6/12/2018

FAILURE MODES IN PAVEMENTS

ABUBEKER W. AHMED

WHAT IS A FAILURE OF A PAVEMENT?

Failure of typical civil engineering structures is defined as break
or fracture. This usually happens when applied load exceeds the
maximum allowable value

The applied loading on pavements are usually much smaller

than the strength of the material. Therefore one load application
does not fail the pavement, but causes an infinitesimal amount of
deterioration. This deterioration gradually increases until it
reaches an unacceptable level

Surface distress is "Any indication of poor or unfavourable

pavement performance or signs of impending failure; any
unsatisfactory performance of a pavement short of failure"

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TYPE OF FAILURE MODES

Rutting Bleeding

Cracking Ravelling
Longitudinal Stripping
Fatigue cracking
Single crack in the wheel path Corrugation and shoving
Alligator cracking Segregation
Seasonal (frost heave) cracks
Patching
Joint construction cracking
Edge (verge) cracking Polishing
Transversal (thermal) cracking Depressions
Pattern cracks
Slippage cracking
Block Cracking
Joint Reflection Cracking Water bleeding and pumping
Potholes Blistering

RUTTING
Description: Surface depression in the wheel path. Pavement uplift
(shearing) may occur along the sides of the rut. Ruts are particularly
evident after a rain when they are filled with water.

Problem: Ruts filled with water can cause vehicle hydroplaning, can
be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a vehicle towards the rut path
as it is steered across the rut.

Possible Causes: Permanent deformation in any of a pavement's

layers or subgrade usually caused by consolidation or lateral
movement of the materials due to traffic loading. Specific causes of
rutting can be:
 Insufficient compaction of pavement layers during construction.
 Compression of unbound layers (base course, subbase)
 Subgrade rutting (e.g., as a result of inadequate pavement structure)
 Improper mix design or manufacture (e.g., excessively high asphalt content,
excessive mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles)

Ruts caused by studded tyre wear present the same problem as the
ruts described here, but they are actually a result of mechanical
dislodging due to wear and not pavement deformation.

Repair: A heavily rutted pavement should be investigated to

determine the root cause of failure (e.g. insufficient compaction,
subgrade rutting, poor mix design or studded tyre wear). Slight ruts
(< 8 mm deep) can generally be left untreated. Pavement with
deeper ruts should be levelled and overlaid.

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RUTTING EVALUATION
Asphalt characteristics are considered in the context of three
broad classes of behaviors
o Linear viscoelastic
o Damage -Fracture
o Plastic -Viscoplastic
These classes exist as a continuum where the factors that govern
the dominant mechanism can change with
o Temperature
o Stress/Strain levels
o Stress/Strain rates
o Stress/Strain states

RUTTING AND ASSOCIATED MECHANISMS

Largely explained using plastic or Viscoplastic theory.

Key factors and mechanisms
oTemperature
oTime of loading
oAsphalt modulus and possibly viscosity
oCoarse and fine aggregate interlock
oTime of unloading
oOverall stress-state
Number of tests exist to evaluate rutting behaviors

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RUTTING PERFORMANCE TESTS

Torture, Proof, Index Tests Performance Modeling
Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) Flow Number (TRLPD)
Hamburg Wheel Tracking Device Stress Sweep Rutting
(HWTD)
Repeated Creep and Recovery
French Rut tester
Superpave Shear Tester (SST)
Flow Number (TRLPD)

WHEEL TRACKING TESTS FOR RUTTING

Asphalt Pavement Analyzer (APA) French Rut Tester (FRT)

Hamburg Wheel Rut Tester (HWRT)

10 cm
7.5 cm 4 cm

7.5 cm

15 cm
12.5 cm 26 cm 18 cm

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TRIAXIAL REPEATED LOAD PERMANENT DEFORMATION TESTS

(TRLPD)

AASHTO T 378
A measure of permanent deformation in
HMA mixes, correlates with rutting
potential
Haversine pulse load
Describes the cycle number at which
shear flow begins
Testing temperature varies but generally
b/n 45-60C
Confining pressure may or may not be
applied
Generally 3 replicates tested

TRIAXIAL REPEATED LOAD PERMANENT DEFORMATION TESTS

(TRLPD)

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FATIGUE CRACKING
Description: Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the HMA surface (or
stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading. In thin pavements, cracking initiates at the bottom of
the HMA layer where the tensile stress is the highest then propagates to the surface as one or more
longitudinal cracks. This is commonly referred to as "bottom-up" or "classical" fatigue cracking. In
thick pavements, the cracks most likely initiate from the top in areas of high localized tensile stresses
resulting from tire-pavement interaction and asphalt binder aging (top down cracking). After
repeated loading, the longitudinal cracks connect forming many-sided sharp-angled pieces that
develop into a pattern resembling the back of an alligator or crocodile.

