the
appropriate values will give the same answer for a. It is seen once more that the
equation has the general form I:( F)= rna, with the three bracketed terms on the
right-hand side representing an equivalent mass for all the system elements.

326
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

50
So far, we have considered torque and acceleration at the same point of a gearbox.
We shall now consider the relation between the torque at the input, and the acceleration
at the output of the gearbox. We shall use the expressions derived earlier to work
through the following example.
Example. Rotors of moments of inertia 0.84 kg m 2 and 8.2 kg m 2 are attached to
the high-speed and low-speed shafts of a gearbox of ratio G. The inertia of the
gearbox moving parts is negligible, and the efficiency is 1. A torque of 5 N m acts
on the rotor on the high-speed shaft. Calculate the angular acceleration of the
low-speed shaft, for values of G of 2, 3, 4 and 5.
Using the expression from Frame 41:

M = aA(IA + I 8 /G 2 )
5 = 1XA(0.84 + 8.2/G 2 ) (1)

For G = 2:

5 = IXA X 2.89
aA = 1.7301 rad s- 2
IX 8 = IXA/G = 0.8651 rad S- 2

Now you complete the solution, calculating values of a 8 , the low-speed acceleration,
exactly as we have done here.

51
Including the result above, you should have the following:

For G = 2: a 8 = 0.8651 rad s - 2

For G = 3: a 8 = 0.9517 rad s - 2
For G = 4: a 8 = 0.9242 rad s - 2
For G=5: a 8 =0.8561 rad s- 2

and we have the interesting result that as G is increased, the low-speed shaft
acceleration also increases up to a value of G = 3, after which it then begins to fall.
This suggests that there is a possible value of G for which the low-speed shaft
acceleration would be a maximum, and this is so. To find this 'optimum' value for
G, arrange equation ( 1) in Frame 50 to give a 8 in terms of G, and then differentiate
with respect to G.

327
 DYNAMICS

52
Here is the working.
From Frame 50: 5 = aA(0.84 + 8.2/G 2 )
5
aA = 0.84 + 8.2/G 2
aA 5 5G
lis= G = G(0.84 + 8.2/G 2 ) = 0.84G 2 + 8.2

Now differentiate. We use the 'quotient' formula: d(u/v)=(vdu-udv)/v 2 :

d(a 8 ) = (0.84G 2 + 8.2)(5)- (5G)(2 x 0.84G + 0) = 0 for a maximum

d(G) (0.84G 2 + 8.2) 2

This is made simpler when we remember that for the expression to be zero, the top
line must be zero. Expanding, and putting equal to 0, therefore:

4.2G 2 + 41- 8.4G 2 = 0

giving: 4.2G 2 = 41

G = ~(9.762) = 3.124
and if we substitute this value for G in the expression for a 8 :

5 X 3.124 -0 9526
C(Bmax = 0.84( 3.124 )2 + 8.2 - '

This is higher than any of the four values calculated in Frame 51.

53
Optimum gear ratio for a maximum acceleration is an important feature of geared
systems. Car drivers know that high acceleration, as for example, when overtaking,
is often best achieved by changing to a lower gear.
Look at the example in Frame 47 again. Substitute the given values in the system
equation which was given at the end of Frame 49, except for G; just leave this as G.
This will give an equation relating G and a, the acceleration of the load. You should
be able to reduce the equation to the following form:

17.36G- 637.7
a=-------=-
134.4 + 0.0459G 2

and you can differentiate with respect to G, using the quotient formula as before.
This is done in the following frame, but try it yourself first.

328
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

54
Begin by substituting the values given in Frame 47.
13.5G X 0.9 6 ( 34 G2 X 0.025 X 0.9)
_
07 - 5 x 9.81 =a 65 + (0. 7 ) 2 + (0/7) 2

Completing the separate calculations gives:

17.36G- 637.7 =a( 65 + 69.4 + 0.0459G 2 )
17.36G- 637.7
a=-----~
134.4 + 0.0459G 2
We use the quotient formula to differentiate.
( 134.4 + 0.0459G 2 )( 17.36)- ( 17.36G- 637.7)(2 X 0.0459G)
for maximum a
( 134.4 + 0.0459G 2 ) 2 =O
Again, some simplification is effected by equating just the top line to 0.
Multiplying out at the same time:
2333.2 + 0.7968G 2 - 1.5936G 2 + 58.54G = 0
This simplifies further to:
0.7968G 2 - 58.54G- 2333.2 = 0
Dividing all terms by the coefficient of G 2 :
G2 - 73.47G- 2928.2 = 0
Solving the quadratic:

G=
+ 73.47 ± .J {(73.47) 2 - 4( -2928.2)}
=36.74± 2
1 J (5397.8+1 1 713 )
2
= 36.74 ± 65.40
= 102.1
The alternative negative solution has no practical sigoificance.

Here is a brief summary of gearboxes.

55
1. For a gearbox of ratio G ( G > 1) and efficiency IJ, with a torque input M on the
high-speed shaft, the output torque on the low-speed shaft will be M x GIJ.
2. For a gearbox of ratio G ( G > 1) and efficiency IJ, with a torque input M on the
low-speed shaft, the output torque on the high-speed shaft will be ( M I G)IJ.
3. When a load is driven by a constant torque through a gearbox of ratio G, with
inertias on input and output shafts, the load acceleration varies with G. There is
an optimum value of G for maximum load acceleration.

329
 DYNAMICS

56
PROBLEMS

1. A gearbox having an efficiency rJ has rotating elements of moments of inertia I H

and I L attached to the high-speed and low-speed shafts respectively.
(a) Show that a torque M applied to the high-speed shaft results in an acceleration
r:xH given by the equation:

(b) Show that a torque M applied to the low-speed shaft results in an acceleration
r:xL given by the equation:

Hint: draw free-body diagrams of the rotors. See Frame 46 to allow for loss of
energy in the box.
2. A gearbox has a gear ratio of G, and an efficiency of rJ. It carries rotating elements
of moments of inertia I Hand I Lon the high-speed and low-speed shafts respectively.
A torque M acts on the rotor on the high-speed shaft. Show that the maximum
acceleration of the low-speed shaft would occur for a value of

3.
R=0.3 m

A truck A of mass 820 kg is hauled up a slope of 17! a by a rope wound round a

drum B of radius 0.3 m and moment of inertia 66 kg m 2 • The drum is driven by
the output shaft of a gearbox (not shown) having a gear ratio of 56:1 and efficiency
0.85. The inertia of the gearbox rotating parts is equivalent to a rotor of moment
of inertia 0.009 kg m 2 on the high-speed (input) shaft of the box. The input shaft
is driven by an electric motor having a constant output torque of 16 N m. Calculate
the acceleration of the truck up the slope. [Ans. 0.0658 m s- 2.]
Hint: treat generally as the solution in Frame 48.

330
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

57
We have mentioned the car as an example of a geared system. The engine drives the
high-speed input shaft to the gearbox, through a clutch, which is a device for
disconnecting the drive from the engine when changing the gearbox ratio. Also, a
flywheel is attached to the high-speed engine shaft. The low-speed gearbox output
shaft passes to a second gearbox-the differential, the output shaft of this being the
actual driving-wheel axle. Torque on this axle drives the wheel, which in turn causes
the tangential friction force between road and wheel which constitutes the actual
driving force of the vehicle; this is called the tractive force. The motion of the car
itself may be subjected to resistance due to the air, and, if it is moving up a slope, a
component of its weight.
Here is a schematic diagram of the system.

The diagram is a simplified version of the actual system. The differential gearbox
is not included, and the gear ratio G is assumed to be the total ratio of the two boxes,
that is, the ratio engine speed:wheel speed. Only one wheel is shown; the inertia I w
is the moment of inertia of all four wheels. Usually, only two wheels drive the car,
the remaining two being driven by the car. But this does not invalidate the analysis.
The body of the car itself, shown as mass m, includes the mass of the wheels; this
point was made clear in Frame 31. The car is subjected to a resisting force, shown
as RF, due to air resistance, and also, it is assumed that it is being driven up a slope,
so that the component of weight, mg sine, also acts against the motion. The engine
torque is shown as M; the input torque to the gearbox is M H• and the output torque
to the wheels is M L·
In Frame 58, we shall derive a single system equation relating engine torque M to
car acceleration, a.

331
 DYNAMICS

58 Firstly, all accelerations are calculated in terms of the car acceleration, a.

We write the equation of motion for the flywheel IF:

M- M H=I FIXH =IF (~a)

MH=M-IF(~a)
For the gearbox:

M L = M H GYf = M GYf - G 2 Yfa)

IF ( -R-

The equation of motion for the wheel:

M L- F X R =I wiXL

FR = M L - /"'( i) = MGYf- IF( G~Yfa)- /w( i)

MGYf G 2 Yfa a
F=----I - - - I -
R F Rz w Rz
The equation of motion for the vehicle (L(F) = ma) will be:
F - R F - mg sin (} = ma

M%'7- IF( c;~a)- Iw(;z)- RF- mg sin(}= ma

Collecting all terms containing a on the right-hand side:

MGYf
---mg .
sm{}-RF=a ( m+ IFG-2-
/"' - + Yf)
R R2 R2
This is the single system equation of motion. The left-hand side is the nett driving
force on the vehicle, the first term being the effective driving force on the car due to
the engine torque, the second and third terms being the resisting forces resisting
motion. Hence the negative signs. In the event of the car moving down the slope, the
mg sin 8 term would be positive. On the right-hand side, in the bracket, we have the
now familiar expression for the equivalent masses of the component parts of the
system: the mass of the car itself, the effective mass of wheels, and the effective mass
of the flywheel, in turn.
Although the result of this calculation is of interest, the work is laborious, and in
a numerical example, the wiser procedure is to work arithmetically as far as possible,
as in Frame 47. An example follows.

