Eddy Current Testing 7.1. INTRODUCTION 1800’s, a chemist from England name Michael Faraday has discovered phenomen’s like electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotation, the magneto optical effect and di-magnetism, which forms the basic principle of eddy current inspection technique. Eddy current testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect defects in an electrically conductive materials. In eddy current testing, when a conductive material carrying alternating current is brought in proximity to the test specimen, it generates eddy current and consequences of these eddy currents are measured. In simple words, the effect of electromagnetic fields an of metallic materials. During early CHAPTER — —=— = —=. — Michael Faraday (22 September 1791-25 August 1867) Eddy current testing method uses d induction to characterize physical properties Coil Coil’s magnetic Pa Ol / Eddy currents Fig. 7.1, Eddy current testing. field Eddy currents magnetic field Conductive material Edd; i geometry Wiiuhinslater ae tee oa af ney pela oa various limitations like, it is applicable for conductive mealies os wot 160TESTING pon Une 161 aaish OF material is important, limited depth of penetration, Parallel flaws are is 5 eto [getoetale ” “l Leon Foucault Friedrich Wilhelm Foerster (1819 - 1868) (1869-1966) The phenomenon of eddy current’s was discovered by a french physicist in 1851, named leon foucalt. That’s why sometimes eddy currents are also called as Foucault currents. Foucault built an equipment with a moving copper disk, which shows how eddy currents are generated when a material moves in a strong magnetic field. In 1879, Revolutionary development takes places when English scientist, David Hughes, showed how the properties of coils changes when placed in proximity to different materials of different conductivities and permeabilities. However, this development was not very popular untill second world war because electromagnetic waves were only used in transmitting and recieving signals. In Begining of 1933, in Germany a German professor friedrich Forster used this technique and expanded its application to industrial use, in measuring conductivity of ferrous parts. Many development tooks place is 1950’s and in 1960’s specially in field of aircraft and nuclear industries leading ‘oimproved performance and development of new applications. 27 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING Ineddy current testing, a circular coil carry an alternating current is brought in proximity '0an electrically conductive test specimen. This Alternating current produces a variable Magnetic field around the coil, which interacts with test specimen and induces an eddy “urrents. This variation in magnetic field is determined or examined by another coil tilled as “Search Coil” or by measuring the variation of current flow in primary coil (citation coil). Variations may be in terms of phase and magnitude of eddy current. “ any flaw is present, it causes a change in eddy current as a consequence of ich there will be a change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. Eddy currents have their own magnetic flux and the directions ofthese magnetic a such as to oppose the primary coils (excitation coil) magnetic flux, thereby in Teasing the net magnetic flux. This is what Lenzs law States, i ea The direction ote an ed current is such as to oppose the cause producing it, During testing, the ition between excitation current and eddy current provides the basis of extracting Mux is162 Basics of Non-Destructive Testng information during eddy currents testing Fig. 7.2, illustrates the dir tion Of pri Mary (excitation) and secondary (eddy) fluxes. Current () Magnetic flux 4 Test of primary coil ——> Probe ~” specimen (6,) SF (Primary > (secondary i circuit) 5, circuit) I~ Magnetic flux of secondary coil “~~~” iB (65) Fig, 7.2. Field generated by eddy current. 7.3. BASIC TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH EDDY CURRENT TESTING (a Electricity: Every sub atomic particle consists of a negatively charged electron, which encircles its nucleus. The direction of movement of electrons is random unless any external force is applied. Due to imbalance in force, this external force causes the electrons to move in a particular direction which is called as electricity. (i Coloumb: It is the charge carried by 6.25 x 108 electrons. (iii) Ampere: It is the measure of flow of current. (iv) Electromotive force: It is a pressure or force, which directs the electrons to move in a prescribed format in certain direction with in a conductive material. (») Volt: It is the measure of electromotive force and is defined as electrostatic difference between