Problem: Indicator of structural failure, cracks allow moisture infiltration, roughness, may further
deteriorate to a pothole.

Possible Causes: Inadequate structural support, which can be caused by a number of things. A few
of the more common ones are listed here:
 Loss of base, subbase or subgrade support (e.g., poor drainage or spring thaw resulting in a less
stiff base).
 Stripping on the bottom of the HMA layer (the stripped portion contributes little to pavement
strength so the effective HMA thickness decreases)
 Increase in loading (e.g., more or heavier loads than anticipated in design)
 Inadequate structural design
 Poor construction (e.g., inadequate compaction)

Repair: A fatigue cracked pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause of
failure. Any investigation should involve digging a pit or coring the pavement to determine the
pavement's structural makeup as well as determining whether or not subsurface moisture is a
contributing factor. Once the characteristic alligator pattern is apparent, repair by crack sealing is
generally ineffective. Fatigue crack repair generally falls into one of two categories:
 Small, localized fatigue cracking indicative of a loss of subgrade support. Remove the cracked
pavement area then dig out and replace the area of poor subgrade and improve the drainage
of that area if necessary. Patch over the repaired subgrade.
 Large fatigue cracked areas indicative of general structural failure. Place an HMA overlay over the
entire pavement surface. This overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated
loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely contributes little or no
strength.

FATIGUE CRACKING ORIGINS MATERIAL

FACTORS

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FATIGUE CRACKING INITIATION

Initiation
oMicroscopic defects and
incompatibilities amplify applied
stress and microcracks form

FATIGUE CRACKING COALESCENCE

Initiation
oMicroscopic defects and
incompatibilities amplify
applied stress and microcracks
form
Coalescence
oMicrocracks grow and merge
into macrocracks

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FATIGUE CRACKING PROPAGATION

Initiation
oMicroscopic defects and
incompatibilities amplify applied
stress and microcracks form
Coalescence
oMicrocracks grow and merge
into macrocracks
Propagation
oMacrocracks move through the
asphalt concrete ultimately
showing up as visible flaws on
pavement surface

FATIGUE CRACKING PROPAGATION

Initiation
oMicroscopic defects and
incompatibilities amplify applied
stress and microcracks form
Coalescence
oMicrocracks grow and merge
into macrocracks
Propagation
oMacrocracks move through the
asphalt concrete ultimately
showing up as visible flaws on
pavement surface

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FATIGUE CRACKING PROPAGATION

Initiation Leads to Energy/Inspired

oMicroscopic defects and continuum methods
incompatibilities amplify applied
stress and microcracks form
Coalescence
oMicrocracks grow and merge
into macrocracks
Propagation Leads to Fracture Methods
oMacrocracks move through the
asphalt concrete ultimately
showing up as visible flaws on
pavement surface

FATIGUE CRACKING MODE OF FAILURE

Modes of failure
o Adhesive
o Cohesive
 Confounding factors
o Moisture damage
o Oxidation
o Healing

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TRANSVERSAL (THERMAL) CRACKING

Description: Cracks perpendicular to the pavement's
centreline or lay-down direction. Usually a type of thermal
cracking.

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.

Possible Causes: Several including:

Shrinkage of the HMA surface due to low temperatures or asphalt
binder hardening.
Reflective crack caused by cracks beneath the surface HMA layer.
Top-down cracking.

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of

the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 12 mm wide and infrequent cracks). Crack seal
to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the pavement through the cracks
and (2) further ravelling of the crack edges.
High severity cracks (> 12 mm wide and numerous cracks). Remove
and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

FROST HEAVE/THAW (ACTION) CRACKING

Frost action can be quite detrimental to pavements and

refers to two separate but related processes:
Frost heave. An upward movement of the subgrade resulting
from the expansion of accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.
Thaw weakening. A weakened subgrade condition resulting
from soil saturation as ice within the soil melts.