332
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

59
Example. A vehicle has a total mass, including wheels of 1145 kg. The wheels have
a total inertia of 9.12 kg m 2 and the radius is 0.36 m. The rotating parts of the
engine and gearbox correspond to a moment of inertia of 0.48 kg m 2 on the engine
shaft. The overall gear ratio engine speed to wheel speed is 7.3. There is a frictional
resisting torque on the engine shaft of 25 N m, and a frictional resisting torque on
the wheels of 15 N m total. Motion of the vehicle is resisted by a wind force of 450 N.
Calculate the engine torque required to drive the vehicle up a slope of sin - I -k with
a forward acceleration of 1.75 m s - 2 .
The formula derived in Frame 58 incorporates a gearbox efficiency, Yf· In this example,
losses are given in terms of friction torques on the engine shaft and the gearbox
output shaft. So the formula will not apply here.
We begin, this time, at the 'road' end of the system instead of the engine, as
previously, because this time, the acceleration of the vehicle is given, and we are asked
to find the engine torque. So begin by drawing a free-body diagram of the vehicle,
and write the equation of motion. Show the vehicle tractive force (the tangential
friction force between wheels and road) as F. Since all required data are given, F can
be determined, and you should obtain a value for F of 3858 N. Complete the working
as far as you can before checking in the next frame.

60
- _ __.p-- a=1.75 m s-2

(1145g) N

The equation (l:(F) =rna):

F - 450 - 1145g sin 8 = 1145a

F = 1145 X 1.75 + 450 + 1145 X9.81 Xi= 3858 N

You can now draw a symbolic free-body diagram of the wheel as in the diagram in
Frame 57. Because the equation of motion of the vehicle includes the wheel mass,
we may treat the wheel as a purely rotating body. So draw the diagram and write
the equation. The angular acceleration ex is calculated from the linear acceleration of
the vehicle. Show the driving torque on the axle as M w· You can then solve the
equation and determine M"'" You should get a value of 1433 N m.

333
 DYNAMICS

61
R

\
I
fa.

------
F:3858 N

Note that the tractive force, G, though directed forwards on the vehicle, exerts a
retarding effect on the wheel itself. This is equivalent to saying that the axle driving
torque, M ""is required both to accelerate the vehicle forwards, and also to accelerate
the wheels. The equation of motion is:

Mw-FxR=lwr:t..
Mw=lwr:t..+FxR
= 9.12( 1. 75/0.36) + 3858 x 0.36 = 1433 N m

This brings us to the gearbox. We must now add the friction torque on the wheels
to the above figure; this gives the gearbox output torque. From this, you can calculate
the gearbox input torque. A diagram is not necessary for this. Because friction losses
are given numerically, we may assume a gearbox efficiency of 1 for the calculation.
You should find the gearbox input torque is 198.4 N m.

62
Calling gearbox input torque MH (subscript H for 'high'):

M _Mw+15_1433+15_ 1984
H- G - 7.3 - . N m

The final state is the free-body diagram, and the equation for the inertia on the
engine output shaft. Call the engine output torque M. The angular acceleration of
the inertia is calculated, as before, from the vehicle linear acceleration. The engine
torque is positive, and the friction torque on the engine shaft and the gearbox input
torque are of course negative. Your equation should give an answer of 240.4 N m
for the required engine torque.

334
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

63

The equation (l:(M) =/a) is:

M- 25- 198.4 =/a= 0.48( 1.75/0.36 x 7.3)
M = 17.0 + 25 + 198.4
=240.4 N m

64
Sometimes, gearboxes may be used in combination. Look at this arrangement.

lc
le 4~
/A
~
High Low High Low
lnp ut G, G2
M ~
A
B 4~
c
A torque M acts on the high-speed input shaft of the system. We want to find the
corresponding acceleration of the rotor A on the input shaft.
If it is assumed that there is no loss in either gearbox, the answer is quite simply
obtained, and indeed can be written straight down. To start you in the right direction,
look back to Frame 41.

The system equation of motion is:

65
M =a(! A+ 18/Gi + lc/GiG~)
This is how we obtain it. We deal first with the input and output to the second
gearbox, and 'refer' I c to the input shaft. Thus, I c has an 'effective' moment of inertia
of(/c/G~) when referred to the intermediate shaft. We may now forget the gearbox
G 2 . Box G 1 now has inertia /A on the high-speed side and an equivalent inertia of
(/ 8 + Ic/GD on its low-speed side. 'Referring' this latter to the high-speed shaft by
dividing again by the square of the ratio, the total referred inertia on the system input
shaft is (I A+ I 8/ Gi +I cl Gf GD. A similar reasoning would show that the equivalent
inertia of the system referred to the low-speed shaft would be (I A Gf G~ +I 8 G~ +I c).

335
 DYNAMICS

66
This next example shows how optimum gear ratio, which we examined in Frame 52,
is affected by a two-stage gear reduction.
Example. Rotors having moments of inertia of I, 12 and 100 kg m 2 are attached
to the high-speed, intermediate-speed and low-speed shafts respectively of a
two-stage reduction gear system, which consists of two reduction gearboxes, each
of efficiency 0.9 and ratio G. A constant torque of 25 N m acts on the input
(high-speed) end of the system. The low-speed shaft drives a load which has a
constant resisting torque of 40 N m. Determine what value of G will result in
maximum acceleration of the low-speed output shaft, and determine this maximum
acceleration.
Writing the equation of motion for each rotor, and the equation for each gearbox,
is preferable to attempting to determine equivalent inertias. Here is a diagram of the
system.

100 kg m2
12 kg m2
1 kg m2

G, 11 G, 11

The kinematics have already been incorporated by indicating accelerations of a, Ga

and G 2 a on the low-, intermediate- and high-speed shafts respectively.
The solution which follows uses an alternative, and somewhat simpler approach
to previous solutions, which eliminates the necessity of drawing free-body diagrams
for every component. It is clear that although 25 N m acts on the high-speed input
shaft, 25 N m will not be the torque input to the first gearbox, because some of this
torque will be used in accelerating the first rotor. We may call this part the 'inertia
torque' of that rotor. Thus:

input to first gearbox= 25- ( 1 x G 2 a) N m

gearbox output torque= 0.9G(25- G2 a) = 22.5G- 0.9G 3 a N m

(recalling that gearbox output torque= G x input torque x efficiency). We continue

in Frame 67, working through the system, subtracting inertia torque, and multiplying
by a gearbox factor as appropriate. You should be able to write the input torque to
the second box yourself. Do so, and check your attempt in the following frame.

336
 COUPLED AND GEARED SYSTEMS

67
input torque to second gearbox= 22.5G- 0.9G 3 oc- ( 12 x Goc)

(Again, we just subtract the torque required to accelerate the second inertia.)

2nd gearbox output torque= 0.9G(22.5G- 0.9G 3 oc- 12Goc) N m

= 20.25G 2 - 0.81G 4 oc- 10.8G 2 oc N m

And finally, the torque of 40 N m available to drive the load must be this output
torque less the inertia torque of the last rotor

This is the equation of motion for the whole system. Arrange with all the oc terms on
the left-hand side:

oc( 100 + 10.8G 2 + 0.81G 4 ) = 20.25G 2 - 40

The bracketed terms on the left-hand side are the equivalent inertias, referred to the
output shaft. By dividing throughout by this bracket, we get oc in terms of G.

20.25G 2 -40
oc = 100 + 10.8G 2 + 0.81G 4

We now have to differentiate oc with respect to G. Although this looks formidable,

we shall see that it is not too difficult.

We use the quotient formula for differentiating:

68
d(ujv) = v d(u)- u d(v)
vz

But remembering that because we are seeking a maximum for oc, we shall equate the
expression to zero, remember that for the whole expression to be zero, the top line
must be zero. Hence:

vd(u)-ud(v)=O

Although we shall still finish with an expression involving G4 , the calculation is more
tedious than difficult. Attempt to derive the expression yourself first, before checking
in Frame 69.