two nodes, when a unit Joule of energy is required to move one coloumb of charge from one node to another. (vi) Resistance: It is the opposition to the flow of current or it is the measure of degree to which a material opposses an electric current to flow through it. It is denoted by ‘R’ and its unit is ohm (Q), (vii) Resistivity (p): It is related to resistance through a conductor of cross sectional area ‘A’ and length ‘/’ perpendicular to the direction of flow of current. It’s unit is ohm-meter (Q m). RA deez (viii) Ome ser It is the basic law of electricity and it relates the fundamental electrical quantity: current I or time rate of charge passage to anothe! fundamental electrical quantity; voltage (v) able ie V=IR where V = Voltage (volts) = Electrical current (Ampere) R= Resistance (ohms),163 ity (6): It is the reciprocal of Resis ivity (p) and its ww? 1 o=- p x) Electric field intensity (G): It is the voltage difference between two nodes * Jocated at separate distance (/) Vi a «a Current density (J): It is the current per unit of speciemen area. aed: aor (xii) Induction: It is a process of establishing an electric current in a conductor by placing it in a zone of changing magnetic field. This process is also ; termed as electromagnetic induction. It’s unit is Henries (H) (viii) Electrical impedance It is the Total opposition offered by conductor to alternating current. It may include Resistance, Inductive Reactance (Xx) and Capacitive Reactance (X,). It’s unit is ohms. (xiv) Inductance: It is the effect produced on flowing current by induction in an electrical circuit, is called as inductance or self inductance. (xv) Lenz’s Law: It states that the direction of an induced current is such as to oppose the cause producing it. (xi) Inductive Reactance (X, ): Due to induction in an electrical circuit, there is a reduction in flow of current. J4_ FACTORS EFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS - Forcorrect interpretation of indications, following factors must be considered: 1, Defects 2. Frequency 3. Geometry 4, Conductivity 5. Proximity A, Defects: There are two general classification of defects ie., racks and erosions, Cracks causes a distortion in flow of eddy current, which results in reduction ig. tength of eddy current, similar case is also with corrosion. For effective fication of, defects, proper calibration of flaw detector is very important and is to ii me. Prior to each inspection, after each inspection and prior to confirming a fault ication, For calibration, a reference block with an artificial defect may be used. 2. Frequency: It plays a vital role in controlling phase, density and depth a ation, For detecting sub surface discontinuous, low frequency is required ‘urface breaking discontinuous high frequency.4 __Basics or Non Dustructive 164 Tea 3. Geometry: Any change in thickness of material willa the flow of jest speciemen may help in measuring its thick dy . Nes ing conductivity. Hardness, temperature, Regi = Da ATA + Regi and identification of base metal and their af current, hence Geometry of any t 4. Conductivity: By measuri stress, thickness of conductive coating can be evaluated easily. 5, Proximity; It describes coil, Proximity has two Governing factors /-¢. identical effect on the eddy current, lift of coil and fill factor is applied to internal coil. ida) loys any space between the test specimen and the inspec; Rc eee LEAL A spect “lift off and fill factor. Both imposes,. applied to test specimen coil or ie ce 7.5 EDDY CURRENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS 1, Flow path of eddy current’s are parallel to turns of coils and perpendicular to coil flux field axis. Eddy current flows only in closed and concentric loops. ag aN VY Closed and concentric loop of eddy current Fig. 7.3. Flow of eddy current in closed and concentric loop. 2. The orientation of eddy current flow pattern is determined by the orientation of the coil to the test specimen. 3; penton of defect is an important factor in eddy current testing. If detect is parallel to eddy current flow path then it disturbs the flow path with every Defect (a) Fig. 7.4, Defect in eddy curren t flow pattern (a) Defe (b) Defect perper one a) fect paral to flow of pathoi cuarent TESTING 165 é less degree, If defect is perpendicular to eddy current flow path then it disturbs: the flow path with great degree. Maximum the degree of disturbance, more clear will be the interpretation of results, Flow pattern of an eddy current is circular, until its path is distributed by any non-conducting material or defect. When it happen’s so, the flow paths are compressed. Similarly as in case of compressible fluids. SI C - (a) Fig. 7.5. Effect of material boundaries (a) Eddy currents, undisturbed by material boundaries (b) Eddy currents, compressed by material boundaries. 