This problem occurs primarily in soils containing fine

particles (often termed “frost susceptible” soils), while
clean sands and gravels (small amounts of fine particles)
are non-frost susceptible (NFS). Thus, the degree of frost
susceptibility is mainly a function of the percentage of
fine particles within the soil.

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BLOCK CRACKING

Description: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement up

into rectangular pieces. Blocks range in size from approximately
0.1 m2 to 9 m2. Block cracking normally occurs over a large
portion of pavement area.

Problem: Roughness, Allows moisture infiltration.

Possible Causes: HMA shrinkage and daily temperature

cycling. Typically caused by an inability of asphalt binder to
expand and contract with temperature cycles because of asphalt
binder aging.
 Poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of the

block cracking:
 Low severity cracks (< 12 mm wide). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of
moisture into the structure through the cracks and (2) further ravelling of the
crack edges. HMA can provide years of satisfactory service after
developing small cracks if they are kept sealed.
 High severity cracks (> 12 mm wide and cracks with ravelled
edges). Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with an overlay.

TRANSVERSAL/BLOCK/FROST HEAVE CRACKING

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POTHOLES
Description: Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the
pavement surface that penetrate all the way through
the HMA layer down to the base course. They
generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near
the top of the hole. Potholes are most likely to occur
on roads with thin HMA surfaces (25 to 50 mm) and
seldom occur on roads with 100 mm or deeper HMA
surfaces.

Problem: Roughness (serious vehicular damage can

result from driving across potholes at higher speeds),
moisture infiltration.

Possible Causes: Generally, potholes are the end

result of alligator cracking. As alligator cracking
becomes severe, the interconnected cracks create
small chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as
vehicles drive over them. The remaining hole after the
pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.

Repair: Patching.

JOINT REFLECTION CRACKING

Description: Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid
pavement. The cracks occur directly over the underlying rigid
pavement joints. Joint reflection cracking does not include
reflection cracks that occur away from an underlying joint or
from any other type of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).

Problem: Allows moisture infiltration, roughness.

Possible Causes: Movement of the PCC slab beneath the

HMA surface because of thermal and moisture
changes. Generally not load initiated, however loading can
hasten deterioration.

Repair: Strategies depend upon the severity and extent of

the cracking:
Low severity cracks (< 12 mm wide and infrequent
cracks). Crack seal to prevent (1) entry of moisture into the
pavement structure through the cracks and (2) further
ravelling of the crack edges.
High severity cracks (> 12 mm wide and numerous
cracks). Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer
with an overlay.

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CORRUGATION AND SHOVING

Description: A form of plastic movement typified by ripples
(corrugation) or an abrupt wave (shoving) across the pavement
surface. The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction. Usually
occurs at points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation) or areas
where HMA abuts a rigid object (shoving).

Problem: Roughness

Possible Causes: Usually caused by traffic action (starting and

stopping) combined with:
An unstable (i.e. low stiffness) HMA layer (caused by mix
contamination, poor mix design, poor HMA manufacturing, or lack
of aeration of liquid asphalt emulsions)
Excessive moisture in the pavement structure


Repair: A heavily corrugated or shoved pavement should be

investigated to determine the root cause of failure. Repair strategies
generally fall into one of two categories:
Small, localized areas of corrugation or shoving. Remove the
distorted pavement and patch.
Large corrugated or shoved areas indicative of general HMA
failure. Remove the damaged pavement and overlay.

DEPRESSIONS
Description: Localized pavement surface areas with
slightly lower elevations than the surrounding
pavement. Depressions are very noticeable after a rain
when filled with water.

Problem: Roughness, depressions filled with substantial

water can cause vehicle hydroplaning.

Possible Causes: Irregular frost heave or subgrade

settlement resulting from inadequate compaction during
construction or poor quality (soft) subgrade.
Repair: By definition, depressions are small localized
areas. A pavement depression should be investigated to
determine the root cause of failure (i.e., subgrade
settlement or frost heave). Depressions should be repaired
by removing the affected pavement then digging out and
replacing the area of poor subgrade. Patch over the
repaired subgrade.