337
 DYNAMICS

69
( 100 + 10.8G 2 + 0.81G 4 )(2G X 20.25)- (20.25G 2 - 40)( 10.8 X 2G + 0.81 X 4G 3 ) = 0

Simplify by dividing throughout by G. Then multiply out all the brackets:

4050 + 437.4G 2 + 32.805G 4 - 437.4G 2 - 65.61G 4 + 864 + 129.6G 2 = 0

32.805G 4 - 129.6G 2 - 4914 = 0

and what appeared to be a fourth-power equation in G is now seen to be a fairly

simple quadratic in G 2 . We simplify further by dividing all terms by 32.805:

G4 - 3.951G 2 - 149.8 = 0

Solve this yourself; you will find that G 2 is 14.37. The negative value is not relevant
to the problem. Thus, G = J (14.37) = 3.791. Also, substitute in the expression for IX
in Frame 67 to obtain the required maximum value for IX which you should find,
works out at 0.5941 rad s- 2•

70
PROBLEMS

1. A car has a mass of 1075 kg. It has four wheels of diameter 0.75 m and inertia
1.75 kg m 2 • The overall gear ratio engine speed to wheel speed is 6.2: 1. The engine
rotating parts have an effective inertia of0.32 kg m 2 • The engine delivers a constant
torque of 165 N m. There are friction torques of 30 N m on the engine shaft and
25 N m total on the wheels. Find the acceleration of the car along a straight level
road, assuming a resistance due to the air of 400 N. [Ans. 1.456 m s- 2.]
Hint: solve generally as in Frame 58.
2. A car has a total mass of 1050 kg. The wheels are 0.67 m diameter and have a
total moment of inertia of 8.5 kg m 2 . The rotating engine parts are equivalent to
a moment of inertia of 0.34 kg m 2 on the high-speed input shaft to the gearbox.
The transmission efficiency is 0.9. The engine delivers a constant torque of 85 N m.
If resistance due to air is 350 N, show that the acceleration of the car up a slope
of sin- 1 0.1 can be calculated from:

G- 6.043
a= 4.93 + 0.0119G 2

Find the value of G for the highest acceleration, and find this acceleration. [Ans.
27.24. 1.54 m s-".]
Hint: use formula from Frame 58.

338
 Programme 10

SIMPLE VIBRATION

339
 DYNAMICS

1
This programme is concerned with the analysis of some simple vibrating systems.
They will all be examples of what is called Free Undamped Response. This term will
be explained later. This subject is important in many branches of engineering:
mechanical systems vibrate, buildings and structures vibrate, and electrical circuits
oscillate. ('Oscillation' is just another word for vibration.) You will deal more
thoroughly with the subject later in your course. Moreover, vibration analysis forms
an excellent discipline for the analysis of mechanical system generally. You should
find that writing the correct equation of motion for a vibrating system will reinforce
your understanding of other dynamics problems. The programme comes at the end
of the book because it calls upon various principles established in earlier programmes.
You will find that we shall make use of work done in Programmes 1, 5, 6, 7 and 9.
Referring to Programme 5 in particular, be clear at the outset that vibration is a case
of variable acceleration. So never be tempted in this programme to make use of the
well-known kinematic equations of Programme 1, Frame 48.

2
You may have met the term 'mathematical model' in the past, and may not be clear
about it. A mathematical model is a simplification of an object, or system of objects,
the purpose of which is to leave off everything which is unimportant and not relevant
to the main aim of the problem, which, in the case of vibration analysis, is to obtain
an equation of motion. We have used mathematical models quite a lot in this book,
without using the name. The configuration diagrams of Programmes 2 and 3 are
mathematical models of link-mechanisms, because we draw a link just as a straight
line. And in Programme 9, we make a model when we draw a winding drum just as
a simple circle. Vibration analysis is a good subject for mathematical models; you
have to be particularly careful to get your model right. Here is an illustration.
It is very probable that you learned at some point the derivation of the formula
for the simple pendulum-the expression for the period. Can you recall the formula?
Can you also recall what is meant by 'period'? And finally, do you remember, in
deriving the formula, that you needed to make several 'assumptions'? As a small test
of memory, try and write the formula -you may possibly have learned the expression
for frequency, instead of period, but it doesn't matter. The point of importance is the
assumptions made during the analysis. See if you can recall any of them. You will
find four of the most important ones in the next frame.

340
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

The formula is:

where r (Greek tau) is the period (the time for one complete
swing) in seconds, and L is the length of the pendulum.

Here are the four most important assumptions made in deriving the formula.
1. The pendulum 'bob' is very small and is assumed to be just a particle.
2. The string has no mass.
3. Any effects due to surrounding air are neglected.
4. The angle of swing is small.
Students tend to memorise such assumptions, because they might crop up in an
examination question, but do not always appreciate their significance. Why not analyse
a system as it is, without making assumptions?
One reason is that whatever you may imagine to be the power of mathematics in
engineering science, in fact, it has very severe limitations. For example, the ordinary
maths learned at school would be quite inadequate to analyse the simple pendulum
accurately, if the angle of swing were not limited to, say, 10°, but was for example,
60°. Another reason is, that analysing a simple system, even though the result may be
of very little practical use, is a stepping-stone to analysing more complex systems,
the results of which could well be useful. Thus, although you analyse the simple
pendulum, and then may not see any practical applications of it, you are well on the
way to analysing the compound pendulum, the result of which is much more useful.
Analysis, then, consists of looking at a real system, and making a mathematical
model of it, which means, simplifying it purely in order to have something that can
be analysed with reasonable ease. The big question that this raises is, is the result
accurate? If it is, then the procedure is vindicated; your mathematical model was a
good one. If it isn't, the model was a poor one, and you must choose a more refined
model. If your formula for the simple pendulum does not agree sufficiently closely
with the swing of a clock pendulum, you must abandon the assumption that the mass
of the pendulum is concentrated at a point; in other words, you must analyse a
compound pendulum.
A last remark about models. A model which is good for one result may be quite
inadequate for another. The simple pendulum formula will be found to predict the
period, or frequency of a small weight on a long string with very high accuracy. But
it is useless if you wish to predict how long it will take the pendulum to come to rest.
For this purpose, you will need a more refined model, which assumes some friction
or resisting force acting on the pendulum.

341
 DYNAMICS

4
Below is a mathematical model for a body oscillating at the end of a spring. This is
one of the simplest vibrating systems we can devise.

m denotes the mass of the vibrating body. The spring is shown as having a stiffness
k. The stiffness of a spring is defined as the force to extend or compress it by 1 unit.
It is measured in newtons per metre (N m - l ). Thus:

k = !_
X

where x is the extension or compression. The body is shown resting on a horizontal

surface with small symbolic rollers under it; this is a convention to indicate that there
is assumed to be no friction between body and surface. The left-hand end of the spring
is shown attached to a hatched vertical line. This convention is used to indicate an
absolutely rigid and fixed point.

5
We make the following assumptions.
1. The body is infinitely rigid. The result of the analysis will be found accurate for,
say a 2 kg weight on a spring, but may not be accurate for a thin flat steel bar
held transversely on the end of a spring.
2. The spring has no mass. The result will probably be inaccurate for the case of a
1 kg weight on the end of a spring of mass 5 kg.
3. The spring anchorage is infinitely rigid-it will not move under any force.
4. There are no friction or air-resisting forces present.
5. The body is constrained to move only along a path coincident with the spring
axis; it cannot move sideways or twist.
We shall find that the assumption of no friction or resistance is the one which is
most difficult to reconcile with real systems. The result of this present analysis will
indicate that our vibrating system will go on for ever. Real vibrating systems eventually
die down, owing to resisting forces which we have assumed not to be there. These
forces are called damping forces, and vibration analysis which includes them is called
damped vibration. Analysis of damped vibration will not be undertaken in this book.

342
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

6
The diagram in Frame 4 shows the system components. Below, we show the dynamic
system, and the free-body diagram of the vibrating body.

We show a '+' sign, indicating that all quantities left-to-right are to be considered
positive. Because, by their nature, vibrating systems move in both directions, we
always begin by adopting a sign convention. The convention is arbitrary: we could
as easily have taken positive as right-to-left. We have also assumed the body to have
a displacement x, relative to the position of static equilibrium, and x must be positive,
as defined by the sign convention.
At this point, we must explain the term 'free response'. The 'response' of a system
is the manner in which it behaves under certain conditions. A car is a good example
of a vibrating system; it has a mass and is mounted on springs. You could cause the
car to vibrate by pressing down on the body, and then releasing it; the car would
vibrate up and down for a short time, and would then come to rest. This sort of
response is called free response, because there is just an initial disturbance which is
not repeated. But if you switched on the engine, the car would again vibrate but this
time in a different manner; it would shake up and down a small amount in sympathy
with the running engine. This is forced response; the vibration resulting from a
continuous disturbance. In the example we are analysing, we are seeking the free
response. We assume that the system has already been set vibrating-the body has
been pulled to one side and released, for example-and we are examining it while it
is vibrating.
The diagram above is therefore not a representation of a static situation. The body
is oscillating backwards and forwards, and we are drawing it at an instant when it is
displaced x to the right-we are 'freezing' the motion, so to speak. Students new to
the subject often make the mistake of confusing this with a state of static equilibrium.
The free-body diagram is also shown. Because the body is a distance x to the right
of the neutral position (when the spring is unstretched ), the spring will be in tension,
and the force in it will be ( kx ). The free-body diagram also shows the weight acting
downwards, and the surface reaction force acting upwards. But since motion is
constrained along an axial line, these two forces must be equal and opposite, and do
not affect the vibratory motion.

