Computer Networks

(IT-503)

By: Jigyasu Dubey

Department of Information
Technology
The Transport Layer
 Heart of the whole protocol hierarchy
 To provide reliable, cost-effective data transport
from the source machine to the destination
machine
 Independent of physical network

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The Transport Service

• Services Provided to the Upper Layers

• Transport Service Primitives

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Services Provided to the Upper Layers

 The ultimate goal of the transport layer is to

provide
 Efficient
 Reliable

 Cost-effective service

to its user, normally processes in the application layer.

To achieve this goal, the TL makes use of the services

provided by the Network Layer.

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 The H/W or S/W within the TL that does work is
called the Transport Entity.
 The transport entity can be located in the
Operating system kernel, in a separate user
process, in a library package bound into network
applications

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Services Provided to the Upper Layers

The network, transport, and application layers.

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 There are two types of transport
services
 Connection oriented
 Connectionless

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 The existence of the transport layer makes it
possible for the transport service to be more
reliable than the underlying network service
 Lost packets can be detected and compensated for
by the transport layer
 Transport service primitives can be implemented
as calls to library procedure

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 N/W service calls may vary considerably from
N/W to N/W.
 Hiding N/W services behind an set of transport
service primitives
 Application programmer can write code
according to a standard set of primitives

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 In the real world it fulfills the key
function of isolating the upper layers
from the technology, design and
imperfections of the subnet.

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Transport Service Primitives

The primitives for a simple transport service.

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Transport Service Primitives (2)

The nesting of TPDUs, packets, and frames.

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Elements of Transport Protocols
• Addressing
• Connection Establishment
• Connection Release
• Flow Control and Buffering
• Multiplexing
• Crash Recovery

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 The transport service is implemented by a
transport protocol used between the two transport
entities.
 In some ways, transport protocols look like the
data link protocols.
 Both have to deal with error control, sequencing
and flow control

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Transport Protocol

(a) Environment of the data link layer.

(b) Environment of the transport layer.

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Addressing

TSAPs, NSAPs and transport connections.

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Connection Establishment

How a user process in host 1 establishes a connection

with a time-of-day server in host 2.

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Connection Establishment

Three protocol scenarios for establishing a connection using a three-way handshake. CR denotes
CONNECTION REQUEST.
(a) Normal operation,
(b) Old CONNECTION REQUEST appearing out of nowhere.

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 (c) Duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST and duplicate ACK

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Connection Release

 Easier than establishing one

 Two styles:
 Asymmetric release – like telephone system works
 Symmetric release – treats the connection as two
separate unidirectional connections
 Require each one to be released separately

Asymmetric release is abrupt and may

result in data loss.

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Connection Release

Abrupt disconnection with loss of data.

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Connection Release
 A more sophisticated release protocol is needed to
avoid data loss

 One way – use Symmetric Release

 Each direction is released independently of other one
 A host can continue to receive data even after it has
sent a DR

This protocol does not always work.

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Connection Release

The two army problem

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Connection Release (3)

6-14, a, b

Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection. (a) Normal case of a

three-way handshake. (b) final ACK lost.

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Connection Release (4)

6-14, c,d

(c) Response lost. (d) Response lost and subsequent DRs lost.

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Flow Control and Buffering

(a) Chained fixed-size buffers. (b) Chained variable-sized buffers.

(c) One large circular buffer per connection.
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Buffer Size
 If most TPDUs are nearly the same size
 Organize buffers as a pool of identical size buffers
 With one TPDU per buffer
 If there is a wide variation in TPDU size
 A pool of fixed size buffer presents problem
 Size is chosen equal to largest TPDU
 Space will be wasted when short TPDU arrives
 Size is chosen less than the Max. TPDU
 Multiple buffers needed for long TPDU

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Buffer Size
 Second approach – use variable size buffer
 Advantage – better memory utilization
 Drawback – complicated buffer management
 Third approach – dedicate a single large circular
buffer per connection
 Good use of memory if all connections are heavily
loaded
 Poor if some connection are lightly loaded

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Flow Control and Buffering (2)

Dynamic buffer allocation. The arrows show the direction

of transmission. An ellipsis (…) indicates a lost TPDU.
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Multiplexing

(a) Upward multiplexing. (b) Downward

multiplexing.
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The Internet Transport Protocols: UDP

• Introduction to UDP

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Introduction to UDP
The UDP header.

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 The Internet Transport Protocols:
TCP

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Introduction to TCP

 TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

 Provide a reliable end-to-end byte stream over an
unreliable internetwork.
 Formally defined in RFC 793, 1122, & 1323
 TCP must furnish reliability

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The TCP Service Model

Some assigned ports.