5. Density of eddy current varies with the depth of penetration. That is, at test specimen surface current density is maximum and decreases exponentially with depth. This is called as skin effect and this depth is called as skin depth (8)and is defined as the depth at which value of current density is minimized 1 : a to —. Mathematically it can be expressed as e nd ails CAD) where, : n= number of skin depth ‘kin depth or standard depth of penetration, = natural logarithm (e = 2.71828) Forn= | and 2. then = ee 0368 cane 18= 70“ p71828 : 28 wikcteem saree O15 9.50 2 7.38908Basics oF Non-Destructive Teste 166 als are given below in Table 7.1, | Depth of Penetration of some metals are given Typical Depth 0} é * Table 7.1. Typical Depths of Penetration (36.8% Depth of penetration Be eee ; | war ACS Resistivity Permeability KH: 4KHz 16KHz 64KHz 256 KHz 1 yy, Meral % 2 i 0.082 0.041 0.021 9.010 0.005 ge46 pet a 2 1 0.126 0.063 0.032 0.016 0.008 G44 ee : 1 0.144 0.072 0.036 0018 0009 on46 > 53 68 1 0.134 0.067 0.0034 0.017 0.008 0.0049 ee - 1 0292 0.046 «= 0.73 037 0.018 0.09 ae 3 1 0.084 0.0042 0.0021 O10 20 oe : 1.02 0.516 0.123 0.065 © 0.032 O016s : 750 0.019 0.0048 0.0024 0.0012 0.0006 60 3 1 0.018 0.0044 0.0022 0.0011 0.0006 16 73 7.6 Omni Scan Eddy Current Flaw detector (Courtesy : Olympus corporation) A wide range of eddy current instruments are available in market, all working a almost similar principle. All eddy current instruments consist of three basic ee ‘ 1. AC generators: They are the drivers as they provide voltage 0 the coils. 2. Coil eireuits: They are designed to work with limited range of specified coils. 3. Display: It includes LED, with multi frequency presentation’s on coloured screens. Following are some eddy current testing instruments: 1. Dedicated instruments; It includes crack detectors, thickness gauges and conductivity meters. These instruments are designed to perform speciti® operations only with much efficiency. 2. Standard Impedance Plane Display instruments: Its a general purpose instrument which can perform variety of eddy current applications. It displays the condition of material in a characteristic manner and shows variation " both inductive reactance and resistance during testing. multi00” Curr! w 17 Alarge ENT TESTING 167 Rives eae of impedance plane display instruments is controlled by (a) Frequency (4) Sensitivity (c) Dot position (+ lorizontal/Vertical) (d) Rotation of phase (e) Filters (/) Gates . Multifrequency Instruments: They works on multiple frequency and eliminates the drawbacks of other instruments. It can display the activity of test at each frequency separately and can also show mixed output of different signals. These instruments provides following advantages. (a) Suppression of undesirable variables, (6) Optimization of frequency variables. (©) Identification of signals by pattern recognition. (d) Simultaneous operation of both absolute and differential mode. PROBES variety of eddy current probes are available, in market and are designed customly for different applications. Eddy current probes are often classified according to the mode of operation and basic configuration of the test coil assembly. interfaces with the test specimen. It generally falls into one of fo Modes of Operations: If refers to the way by which eddy current instruments ur categories. Absolute, Differential, Reflection and Hybrid Probes. ¢ Absolute Probe: It consist of a single test coil placed on the test specimen, which is used to generate the eddy currents and a secondary coil called as balance load, which balances the bridge circuit. When alternating current is Passed through the test coil, a magnetic flux is generated around Resistor R, Display }k— Resistor R, Resistor coil Test coil Fig. 7.5. Coils configuration in Absolute Probe. yprnnereeseetecacsymity to conductive ted, which appee sta 10 th test coil and measuring this change’ Tesults ction, conductivity measurement, tt Can, Lift off n coil is brought the coil. Whe! currents are gene’ in change in impedance of the use absolute coils for flaw dete measurement and thickness measurements. It consist of two active coils coupled to th re test « Differential Probes: cimen with one portion of the test specimen being compared to portion. When a flawless test specimen is tested using this Giuee differential signal is developed between these two active coils. Ho e, no when one coil is over flawed part of a test specimen and other one Bee flawless part of the same test specimen, a differential signal is prod te The disadvantage associated witl ced. the