343
 DYNAMICS

7
We can now write the equation of motion. Recall Programme 5 here; the acceleration
is not constant, and the equation of motion will be a differential equation in x and t.
Throughout this programme, we shall adopt the 'dot' notation:

Try to write the differential equation of motion correctly for this simple system. The
equation of motion (L(f) =rna) is ...

8
-(kx) = mx
The negative sign is of paramount importance. The force ( kx) is to the left, and
therefore negative.
Throughout this programme, we shall always manipulate the equation so that the
second differential term is on the left-hand side of the equation, and has a coefficient
of 1. So, dividing by m and re-arranging:

x= -(k/m)x

and because both k and m are constants, the equation may be written even more
simply as:

x= -Cx
where Cis a constant which in this particular case has the value (k/m).
Before solving the equation, we shall examine some other simple systems. First,
however, note what would have been the result of adopting a 'left is positive' sign
convention. We should then have had to assume that the body was displaced a
distance x to the left of the neutral position. This would have put the spring into
compression, and the resulting force on the body would then have been (kx) to the
right, in other words, negative. Thus, the equation of motion would have been exactly
the same.
Now imagine that we have the same body, of mass m, attached to the same spring,
of stiffness k, but this time, hanging vertically, instead of being horizontal. We must
obtain the equation of motion when this system is set vibrating. Begin by drawing
the dynamic system, and assuming a 'down is positive' convention. From there, try
to draw the free-body diagram. Remember that the displacement x will be from the
position of static equilibrium, not from the position when the spring is unstrained.

344
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

The dynamic diagram of the system, and the free-body diagram are shown.
9

t
G
•
~mg

•
+ +
In the dynamic system, the position of static equilibrium is shown as a chain-line.
In the free-body diagram, the spring-force is shown as F. When the system is stationary,
in equilibrium, the force in the spring will be the weight of the body (mg). If the
spring is then stretched an additional distance y, the spring force F will be:
F=mg+ky
So we write the equation of motion:
mg - F = rna = m ji
mg- (mg + ky) = mji
which simplifies to:
-ky = mji
ji= -(kjm)y= -Cy
which is, of course, exactly the same equation as we obtained for the first example,
except in the trivial detail of using y for displacement instead of x.

10
Now we shall look at an example of torsional oscillation. Imagine a disc attached to
one end of a steel rod, the other end of which is clamped in a vice. If the disc is given
a twist and then released, it will begin to vibrate torsionally. The steel rod will behave
as a torsional spring, and we may define torsional stiffness, k 0 in a similar way to
spring stiffness defined in Frame 4.
k 1 = MjfJ
where M is the torque, in newton metres, () is the corresponding angle of twist, in
radians, and k1 is the stiffness, in newton metres per radian.
The dimensions of torsional stiffness will not be the same as those of linear stiffness.
What will the dimensions of each be?

345
 DYNAMICS

11
[k] = force =mass x acceleration= M x L/T 2 = MT_ 2
displacement displacement L
[k 1] = torque =force x length= ML/T 2 x L = MUT_ 2
ang. displ. radians -

The diagram shows the system, along with the free-body diagram of the disc.

-~lJ
-

j
' ()

We have chosen a sign convention that 'clockwise is positive' when the disc is
viewed from above. k1 defines the torsional stiffness of the rod, and I is the polar
moment of inertia of the disc, that is, the moment of inertia about a vertical axis
through the disc centre.
The assumptions we make are:
1. The disc is infinitely rigid.
2. The rod has negligible mass.
3. The rod anchorage is infinitely rigid.
4. There are no friction or air-resistance torques present.
5. The disc can twist only; it cannot move up or down or side-to-side.
And you will see that these assumptions are exact analogues of those in Frame 5.
At the instant of viewing, the disc is assumed to be displaced by an angle () from
the position of static equilibrium, in the positive direction.
The free-body diagram is a view looking vertically downwards on to the top of the
disc. There will of course be the weight acting, and also a tension force in the rod
balancing this, but these are not relevant to the oscillatory motion. The only relevant
item is the torque in the rod arising out of the twist e. Because the rod is twisted
clockwise, it must exert an anti-clockwise torque on the disc.
The motion is rotational. The general equation of motion, L(M) = Irx, applies.
So, the equation of motion will be ...

346
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

12

- (kJJ) = Irx = Ili

lf= -(ktfl)O= -ce

Cis a constant, in this case (k 1 / /). It is seen that mathematically, this second-order
differential equation is the same as that in Frame 8.
At this point, we may state that every example of free undamped response will be
found to have the same type of differential equation of motion. Let us recapitulate
the meanings of the terms used.
Free response of a system means its behaviour once it has been set in motion and
then allowed to continue moving under the action of its own internal forces only,
and subject to no further external disturbance. Thus, if a weight hangs from a spring,
we may pull the weight to extend the spring: this is the initial disturbance. We then
release it; no further disturbance acts on the system; its motion is determined purely
by the dynamics of the weight, the spring and the spring anchorage.
Damped response is the response of a system which is subjected to external or
internal forces which cause the vibration to die down. An example is the resistance
due to air or other fluid in which the system operates. Another example is hysteretic
damping, arising out of the energy lost to the system due to the continual stressing
of the material of the spring element. Sometimes, damping is deliberately introduced
into a system, to ensure that vibration initiated by some external cause does not
persist for inconveniently long periods. An illustration of this is a vehicle suspension
system, which includes shock absorbers, the function of which is to cause vibrations
to die away quickly, when the vehicle runs over some irregularity such as a stone, or
a pot-hole in the road. A car speed indicator is damped mechanically, so that changes
of speed do not cause it to oscillate too much, and thus make it ineffectual for its
purpose.
It is clear that all real systems are damped, and that in consequence, the
mathematical model of an undamped system is highly theoretical, although very useful.
Now try to draw the system diagram for a simple pendulum, and the free-body
diagram. Here are three hints. Firstly, do not bother to limit the swing to a small
angle. Secondly, treat the system as a rotational one, not translational. Thirdly, when
drawing the free-body diagram, the' body' should comprise the pendulum bob together
with the string.
The complete analysis is found in Frame 13.

347
 DYNAMICS

13
_t

m
+

~+
m~
A sign-convention 'anti-clockwise is positive' has been chosen, and the pendulum is
shown with an instantaneous anti-clockwise displacement 8. The assumptions made
were set out in Frame 3. (Never mind the one about small angles for the present.)
The right-hand diagram is the free-body diagram. Because we are treating the system
as a rotational system, we include the string as well. The forces acting are thus, the
weight (mg) acting vertically downwards, and a force exerted by the string anchorage
on the string. We do not know this force, and have represented it by arrows showing
unknown vertical and horizontal components.
The system is rotating about the point 0. The equation L(M) = Ia applies. Since
the pivot force passes through 0, its moment will be zero. Only the force (mg) is
relevant. The moment of (mg) about 0 will be the moment of the component of (mg)
perpendicular to the string; the component along the string will have no moment
about 0. So the equation of motion (paying due attention to the sign convention) is:
-(mg sine x L)=la=J{j
I is defined by L( <5mr 2 ). Since the only mass-element is m, and this is concentrated
at radius L:
l=mU
Hence:
- (mg sin(} x L) = mL2 {j
which can be simplified to:
{j= -(g/L) sin(}
Now this equation is not of the expected form: it should be {j = - C8. The presence
of the sin(} upsets this pattern. But we know that for small values of 8, we may say
that sin(} is approximately equal to angle (} in radians. With this condition now
included, therefore, the equation becomes:
tf= -(g/L)8= -C{}
and the equation is seen now to have the same form as the earlier ones.

348
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

14
A compound pendulum is a body which may not be considered as a single concentrated
mass, swinging from a pivot.

mg
The analysis follows the same lines as that of the simple pendulum. The equation
L(M) = Irx applies. The free-body diagram shows only the weight (mg) to be relevant.
Point G is the mass centre of the body, and it is a distance h from the pivot 0. We
call the moment of inertia of the pendulum with respect to a transverse axis through
the pivot 0, I o· The equation of motion is:
-(mg sine x h)=Iorx=I)J
and if we stipulate again that angle e be small, this can be simplified to:
ll= -(mgh/1 }8= -ce
0

Now look at the system shown in Frame 15.

15

Example. A bar is pivoted at a point 0 to a rigid mounting. The mass centre of

the bar is G, a distance a from 0. The moment of inertia of the bar about a transverse
axis through 0 is I o. The bar is held in the horizontal position by a spring of
stiffness k, attached to a rigid mounting, so that the spring axis is vertical. The bar
is given an initial small displacement and then released. Derive the differential
equation of motion.
Here are some points to get you going. Assume 'clockwise is positive'. Assume a
small angular displacement 8 from the neutral horizontal position. Calculate the
additional spring force resulting from this displacement.