Port Protocol Use
21 FTP File transfer
23 Telnet Remote login
25 SMTP E-mail
69 TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
79 Finger Lookup info about a user
80 HTTP World Wide Web
110 POP-3 Remote e-mail access
119 NNTP USENET news

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The TCP Service Model (2)

(a) Four 512-byte segments sent as separate IP datagrams.

(b) The 2048 bytes of data delivered to the application in a single
READ CALL.

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The TCP Protocol

 Every byte on a TCP connection has its own 32-

bit seq. no.
 Sending and receiving entities exchange data in
form of segments
 TCP segment consist of a fixed 20 bytes header +
optional part followed by zero or more data bytes

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TCP Protocol

 Basic protocol used by TCP entities is Sliding

Window Protocol
 When a sender transmits a segment, it also starts a
timer.
 When the segment arrives at the destination, send
back a segment bearing an acknowledgement
number equal to the next seq. no. it expects to
receive
 Timer out retransmit segment again
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TCP Segment

 Every segment begins with a fixed format, 20

byte header, may followed by header options
 After options up to 65,535 – 20 – 20 = 65,495
data bytes may follow
 Segments without any data are legal and are
commonly used for ack and ctr messages.

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The TCP Segment Header

TCP Header.
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The TCP Segment Header (2)

The pseudoheader included in the TCP checksum.

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TCP Connection Establishment

6-31

(a) TCP connection establishment in the normal case.

(b) Call collision.

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TCP Transmission Policy

 Window management in TCP is not

directly tied to acknowledgements

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Window management in TCP

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Window management in TCP
 Window is 0, sender may not normally send
segments
 Two exceptions:-
 Urgent data may be sent
 Sender may send a 1-byte segment to make receiver
reannounce the next byte expected and window size
TCP provides this option to prevent
deadlock if a window announcement ever
gets lost.

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Window management in TCP

 Senders are not required to transmit data as soon

as they come in from application
 Neither are receivers required to send ack ASAP

 This freedom can be exploited to improve

performance

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Nagle’s Algorithm
 When data come into sender 1-byte at a time
 Just send first byte and buffer all the rest untill the
outstanding byte is acknowledged
 Then send all buffered char in one TCP segment
 Start buffering again untill they are acknowledged
 Additionally allows a new packet to be sent if
enough data or max. segment
Widely used by TCP, but there are times
when it is better to disable it.
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Silly Window Syndrome

 Data passed to sending TCP entity in large block

 Interactive application on receiving side reads
data 1-byte at a time

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Silly Window Syndrome

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Silly Window Syndrome

 Clark’s solution
 Prevent receiver from sending a window update for 1
byte
 Instead forced to wait until it has a decent amount of
space available and advertised that instead
 Receiver should not send a window update until it can
handle maximum segment size it advertised when
connection established or its buffer is half empty,
whichever is smaller

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Silly Window Syndrome

 Clark’s solution
 Sender can also help by not sending tiny segments
 It should try to wait until it has accumulated enough
space in window to send a full segment or at least one
containing half of the receiver’s buffer size

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 Nagle’s and Clark’s solution to SWS are
complementry
 Nagle try to solve the problem caused by sending
application delivering data to TCP 1-byte at a
time
 Clark try to solve problem of receiving
application sucking data up from TCP 1-byte at a
time

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 Both solutions are valid and can work together
 The goal is for sender not to send small segments
and the receiver not to ask for them

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TCP Congestion Control

(a) A fast network feeding a low capacity receiver.

(b) A slow network feeding a high-capacity receiver.
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Performance Problems in Computer Networks

The state of transmitting one megabit from San Diego to

Boston
(a) At t = 0, (b) After 500 μsec, (c) After 20 msec, (d) after 40
msec.
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Network Performance Measurement

The basic loop for improving network

performance.
 Measure relevant network parameters,
performance.
 Try to understand what is going on.

 Change one parameter.

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System Design for Better
Performance
Rules:
 CPU speed is more important than network speed.

 Reduce packet count to reduce software overhead.

 Minimize context switches.

 Minimize copying.

 You can buy more bandwidth but not lower delay.

 Avoiding congestion is better than recovering from it.

 Avoid timeouts.

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System Design for Better Performance
(2)
Response as a function of load.

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System Design for Better Performance
(3)

Four context switches to handle one packet

with a user-space network manager.

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Fast TPDU Processing

The fast path from sender to receiver is shown with

a heavy line.
The processing steps on this path are shaded.

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 Fast TPDU Processing (2)

(a) TCP header. (b) IP header. In both cases, the shaded

fields are taken from the prototype without change.
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Fast TPDU Processing (3)

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Computer Networks(IT 503) SVITS, Indore
Protocols for Gigabit Networks

Time to transfer and acknowledge a 1-megabit file

over a 4000-km line.
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