ends of long defects, but are inst signals produced by these probes are h differential probe is that it can only displ ensitive to gradual defects and ate very difficult to interpret. : Test coil [esac Reference coil Resister R Detector Fig. 7.6. Coils configuration in differential probe. « Reflectit i i epee ney or Pickup Probs: It combines the features of both eee a rential probe. Here one coil is used to generate eddy current ae ae coe toa reference standard, which evaluates the change .n whenever indications from test specimen differs from the standard. ‘Transmitter (Driver coil) pass ickup coil) Fig. 7.7. i Coils configuration in reflection probe., 00" GurRENT TESTING 169 ¢ Hybrid Probes: It consists of a driver coil working on Reflection mode and surrounded by two sensing coil working on differential mode, These probes are very sensitive to surface defects only, asic Configuration of Probes refers 0 the way in which coils are Physically packed to the test specimen area. It can be classified as surface Probes, Shielded Probes, Encircling Probes, Reflection probes and Cross axis Probes. Surface Probes: They are designed \ to be hand held and consist ofa coil \\ of very fine wire encased in a protective housing used for } scanning material surfaces. Most of the Surface Probes are either Bobbin wound type or horse shoe type. In Bobbin wound type Probe, the coils are designed to wound up in such a way that the axis of coil is perpendicular to the surface of the test specimen. This coil configuration is good for detecting surface defects oriented perpendicular to the surface of test speciement i.e. they are insensitive Fig. 7:2 B0bbI WSland erwtace celk to planar defects: For detecting planar defects, horse shoe or gap type probe is used, which consist of a pair of coils wounded on each end of horse shoe so that flow of flux field is parallel to the surface of test specimen. Thus eddy currents flow will be perpendicular to surface of test specimen providing sensitivity to planer defects. Fig. 7.9. Horse shoe surface coil. Reena ner” Basics of Non-Destructive 7, 170 i EST, ce probes are available in various oO data Vatiety 4 | face probes with narrow coils are used for detecting the loc, 2 s where as surface probes with wide coils are used for rap ‘tion, Below given are some configurations of surface Coil Surta applications like sur of small sub surface defect scanning and deeper penett probes. (i Pencil probe: It is of test specimen. They are D facilitates the inspection of small diam = Fig. 7.10. Pencil probe. held between the fingers like pencil to conduct inspection available with a straight or bent shaft Which eter bores. (ii) 90° probe: In it coil is arranged at a right angle to the housing of probe ang its working is very much similar to pencil probe. (iii) Bolt hole probe: These are designed to be used with a bolt holes scanner and are fitted inside the bolt holes with the axis of coil perpendicular to the wall of hole. Leg touching the surface of hole Fig. 7.11. Bolt hole probe. (iv) Doughnut probe: These are designed to fit above the rivet (fastener) hole and inspect for any defect. Fig. 7.12. Doughnut probe. (v) Pancake probe: Used for scanning flat surfaces only. Housing Pickup coil Driver coil Fig. 7.13. Pancake probe, * Shielded probes; It is further classified as i i bes . magnetically shielded pre and eddy current shielded probe. In eddy en held protes coilsa 474 ly conductive rounded Ly. a tie of ie Nant fing of hig but non-magnetic material. tn magnetically shielded probes, coils are encased with in a non-conductive ferromagnetic cylinder of ferrite, Fig. 7.14, shows that the shielding of probe is done to prevent the flux field o ‘ f coils from interaction with the boundaries of the test specimen, Fig. 7.14. Shielding of probe by ferrite cylinder. * Cross axis probe: It consists of a pair of adjacent coils oriented perpendicular to each other. This configuration facilitates the detection of defects of all orientations. One coil generates eddy current parallel to surface of the test specimen while other generates eddy current perpendicular to the surface of test specimen, i.e. both parallely and perpendicularly oriented defects can be easily detected by this probe. Fig. 7.15. Orientation of coils in cross axis probe. * Reflection probes: It consists of a pair of a coils assembled in a single housing in one into the another fashion. as shown in Fig. 7.16. The large outer coils acts as a transmitter and is surrounded by small inner coil = acts as a transmitter and is surrounded MM by small inner coils that forms the receiving circuit. When transmitter Fl: 7+ Saar Colla in induces a eddy current into the test Specimen, a flux is developed as a result voltage is induced in inner coil, which creates an imbalance in receiver circuit and provides a single, * Encireling probes: These probes are similar to Bobbin probes. Except that the coil encircles the test specimen from outside and are used for testing of Rods, wires, pipes, tubes etc. As test speciemen is surrounded by coils from Outside, inspection of entire circumference will be done with equal sensitivity, LiBasics OF Non-Destructive <= Housing Differentiay coil Free space Material test Cable Fig. 7.17. Encircling probe. OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING 7.8 ADVANTAGE J 2. St 4. Se 6. 