349
 DYNAMICS

16
Accurate determination of the extension of the spring when the bar moves would
need the actual length of the spring. But for a small angular displacement of the bar,
then it may be assumed that the small arc through which the lower end of the spring
moves is the spring extension. Similarly, the spring may be assumed to remain vertical,
and its axis remain at right-angles to the axis of the bar. Thus, for a displacement (}
of the bar, the spring extension will be (b(}) and the increase of tensile force in the
spring will be (kb(}). Calling the initial tensile force in the spring (in the position of
static equilibrium) F 0 , the spring force will then be (F 0 + kb(}). Determination ofF 0
requires the free-body diagram of the bar in the position of static equilibrium, i.e.
when(}= 0. Both this diagram and the diagram for the displaced position are shown
here.

Fo

r---lj-3--
F0 +kb8

mg
-~-± mg

Both diagrams include unknown forces at the pivot 0, but for moment equations
about 0, these forces are not required. For static equilibrium, taking moments of
forces about 0:

F 0 b=mga

and for the dynamic free-body diagram, again taking moments about 0:

mga- (F 0 + kb(})b = l 0 rt. = fo{j

mga- F 0 b- kb 2 (} = f 0 {j

and since F 0 b = mga:

giving
The equation is once more of the expected form.
In Programme 6, Frame 10 we stressed the importance of always writing a moment
equilibrium equation about the mass centre only when analysing the dynamics of a
rigid body. But it is quite correct to write a dynamic equation (I:(M) = /rx.) with
respect to other points.

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 SIMPLE VIBRATION

17
PROBLEMS

1.

·I
k YlL

A thin uniform bar of mass m and length L is pivoted at one end so that it can
turn in a horizontal plane. Two springs, each of stiffness k, are attached at the two
third-length points as shown, so that the spring axes are perpendicular to the bar.
Show that for small angular oscillations, the equation of motion will be:

{f= -(-ik/m)O

Hints: / 0 for the bar is tmL2 • The bar moves in a horizontal plane, so weight does
not affect the motion.
2.

An irregular bar is supported on a pivot at 0. A coiled spring of stiffness k is

attached to the bar at a distance a from the pivot, the other end of the spring
being secured to a fixed mounting. The spring axis is perpendicular to the axis of
the bar. The mass centre of the bar, G, is distant h from the pivot. In static
equilibrium, the bar hangs vertically. If the bar is displaced a small amount from
the vertical and released, show that the equation ofthe resulting vibratory motion is:

where I 0 is the moment of inertia of the bar with respect to a transverse axis
through the pivot and m is the mass of the bar.
Hints: use the methods of Frames 15 and 16.

351
 DYNAMICS

18 Sometimes, the 'mass-element' might comprise two parts. Look at this.

k

The compound pulley turns about a fixed axis. A light string connects the spring to
the larger radius of the compound pulley. A weight hangs vertically by a second string
from the smaller pulley. It is clearly a vibrating system; if the weight is pulled down
(or raised up) a small amount and released, the system will vibrate.
Begin the analysis by assuming a 'clockwise-positive' convention. Assume the pulley
to have a small angular clockwise displacement e. Calculation of the initial spring
force is simple; an equilibrium diagram is probably unnecessary. Separate free-body
diagrams will be required for weight and pulley. You will need an equation of
compatibility for the two accelerations. Call the string tension force T. Remember
that if clockwise is positive for the pulley, this means that downwards must be positive
for the weight.
This analysis is similar to several examples in Programme 9. The one in Frame 10
is typical.

19
If we consider the system in static equilibrium, calling the spring tension force F 0 , it
should not be necessary to draw a diagram to show that:

F 0 xR 2 =mgxR 1

Rotation of the pulley through a small angle e will extend the spring by an amount
+ k8R 2 ).
(8R 2 ). The spring force will thus be (F 0

t
G!
!
mg
+

The figure shows the two free-body diagrams.

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 SIMPLE VIBRATION

20
The equation of motion of the pulley (L(M) =let.) is:

TR 1 -(F 0 + keR 2 )R 2 =let.= [{j (1)

Calling the acceleration of the weight a, the equation of motion of the weight
(L(F) =rna) will be:

mg- T=ma (2)

The compatibility equation relating &'and a is:
a= (JR 1 (3)

Substituting for a in equation (2) and re-arranging:

T= mg- m(JR 1

and substituting now for T in equation ( 1):

R 1 (mg-m(JR 1 )-F 0 R 2 -keR~=[{j

mgR 1 - mRi(J- F 0 R 2 - kR~e = J{j

The static-equilibrium equation of Frame 19 shows that the first and third terms
cancel out.

lf(I + mRi) = -e(kR~)

{J=-e( kR~ )=-ce

I +mRi

and it is seen that the general pattern of the equation is the same as in the earlier
examples. The bottom line of the expression in brackets may be recognised as an
'equivalent inertia' of pulley and weight combined.
The equation may be expressed in terms of (J and e, or in terms of the linear
acceleration and displacement of the weight, y and y, as a matter of convenience or
choice. You could perhaps show for yourself that the equation above can be arranged
to form the following:

.. __ (k(R 2 /Rd 2 )- -C
Y- y l/Ri+m - y

the constant C now, of course having a different value. In this equation, the bottom
line of the constant now is the equivalent mass of the system, referred to the position
of the hanging weight.
Seven different vibrating systems have been shown all to result in a second-order
differential equation of the same form. The two problems in Frame 21 are left for
you to analyse.

353
 DYNAMICS

21 PROBLEMS
m
1.

A right-angled crank pivots about a point 0 and can move only in a horizontal
plane. A body of mass m is attached by a light rod, and is constrained to move
in the frictionless guide. A spring of stiffness k is attached as shown. Show that
for small oscillations of the system, the equation of motion is:

lJ _
--
e( ka 2 )
I +mb 2

where I is the moment of inertia of the crank about an axis through the pivot-point.
2.
k

A light string passes from a fixed point round a pulley and is attached to one end
of a spring of stiffness k. The other end of the spring is attached to a fixed point.
A weight of mass m hangs from the pulley as shown. The pulley radius is R, its
mass mP and its moment of inertia about the central axis is I. The string does not
slip on the pulley. Show that the equation of motion for a small pulley displacement
fJ is:

li-
--
e( 4kR2
I+(m+mp)R 2
)

Hints: assume small rotation f) of the pulley. The spring will stretch (28R) and
pulley and weight will descend (fJR). (See Programme 9, Frames 28 and 29.) Thus
linear acceleration a of pulley and weight is ( ~·R). Two equations required for
pulley: translation and rotation. The string forces on the two sides of the pulley
will not be the same. In this example, ignore weight of hanging weight and pulley,
and also initial static spring tension.

354
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

22
We now have to solve the differential equation. This means, finding some function
of the variables which will satisfy the equation. So, if our equation involves a variable
x and the second differential of x with respect to time, the solution to the equation
will be another equation, relaxing x and t, and this second equation, the solution,
can then be used to solve specific problems.
It is often possible to find more than one solution to a differential equation. Consider
the equation:

.X= 12t
If you write

and check by differentiating x twice, you will see that x = 2t 3 is a valid solution: in
other words, it is a solution which will satisfy the equation. But this is not sufficient.
If you had solved the equation by integrating twice, you would have included a
constant of integration at each stage.
Differential equations of vibrating systems cannot be solved by direct integration.
Therefore constants must be included in the solution-two constants, in the case of
second-order equations. Such a solution is called the general solution of the equation.
When solving problems of vibration, always begin with the general solution to the
equation, and then evaluate the constants of integration from the data provided.

23
The solution of the equation:
x= -Cx
IS:

x =A sin(y'(C)t +B)

and you can verify this for yourself by differentiating twice and proving that the
original equation is satisfied. A and B are the two constants of integration we have
specified as necessary for a general solution.
Another form of the solution is:

x =A sin(y' ( C)t) + B cos(y' ( C)t)

and yet another form is:

x =A e.J(CJit + B e-.J(CJir

although of course, the constants A and B would be different.

355
 DYNAMICS

24

Of the three solutions in Frame 23, the first is the one we shall use. Knowing that
the function represents the behaviour of a vibrating system, we should not be surprised
to find that it is a sine function. If we are asked to sketch a graph of displacement
against time for the vibrating body, our sketch would probably suggest a sine curve.
You may, of course, provide yourself with some extra practice by solving some of
the exercises and problems in this programme by using the second or third of these
solutions.
There is a final adjustment to be made before starting some problems. The (J C)
term can be avoided simply by adopting a squared term for our constant in the first
place. So instead of calling the constant C, we shall call it w 2 • This is not mere
perversity; we shall find later that there is a good reason for choosing the Greek
letter w (omega). For the present, this change implies firstly, that the differential
equation of motion can always be expressed in the form:

and secondly, that the general solution to this equation is:

x =A sin( wt +B)

The equation, in the form above, probably reminds you of Simple Harmonic Motion,
as indeed it should, as free undamped vibration is an example of Simple Harmonic
Motion. We shall go a little more deeply into this when we discuss the interpretation
of the general solution, in Frame 26.
Now, by referring back to Frames 8, 12, 13 and 14, obtain the general solutions
to the equations of motion for:
(a) a weight of 4 kg on the end of a spring of stiffness 800 N m- 1 ;
(b) a disc of moment of inertia 0.8 kg m 2 on the end of a torsional spring of stiffness
2.4 N m rad - 1 ;
(c) a simple pendulum having a mass of 0.5 kg at the end of a string oflength 1.8 m.
(d) a thin uniform steel rod of length 1.4 m and mass 2.2 kg, swinging in a vertical
plane about an axis at one end. The moment of inertia of a thin uniform rod of
mass m and length L about an axis through one end is 1mL2 .