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PATCHING

Description: An area of pavement that has been

replaced with new material to repair the existing
pavement. A patch is considered a defect no
matter how well it performs.

Problem: Roughness.

Possible Causes: Previous localized pavement

deterioration that has been removed and patched.

Repair: Patches are themselves a repair

action. The only way they can be removed from a
pavement's surface is by new either overlay.

POLISHING (POLISHED AGGREGATES)

Description: Areas of HMA pavement where the
portion of aggregate extending above the asphalt
binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance.

Possible Causes: Repeated traffic

applications. Generally, as a pavement ages the
protruding rough, angular particles become
polished. This can occur quicker if the aggregate is
susceptible to abrasion or subject to excessive
studded tyre wear.

Repair: Apply a skid-resistant slurry seal or overlay.

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RAVELLING
Description: The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface
downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles.

Problem: Loose debris on the pavement, roughness, water collecting in the

ravelled locations resulting in vehicle hydroplaning, loss of skid resistance.

Possible Causes: Several including:

Loss of bond between aggregate particles and the asphalt binder as a result
of:
A dust coating on the aggregate particles that forces the asphalt binder to
bond with the dust rather than the aggregate
Aggregate Segregation. If fine particles are missing from the aggregate
matrix, then the asphalt binder is only able to bind the remaining coarse
particles at their relatively few contact points.
Inadequate compaction during construction. High density is required to develop
sufficient cohesion within the HMA (paving in cold weather).
Mechanical dislodging by certain types of traffic (studded tyres, snowplough
blades or tracked vehicles).

Repair: A ravelled pavement should be investigated to determine the root cause

of failure. Repair strategies generally fall into one of two categories:
Small, localized areas of ravelling. Remove the ravelled pavement and patch.
Large ravelled areas indicative of general HMA failure. Remove the damaged
pavement and overlay.

STRIPPING
Description: The loss of bond between aggregates and
asphalt binder that typically begins at the bottom of the
HMA layer and progresses upward. When stripping
begins at the surface and progresses downward it is
usually called ravelling. The third photo show the surface
effects of underlying stripping.

Problem: Decreased structural support, rutting,

shoving/corrugation, ravelling, or cracking (alligator and
longitudinal).

Possible Causes: Bottom-up stripping is very difficult to

recognize because it manifests itself on the pavement
surface as other forms of distress including rutting,
shoving/corrugations, ravelling, or cracking. Typically, a
core must be taken to positively identify stripping as a
pavement distress.
 Poor aggregate surface chemistry.
 Water in the HMA causing moisture damage

Repair: A stripped pavement should be investigated to

determine the root cause of failure (i.e., how did the
moisture get in?). Generally, the stripped pavement needs
to be removed and replaced after correction of any
subsurface drainage issues.

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SLIPPAGE CRACKING

Description: Crescent or half-moon shaped

cracks generally having two ends pointed into the
direction of traffic.

Problem: Roughness, allows moisture infiltration.

Possible Causes: Braking or turning wheels cause

the pavement surface to slide and deform. The
resulting sliding and deformation is caused by a
low-strength surface mix or poor bonding between
the surface HMA layer and the next underlying
layer in the pavement structure.

Repair: Removal and replacement of affected

area.

BLEEDING
Description: A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface. It
usually creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface that can become
quite sticky.

Problem: Loss of skid resistance skid (when wet).

Possible Causes: Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the

aggregate voids during hot weather and then expands onto the
pavement surface. Since bleeding is not reversible during cold weather,
asphalt binder will accumulate on the pavement surface over time. This
can be caused by one or a combination of the following:
 Excessive asphalt binder in the HMA (either due to mix design or manufacturing)
 Excessive application of asphalt binder during BST application (as in the above
figures)
 Low HMA air void content (e.g., not enough room for the asphalt to expand into
during hot weather)

Repair: The following repair measures may eliminate or reduce the

asphalt binder film on the pavement's surface but may not correct the
underlying problem that caused the bleeding:
 Minor bleeding can often be corrected by applying coarse sand to blot up the
excess asphalt binder.
 Major bleeding can be corrected by cutting off excess asphalt with a motor
grader or removing it with a heater planer. If the resulting surface is excessively
rough, resurfacing may be necessary.