7. 8. Ds 0. Sensitive to surface and sub-surface defects. Portability of test equipments. Can measure conductivity accurately Can detect through surface coatings. It can be automated Can inspect complex shape and size mati Little part preparation required. Can detect through several layers. Provides immediate results of inspection. Contact between probe and test specimen is not required. rials. 1 7.9 DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATION OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING 1. Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes. 2. Can inspect conductive materials only. 3. Insensitive to defects parallel to the surface. 4. Not suitable for large areas. 5. Skilled personnels are required to perform inspection. 6. Limited depth of penetration. 7. Distance between the probe and test specimen is to be maintained. 8. Interpretation of signals is required, 9, Reference standard’s for measurements is required. 10, No permanent record, 7.10 APPLICATIONS 1. Testing of hot wire made of non- i ab rare ion-ferrous materials and ferrous mate 2. Testing of casted, welded, for B , |, forged, Rolled an 3. Detection of cracks of any discontinuity. ooo 4, Dimensional measurement of materialscot GuRRENT TESTING 3 173 5, Conductivity measurement 6. Conductive coating thickness measurement, 7. Inspection of Railway components, 8. Inspection of Tubes of Heat exchanger, Boilers etc. 43d CASE STUDY—TESTING OF RAIL BY EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION _— In Railway system, safety and Reliabilit 'y totally depends of the defect free critical components. Since from the beginning of development of Railways, they are always proned to various inservice failures due to Presence of surface and sub- surface defects. Therefore it is essential to prevent failures or'ginating from the defects, some common defects to which rails are proned are. (a) Gauge face corner: It is ori; iginated at rail heads due high stress generated after extensive pressure on the curved surface of rail and wheels. Defect Fig. 7.17. Gauge face corer. (b) Tongue lipping defects: It is a result of existing cracks due to frequent movement of high speed trains, these existing cracks will grow bigger and get transformed into a lip just below the surface of Rail. Available defect => Enlarged defect > Fig. 7.18. Tongue lipping defect. (©) Bolt hole crack: It is a result of extension of hole drilled into a rail for ee two rails via fish plate. Due to excessive pressure impacted by high speed ns. Hole Be get enlarged and may result in deattachment of fish plates and a big cident, Fig. 7.19. Bolt hole crack.— 174 Basics OF Non-Destructive 1 esr (@ Wheel burn: It is originated due to fri ion between Rail and whee slipping of wheel take’s place or when break is applied. This friction prody and results in change in microstructure of the rail and may create cracks, |S Whey eS heat Original structure Changed structure Fig. 7.20. Wheel burn. cks: It occurs at the foot of the rail. (e) Foot era Defect Fig. 7.21. Foot crack. The Eddy current inspection exhibits some remarkable characteristics, by making it particularly suited for use as a effective test method for rail surfaces. This techniques provides following advantages. « With high sensitivity, e © Contact less operation is facilitated. Itcan be used at very high speeds. Rail examination is generally done with test vehicles, equipments is installed on two rail vehicles. The date collected o1 rolling surface is evaluated and reports are generated. ven the smallest surface defects can be detected. where eddy current test n the condition of ral 7.12 CASE STUDY—INSPECTION OF TUBE Eddy current testing is generally used in inspection of defects or discontinuties like corrosion, erosion, cracks and other metallurgical variations in structure in tubes © ren iaes aaron Reheaters and Heat exchangers used in power plat ing tubes, a differential i i i ilers of faeces probe is required to feed into the tubes of boile! If any defect or discontinuity exist i i i ee ‘ 's, a signal