356
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

25
The general equation of motion is: x= -w 2 x
(a) For a mass m on the end of a spring of stiffness k, Frame 8 gave us the equation:

x = - (kjm)x
w = J(kjm) = J(800/4) = 14.142 s - 1

So the solution is:

x =A sin(14.142 t +B)

(b) For a disc of inertia I on the end of a torsional spring of stiffness k1, Frame 12 gave:

{j = - (kt! !)8

w=J(k 1/I)=J(2.4j0j8)= 1.732 s- 1

So the solution is:

8 =A sin(1.732 t +B)
(c) For the simple pendulum, from Frame 13:

&·= -(gjL)f)
w=J(9.81/l.8) =2.335 s- 1

and the solution therefore is:

(}=A sin(2.335 t + B)

(d) From Frame 14:

his the distance between mass centre, G and the pivot; in this case, h = 0.7 m because
the mass centre is at the centre of the rod. I o = -! mL2 •

I 0 =-!X 2.2 X (1.4) 2 = 1.437 kg m 2

W = J((2.2 X 9.81 X 0.7)/1.437) = 3.242 S- 1

and the solution is:

()=A sin(3.242 t +B)

357
 DYNAMICS

26 Recapitulating, a simple vibrating system of the types we have so far examined, has
an equation of motion of the general form:

which has the general solution

x=A sin(wt+B)
where w is a quantity determined by the system parameters (such as mass, spring
stiffness, etc.) and A and B are integration constants, determined from specific
conditions of displacement, velocity and acceleration at known times.
Here is a plot of the solution: a graph of x against t.

It is, as we might have expected, a sine curve, although the presence of the constant
B means that the curve does not necessarily begin at the origin.
The time-increment -r shown on the graph is called the period of the motion, the
time for one complete cycle of motion. We may determine -r as follows.
Calling the time t at point P, the time at Q must be (t + -r). At P and Q,
sin(wt +B)= 0. The argument of the function (i.e. the term in the brackets) must
increase by 2n. So:
wt + B + 2n = w(t + -r) + B

which gives
-r = 2njw
The reciprocal of period is called the frequency, n; this is the number of vibrations,
or cycles in unit time.
n= l/-r=wj2n
The quantity w itself is called the circular frequency. It is unfortunately sometimes
abbreviated to frequency, particularly in advanced work.
The maximum value of xis clearly A; this is called the amplitude of the vibration.

358
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

27
Example. A weight of 1.5 kg hangs from a spring of stiffness 500 N m- 1 . It is
vibrating vertically, and at an instant (t = 0) the displacement is 20 mm downwards
and the velocity 300 mm s- 1 also downwards. Determine the period and amplitude
of the motion, and calculate the least time before the displacement is zero.
We begin by writing the equation of motion. This is done exactly as in the first of
the four exercises at the end of Frame 24. So refer to Frame 8.
The equation is ... ?

28
x =- (k/m)x =- (500/1.5)x = -333.3x

The general form of the equation is x= - w 2 x.

w=J(333.3)= 18.26 s- 1

(Notice the units of w. Check yourself that the dimensions of J(k/m) are T- 1 .)
Now we write the solution of the equation.

x=A sin(18.26 t+B)

The next part of the work-determining the two constants of integration-recalls

Programme 5. The two required conditions are clearly stated in the question. But we
shall require the velocity in order to substitute one of them. We find the velocity by
differentiating x. Do this.

29
.X= 18.26A cos( 18.26 t +B)

Substituting the first condition (x = 20 mm when t = 0) gives:

20 =A sin(O +B)
and substituting the second (.X= 300 mm s -1 when t = 0) gives:

+ 300 = 18.26A cos(O +B)

Velocity is positive, because it is downwards, as is displacement.
Eliminate A and hence calculate B. You should find B = 0.8831 rad.

359
 DYNAMICS

30
A cancels when we divide the equations.

20 sin(B)
300 18.26 cos(B)
20 X 18.26
tan( B)= 300 = 1.217

B = 0.8831 rad

Substituting this value in the expression for x:

20 =A sin(0.8831)
A= 20/0.7727 = 25.88 mm
So the expression for displacement is finally:
x = (25.88 sin(18.26 t + 0.8831) mm
The required period is given by:
r=2n/w=2n/18.26=0.3441 s
The amplitude is A.
amplitude= 25.88 mm
To find the least time in which the displacement becomes zero, we equate x to 0.
0 = 25.88 sin( 18.26t + 0.8831)
from which it is seen that the sine term must be zero. For t to have a positive value,
the least value of ( 18.26t + 0.8831) must therefore be n.
18.26t = n - 0.8831 = 2.2585
t = 0.1237 s
A few reminders and remarks. Firstly, all angles are to be in radians, not degrees.
Secondly, although you should normally work in metres, kilograms and seconds, one
may be allowed an exception in this example. Substituting the values of displacement
and velocity given, results simply in the expression for x being in millimetres, not
metres. Similarly, if we write the final expression for .X, this must be in millimetres
per second. Thus:
.X= ( 18.26 x 25.88) cos( 18.26 t + 0.8831)
= (472.57 cos(18.26 t + 0.8831)) mm s-'
If you plot the expression for x, you will find that the sine curve begins about half-way
through the first half-cycle.

360
 SIMPLE VIBRATIONS

31
Example. A simple pendulum has a length of 2.5 m. The pendulum is drawn to
one side, until the string makes an angle of 6° with the vertical. It is released from
rest in this position. Determine (a) the time for the pendulum to reach the lowest
point of swing; (b) the velocity at the lowest point of swing; (c) the period, and
frequency.

Follow this procedure.

1. Determine w. (Refer to Frames 13 and 24 if you have forgotten.)

2. Write the expression for displacement e. (See Frame 23. For X read 8.)
3. Differentiate this to obtain the velocity.
4. Determine the two conditions to find constants A and B.
5. Substitute the conditions, and thus find A and B.
6. Write the complete expressions for displacement and velocity.
7. Substitute 8 = 0 in expression for displacement, and find t.
8. Substitute this value of t in expression for velocity.
9. For period and frequency, refer to Frame 26.

A brief solution follows.

32
1. w=J(g/L)=j(9.81/2.5)=1.981 s- 1

2. 8 =A sin( 1.981t +B)

3. B= 1.981A cos( 1.981t +B)
4. The conditions are: when t = 0, 8 = 6° = 0.1047 rad
e
when t = 0, = 0 (released from rest).
5. Substituting in displacement and velocity:
0.1047 =A sin( B); 0 = 1.981A cos( B)
Second expression shows that B = n/2.
sin(n/2) = 1. Thus A= 0.1047 rad = 6°
6. 8=0.1047sin(l.981t+n/2) rad
0=(0.1047 x 1.981)cos(1.981t+n/2) rad s- 1
7. 0 = 0.1047 sin( 1.981t + n/2)
1.981t + n/2 = n (for least +ve value oft)
t = 0.793 s
8. 0 0 . 793 = (0.147 X 1.981) COS ( 1.981 X 0.793 + n/2)
= (0.1047 x 1.981) x cos( n)
= -0.2074 rad s- 1 = 11.88 degrees s- 1
9. r = 2n/w = 3.172 s. n = 1/r = 0.315 cycles s- 1

361
 DYNAMICS

33
This diagram, used to illustrate Simple Harmonic Motion, may be familiar.

The circle on the right has a radius A which is rotating at an angular speed w in a
clockwise direction. Thus, if it starts in the position OP 0 , in time t, it will rotate
through an angle (wt) radians to the position OP. Let x be the length of the
perpendicular PN. From the right-angled triangle, it is seen that:
x =A sin(wt)
This circle diagram illustrates the motion of a vibrating body, although for the sake
of simplicity, it illustrates the function above instead of the more general function
x = A sin( wt +B). Alongside the circle is the graph of x against t, which of course
is a simple sine curve.
The diagram clearly illustrates the period of the motion. Since the radius rotates
at a constant speed of w, it will take a time of (2njw) seconds to traverse a full
revolution of (2n) radians.
The diagram also explains why the constant (w 2 ) was chosen when formulating
the general equation of motion in Frame 24. w is the symbol generally used to
represent an angular velocity, which is what it does in this diagram. It is unfortunate
that the term 'frequency' is used for w, and for this reason, it is sometimes confused
with the frequency, n: the number of cycles per second. The terms are of course not
the same. The correct full name for w is the circular frequency, although both n and
w have the same dimension of [T- 1 ]. Frequency, n, and circular frequency, w, are
related by the expression
w=2nn

34
PROBLEM

1. Calculate the frequency, n, and the circular frequency, w, for (a) a weight of mass
3 kg hanging from a spring of stiffness 96 N m- 1 ; (b) a simple pendulum of length
0.249 m; (c) a compound pendulum consisting of a thin uniform bar of length 1.9 m
and mass 8.6 kg, swinging on a pivot at one end. [Ans. (a) 0.90 Hz; (b) 1.00 Hz;
(c) 0.443 Hz.]

362
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

35
Here is a summary of the work in this programme so far.
1. All simple vibrating systems in free undamped response can be shown to conform
to the equation of motion: x = -w 2 x where x is the displacement (linear or
angular) and (w 2 ) is a constant determined by the system parameters (e.g. mass,
spring stiffness).
2. The equation of motion has the general solution: x =A sin(wt +B) where A and B
are constants of integration, determined by knowledge of specific values of
displacement, velocity or acceleration at specific times.
3. Velocity x and acceleration x are given by:
x = Aw cos(wt +B)
x = -Aw 2 sin(wt +B)= -w 2 x
4. The free response is a sinusoidal motion.
Frequency, n = wl2n cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)
Period, r = 1In = 2n Iw seconds per cycle
Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement.

36
Here is a procedure for the solving of problems of vibration.
1. Adopt a sign convention.
2. Assume a small displacement of the mass-element in the positive direction.
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the mass-element.
4. Write the equation of motion (L(F) =rna for linear motion, L(M) =lex for angular
motion) having regard to the sign convention. When there is more than one
mass-element, write equations for all, and compatibility equations for the
accelerations, thus arriving at a single 'system' equation of motion.
5. Arrange the equation into the form:
x= -(w 2 )x
6. Either evaluate (w 2 ) from knowledge of the system parameters, or evaluate w from
knowledge of vibration frequency, and use the result to determine any unknown
system parameters.
7. When specific values of displacement, velocity or acceleration are required for
specific values of time, the constants of integration A and B must be determined
by applying known conditions of motion and thus obtaining the particular
expressions for x, x and x.

363
 DYNAMICS

37
PROBLEMS

1. A loaded mine-cage has a total mass of 2800 kg. It is supported by a steel cable
which is known to extend by 9 mm under a tensile load of 10 kN. Calculate the
frequency of vertical vibration. Neglect the mass of the cable itself. [Ans. 3.17 Hz.]
Hint: treat the cable as a 'spring'; calculate the stiffness from the extension data
given.
2. A horizontal steel bar has one end clamped in a vice. From the free end, a weight
hangs vertically, connected to the bar by a light string. The weight is observed to
cause a static deflection at the end of the bar of 12.4 mm. Calculate the maximum
amplitude of vertical vibration of the system such that the string should not go
slack at any time. [Ans. 12.4 mm.]
Hints: treat as a simple spring-mass system (Frame 9), calculating k from the static
deflection due to weight. When vibrating, the maximum possible downward force
on the mass will be (mg) (because the string cannot push downwards). Hence
maximum acceleration of the mass will be (g).
3.

A symmetrical wheel has a mass of 11.6 kg. It is swung on a knife-edge which is

65 mm from the wheel centre G, and caused to vibrate over a small amplitude. It
takes 15.1 seconds to complete 20 swings. Determine the moment of inertia of the
wheel about the central axis. [Ans. 0.05779 kg m 2.]
Hint: Frame 14. Determine 10 and use the Parallel Axis theorem to find fa.
4. A symmetrical disc is mounted axially on one end of a steel rod of length 0.9 m
and diameter 6 mm. The other end of the rod is clamped in a vice, the rod being
vertical, with the disc at the bottom. The disc has a moment of inertia about its
central axis of 0.065 kg m 2 • The disc is given a small angular displacement and
released, causing it to execute torsional vibration. It is observed that 20 oscillations
take 9.5 seconds. Calculate G, the Modulus of Rigidity of the steel rod. [Ans.
80.45 x 10 9 N m- 2 .]
Hints: use the formula T/1 = G8/L from stress analysis; torsional stiffness k 1 is
T/ 8 = GJ / L. See Frames 11 and 12.

364
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

38
A unique feature of an undamped free-response system is that no energy is added to
the system, once vibration is initiated, and no energy is taken from it, because there
is no friction, or other resisting force. Such systems are called conservative systems.
In a conservative system, the energy is continually changing from one sort to another,
but the total energy remains constant. In a spring-mass system, energy is continually
being changed from kinetic to strain energy and back again; in a pendulum, it is
changing from kinetic to potential and back again. This fact enables us to arrive at
the Equation of Motion in another way.
We shall re-examine the spring-mass system analysed in Frame 6. The diagram
is repeated here for convenience, although this time, we show additionally, a positive
velocity x.

k
- x

For the instant shown, the total energy E is the sum of the strain energy and the
kinetic energy. Strain energy for a spring of stiffness k is tkx 2 • (See Programme 7.)
E = tkx 2 + tm(x) 2
and because this quantity is constant, if we differentiate it with respect to time, the
answer must be zero:
tk(2x)(x) + tm(2x)(x) = o
which simplifies to:
kx+mx=O
or: .X= -(k/m)x
which is the equation of motion we obtained before.
There is no advantage in using this method in this particular case, but the principle
of energy can be used with advantage to obtain a solution to problems which otherwise
could be much more difficult to solve. In the analysis of the simple spring-mass
system, it was assumed that the spring had no mass. This means that the expression
for frequency would only be accurate if the mass of the spring was small in comparison
with the mass m on the end of it. For a large massive spring carrying a relatively
small mass, it would be inaccurate.
In the following frame, we shall see how the principle of Conservation of Energy
may be used to take into account the mass of the spring itself.

365
 DYNAMICS

39
The diagram illustrates a very large spring carrying a small mass.

The mass m is assumed to have instantaneous displacement and velocity, x and .X.
The mass of the spring is m•. The spring itself will have kinetic energy; it is moving,
but different parts are moving at different speeds. The end nearest the mass will be
moving at .X; the other end will not move at all. So it is reasonable to assume that
the velocity of a part is proportional to its distance from the fixed end. An element
of the spring, of length by is shown, a distance y from the end; the velocity at this
point is x(y I L) where L is the length of the whole spring. The mass of the element,
assuming the spring to be uniform along its length, will be ( m.Dy I L). The kinetic
energy of the element, b(KE), is therefore:
6(KE) = ·hm.Dyl L)(x(y I L)) 2
So the total kinetic energy of the whole system will be:
KE = tmx 2 + L(t(m.Dyl L)(x(yl L)) 2 )
The summation is along the spring; for this purpose, all terms except y can be regarded
as constant.

f
L

KE = !mx 2 + t(m.l L)(.XI L) 2 (y 2 dy)

0

= !mx +2 t(m.l L)(.XI L) 2[h 3 J~

= tmx 2 + tm.x 2 I L3 ( t L3 )
=!mx 2 +tm.x 2 (t)
= !x 2 (m + tm.)
which suggests that the mass of the spring may be taken into account in calculating
frequency by adding one-third of it to the mass attached to it.

366
 SIMPLE VIBRATION

Example. A coiled spring has a stiffness of 250 N m- 1 and its mass is 1.4 kg.
40
A body of mass m is attached to one end of the spring, the other being attached
to a rigid mounting. Calculate the frequency of vibration of the system, both
allowing for, and neglecting the mass of the spring, when m is (a) 8 kg; (b) 0.2 kg.
Calculate the percentage error in each case resulting from neglecting the spring mass.
In Frame 8 we showed that for a simple spring-mass system, w = j(k/m). To allow
for the spring mass we must now modify this formula to:
w= J {k/(m + tm.)}
(a) Allowing for spring mass:
w = J {250/(8 + t x 1.4)} = 5.433 s- 1
n = wj2n = 0.865 Hz
Neglecting spring mass:
(J) = j(250/8) = 5.590 s - 1

n = 5.590/2n = 0.890 Hz
Error= 0.890 - 0.865 = 0.025 Hz
Percentage error= 100 x 0.025/0.865 = 2.89%
(b) Allowing for spring mass:
w = J {250/(0.2 + t x 1.4)} = 19.365 s- 1
n = 19.365/2n = 3.082 Hz
Neglecting spring mass:
(J) = j(250j0.2) = 35.36 s - l

n = 35.36/2n = 5.628 Hz
Error= 5.628 - 3.082 = 2.546 Hz
Percentage error= 100 x 2.546/3.082 = 82.6%
The conclusion is that for a large mass on a small spring, one may safely ignore the
spring mass in calculating the vibration frequency, but that for a small mass on a
large spring, ignoring the spring mass would result in a very inaccurate estimate of
frequency. The terms 'large' and 'small' in this context are of course relative, but if,
for example, the error resulting from neglecting the spring mass is not to exceed 1%,
you should be able to show for yourself that the mass of the spring should not be
greater than 0.0603 times the mass attached to it. Or putting it the other way round,
the mass should be at least 16.58 times the mass of the spring. For the example above,
this would mean a mass of 23.22 kg. Check for yourself that this gives approximately
a 1% error.