will be seen on the impedan¢ setae oe of differential probe will be an flawed area and another coil will indicated by a Lae ; ft corte of the tube is corroded, then depth or corrosion es anne ais ase lag, Which describes the extent of corrosion. i test of tube’s with diamete Pate fe size of tube, Differential probes are suitable {0 when the diameter of tube is upto ae Eecting Ee :uRRENT TESTING 475 gooy Fig. 7.22. Inspection of tube. 7.13 CASE STUDY—FATIGUE CRACK INSPECTION USING EDDY CURRENT TEST METHOD Many vital elements of machines, roads and railways structures, bridges, building structure are important assests. In order to manage those invaluable assests and maintain them for required value of satisfactory condition and performance. A non-destructive technique called as eddy current test has emerged as an alternative to improve the effectiveness and accuracy in detection of cracks occurred due to fatigue. As the above mentioned examples are always proned to fatigue stresses, which after particular interval of time brings a defect to the part. Eddy current method is especially useful in detection of certain types of hidden deterioration or defects. Such as cracks due to cumulative fatigue loading. eddy current test method uses electromagnetics hence are widely used in detection of location and size of cracks, corrosion and other material discontinuities occured during manufacturing as well as in service in nuclear, aerospace, petrochemical and other industries. This method is usually applied to inspect a relatively small area, where differential probes with self inducing coils are used for achieving the inspection signals or results. Proper calibration of these differential probes and system are required to assure adequate functioning of the equipment, appropriate frequency and drive levels of the Probe. A test speciemen with artificial crack is used for calibration. Refer to Fig. 7.23. An example of test speciemen with respective detection of signals. Ds 20 1s 10 0.5 0.0 OS 10 ~2.0 10 mm - SF zoaseos 0.00.5 1.015 2.0 25 (4) Calibration of Specimen (6) Sample signal from Specimen with artificial Crack with artificial crack Fig. 7.23. Test speciemen with respective detection of signals.= Basics oF Non-Destructive t; Stig 176 any structure or mechanical part A “a Tefen al When this method is employed to jamaged part and non. -dama Be py att, signal is produced which defines the signal of d See Fig. 7.24. -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 a) 9.5 -2.0-1.5-1.0-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Not-Damaged 25 a 2.0 all Pt Ls 1.0 0.5 1.5.2.0 2.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -15 -2.0 [ ol -2.5 2.5 -2.0 -1.5-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 25 Damaged al Fig, 7.24. Signal samples at test speciemen. This NDT reduces the time and labour of maintenance by providing valuable data of sufficient precision and quality which is not possible to be obtained merely bY se inspection. This eddy current method can efficiently detect cracks in weld meta cracks due to fatigue, cracks on irregular surfaces, coated surfaces whi ie ich may he conductive as well as non-conductive coatings.@ go! GuRRENT TESTING 179 3, Pencil Probes are Prone to * (a) Skin effect (b) Low frequency noise (e) Wobble (d) None of the above 3 W hich type of probe is used to inspect solid products (a Bobbin probes (b) Bolt hole probes (©) Encircling probes (d) Shielded probes 4 Higher the inductance of a coil (a) Higher will be the penetration of eddy current (b) Higher will be sensitivity of coil (c) Lower will be sensitivity of coil (d All of the above s, Sliding probes are usually operated in (a) Differential mode (b) Absolute mode (c) Reflection mode (d) Through-transmission mode 6. The Depth of penetration is affected by (a) Magnetic Permeability (5) Probe drive frequency (c) Electrical resistivity (d) All of the above 1. Which type of probe is used to inspect the inside diameter of a bore? (a) Pencil Probes (b) Pancake Probes (c) Bobbin Probes (d) Bolt hole probes 8. Shielding of an eddy current probe is done by ....... 2 (a) Aluminium (b) Lead (c) Ferrite (d) Both A and C 9. For inspecting sub surface defects, the frequency should be (a) High (b) Low (¢) at 90° to produce difference between lift off and flaw signals (d) None of the above Which type of probe is used to inspect the restricted spaces? (a) Pencil Probes (b) Pancake Probes (c) Bobbin Probes (@) Bolt hole Probes Answers 1 © 2. (6) 3.(c) 4.0) 5. (c) 6. (d) 1. (d) 8 @ / % (©) 10. (a) Explain the working principle of eddy current testing method? * Discuss the factors effecting eddy current. Discuss the characteristics of eddy current flow. 10.