367
 DYNAMICS

41 PROBLEMS

1. A machine has a mass of 25 000 kg. It is mounted on four springs, the load shared
equally between them. Calculate the required spring stiffness ifthe natural frequency
of vertical vibration is not to exceed 3 Hz. If the amplitude of vibration is 5 mm,
calculate the maximum velocity and acceleration ofthe machine, and the maximum
load on one spring. [Ans. 2221 kN m- 1 ; 94.25 mm s- 1 ; 1.776 m s- 2 ; 72.42 kN.]
Hint: maximum force in spring = amplitude x stiffness + static weight.
2. A particle moves on a straight path with SHM with a frequency of 0.05 Hz. At a
particular instant, it is 1 m to the right of the path centre, with a velocity of0.5 m s- l
also to the right. Obtain the equation of motion of the particle. Calculate its
amplitude, the least time for the particle to come to rest, and the least time for it
to return to the path centre. [ Ans. x = 1.879 sin ( 0.3142t + 0.561); 1.879 m; 3.213 s;
8.213 s.]
Hint: see Frame 27 et seq.
3.
I· Y.L Y.L
·I
~----------~-----------.m

Two rods of negligible mass each carrying a single concentrated mass m are
connected by a third rod of negligible mass, as shown. A spring of stiffness k is
connected to the lower rod. Show that the natural frequency of small oscillations
of the system is given by:

Hints: see Frame 18 et seq. Assume small displacement () oflower rod and show
that displacement of upper rod is ( t-!-e). Assume force F in the linking rod.
4. A mine-cage weighs 20 kN. It hands from a cable having a mass of 3.8 kg per metre.
A test on a 1 metre length shows that a load of 1 kN produces a stretch of0.032 mm.
Determine the frequency of vertical vibration of the cage-cable system when 1700 m
of cable support the cage: (a) neglecting the mass of the cable; (b) allowing for
the cable mass. [Ans. (a) 0.478 Hz; (b) 0.333 Hz.]

368
INDEX

acceleration 2, 26, 39, 122 d' Alembert's principle 42, 184, 2131f
angular 32, 94, 185, 186, 196, 199 damping, damped vibration 342, 347
angular, of links 97 ff differential equation 149, 151, 167 ff, 344,
centripetal 35-7, 94 ff, 124, 128, 191, 196 347, 355
Coriolis 104 If, 128 general solution 168, 355, 358, 363
diagrams 93 If particular solution 168
image 98 second-order 355
linear 185, 186, 199 differential gearbox 331
non-linear 148 ff, 340 differentiation 122, 124, 234
sliding 105, 106, 109, 111, 113 formulae 125
tangential 94, 196 dispiacement 2, 122
amplitude 358, 360, 363, 368 'dot' notation 123, 344
angular motion 32-8, 56
effective mass 224, 225, 318
efficiency 88, 306, 324, 329, 333
backlash 71
effort 305
ballistic pendulum 59
elliptic trammel 129, 132
banking 192
energy 51-5, 222 ff
bending moment 206
conservation of 53-4, 88, 259, 260, 365
big end 137
equation 198, 223, 230, 233, 237, 249, 259,
binomial expansion 138
270, 285, 291
brakes 25
kinetic 51, 52,223,231,233,245,273,275,
braking force 189
279, 365, 366
potential 51, 52, 223, 231, 233, 235, 365
calculus 122, 148 strain 51,222,223, 228, 229, 233, 235, 239,
centre of gravity 14 365
centre of mass 14 equation of motion 39, 47, 148,290,301,340,
centroid 18 344, 363
of semi-circle 19 equilibrant 5
of triangle 18 equilibrium 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 43
circular frequency 358, 362 equivalent inertia 300, 303, 311, 321, 322,
clutch 25 323, 335
collision 259 ff equivalent mass 310, 311, 326, 332
perfectly elastic 262, 265, 267, 268, 272 of wheeled vehicle 315
perfectly plastic 262 equivalent static load 243, 248
compatibility 197, 199, 209, 278, 298, 301 exponential decay 158
equations of 298, 300, 312, 352 exponential rise 161
component 3, 8, 44, 196
configuration diagram 73 ff, 96 ff force 2, 8, 39, 94, 276
connecting rod 137 centrifugal 215
conservative system 365 centripetal 215
constants of integration 149, 168, 355, 359, effective 215
363 external 259, 276, 278, 281
cosine formula 4, 6, 8, 126, 134, 255 internal 206, 259, 278, 281
couple 13, 185 reversed effective 215
crank 137 tractive see tractive force
crankshaft 137 varying with displacement 165 ff, 177

369
INDEX

varying with time 152 ff, 177 mechanical advantage 305, 306
varying with velocity 157 ff, 177 mechanism 71
forced response 343 mechanisms, kinematics of 67 ff, 93 ff, 121 ff
four-bar chain 75, 94 median 18
free response 340, 343, 347, 356, 363 modulus 26
free-body diagram 23, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 187, modulus of rigidity 364
199, 290, 296, 300, 301, 343, 363 moment 10, 11, 16, 56, 222, 276, 303
frequency 340, 358, 363, 368 external 273
friction 20-5, 44, 88, 186, 192, 195, 306, 341 impulsive 273, 284
angle of 24 reversed effective 216
coefficient of 22, 192 moment of inertia 55, 56, 197, 199, 200, 206,
dynamic 22 225,273,276,285,288,292,300,31 1,317,
laws of 21 349, 364
static 22 of disc 200, 319
function of a function 123, 125, 135 of rod 197,351,356
moment of momentum 283, 291
gear ratio 320 conservation of 284, 286, 289
optimum 327, 328, 329, 336 momentum 38, 59, 258 ff
gearbox 320 ff angular 258, 272, 276, 283, 284
gyroscopic torque 104 angular, conservation of 258,274,275,277
linear 259, 276
half-life 159 linear, conservation of 59, 259, 260, 261,
harmonics 140 264, 265, 270, 271
hoist 324 multi-sheave block 307
Hooke's Law 239, 241
newton 41, 222, 296, 342
implicit differentiation 125 Newton's Laws of Motion 38-41
impulse 258, 261, 277, 280 Newton's First Law 39
impulsive blow 258, 283, 284, 286, 289, 290 Newton's Second Law 40 If, 148,259, 296
impulsive torque 274 Newton's Third Law 39, 41, 326
initial conditions 169
inner dead centre 137 oscillation 340, 342
integrals, standard 151 outer dead centre 137

joule 222 parallel axis theorem 57, 200, 255, 283

parallel forces 10-13, 16
kinematics 2, 26-38 parallel lines 69
kinematics, angular 33-5 parallelogram of forces 6
kinetics 2, 20, 38-50, 296 parameter 363
kinetics, angular 56 particle 184
pendulum, compound 341, 349
limit of proportionality 229, 230, 239, 248 pendulum, simple 340, 341, 347, 356, 361
line of action 12 period 340, 341, 358, 360, 361, 363
link 71 perpendicular lines 69
little end 137 piston 137
load 305 polygon of forces 5
lubrication 20 power 51, 58, 88, 90, 222 ff, 226, 228
product formula 125
mass 80 programmable calculator 129, 133, 156, 250
variable 174 ff pulley system 305
mass centre 14-16,18,184
of a cone 15 quick-return mechanism 86, 108, 133, 134,
mathematical model 340, 341, 342 136, 145

370
 INDEX

quotient formula 125, 131, 328, 329, 337 top dead centre 137
torque 56, 222, 276, 320, 321
radian 32, 33, 222 external 273, 276
radio-active decay 159 impulsive 273
radius of gyration 57 torsional stiffness 345
reaction 21, 39, 40, 42, 44, 186 tow-rope 245, 247, 271
resolution 4, 6, 8 tractive force 25, 186, 187, 189, 331, 334
restitution, coefficient of 258, 262, 264 triangle of forces 6
resultant 3, 5, 12, 16, 39, 69, 253 trigonometric formulae 6, 7, 8, 124, 126
retardation 27 trunnion, trunnion engine 143
reversed effective force 215 tyres 25
rigid body 184
rigid body, dynamics of 184 If undamped response 340
rocket 148, 155

shearing force 206 variable force 148 If, 229, 230

shock absorber 347 variable mass 148
sign convention 13, 27, 31, 343, 344, 363 vector 2, 3, 8, 69, 258, 259, 281
simple harmonic motion 140, 356, 361, 368 displacement 69
sine formula 6, 8, 126, 255, 282 velocity 2, 26, 122
slider-crank mechanism 71, 88, 137 diagrams 68 If, 94 If
speed 26 image 78, 90
spring 229 ratio 305, 306, 307, 308
pre-loading 236, 255 relative 71, 281, 292
statics 2, 3, 6, 20 velocity-time graph 27-31, 34
vibration 340 If
'sticktion' 22
stiffness 229, 271, 342
system 259, 303, 340, 343, 344 work 51, 56, 222 If
systems, coupled and geared 296 If
Young's Modulus 241
terminal velocity 161 yo-yo 211

371