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WATER BLEEDING AND PUMPING

Description: Water bleeding (left two photos) occurs when
water seeps out of joints or cracks or through an excessively
porous HMA layer. Pumping (right-most photo) occurs when
water and fine material is ejected from underlying layers
through cracks in the HMA layer under moving loads.

Problem: Decreased skid resistance, an indication of high

pavement porosity (water bleeding), decreased structural
support (pumping)

Possible Causes: Several including:

 Porous pavement as a result of inadequate compaction during
construction or poor mix design
 High water table
 Poor drainage


Repair: Water bleeding or pumping should be investigated

to determine the root cause. If the problem is a high water
table or poor drainage, pavement drainage should be
improved. If the problem is a porous mix (in the case of
water bleeding) a fog seal or slurry seal may be applied to
limit water infiltration.

PUMPING

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BLISTERING
Description: formation of blister on in
HMA layer due to formation of gas or
vapor.

ASSESSMENT OF PAVEMENT DAMAGE

AND
QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

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WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO ASSESS THE CONDITION OF

PAVEMENTS?
Pavement Management Systems (PMS) is a set of tools or
methods to assist decision makers in finding a optimum strategies
for providing, evaluating and maintaining pavement in a
serviceable conditions over a period of time.

PMS provides a rational and cost-effective approach to

pavement maintenance operations.

METHODS
Visual survey
Profile measurements
Coring and sampling - Material testing
Skid resistance
Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Lateral wander
Roughness (smoothness)
Continuous scanning – Road Surface Tester (RST)
Roughness, Rut, Video profiling, Digital images, etc.
Pavement Instrumentation - Temperature and moisture, Response sensors

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VISUAL SURVEY (INSPECTION)

Visual inspection includes:
Cracking
Potholes
Bleeding
Ravelling
Corrugation and shoving
Segregation
Patching
Depressions

VISUAL SURVEY CONT.

Inspection 1 Inspection 2 Inspection 3

Crack index, Si = 7 Crack index, Si = 46 Crack index, Si = 103

1. LSprlåg, längd 2 m Krlåg, 6 m Krmedel, 8 m

2. LSprlåg, 1 m LSprsvår, 3 m Krlåg, 7 m

3. LSprmedel, 2 m LSprsvår, 3 m

4. TSprlåg, 1 st

5. LSprlåg, 2 m LSprmedel, 4 m

6. LSprlåg, 3 m Krlåg, 3 m

7. LSprlåg, 2 m LSprsvår, 4 m

8. LSprmedel, 3 m Krmedel, 6 m

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PROFILE MEASUREMENTS

PROFILE MEASUREMENTS CONT.

5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

0 1996-10-21
1997-10-15
1998-11-17
1999-10-20
Profil (mm)

-5
2000-10-18
2001-10-15
2002-10-15
-10
2003-10-14
2004-10-13
2005-10-13
-15 2006-10-17

-20
Profillängd (mm)

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CORING AND SAMPLING

CORING AND SAMPLING – MATERIAL TESTING

 Laboratory testing:
 IDT Test
 RLT test etc.

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SKID RESISTANCE

SKID RESISTANCE CONT.

 Skid resistance is the force developed when a tyre, that is prevented from rotating, slides
along the pavement surface
Friction factor: f = F/L
Skid number: SN = 100(f)
where: F = frictional resistance to motion in plane of interface
L = Load perpendicular to interface

1.0
0.8
0.6
Friction

0.4
0.2
0.0
0 50 100 150 200
Section (m)

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FALLING WEIGHT DEFLECTOMETER (FWD)

r0 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5

D4 D5
D3
D2
D1
D0

LATERAL WANDERING (SIDE POSITION)

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ROUGHNESS (SMOOTHNESS)
Roughness is a measure of the texture of a surface. It is quantified by the
vertical deviations of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations
IRI = International Roughness Index are large, the surface is rough; if they are small the surface is smooth.
Roughness is typically considered to be the high frequency, short
wavelength component of a measured surface.

Profilometer is used to measure a surface's profile, in order to quantify its

roughness. Vertical resolution is usually in the nanometre level, though
lateral resolution is usually poorer.

worldwide standard for measuring pavement smoothness called the

International Roughness Index, or IRI. The index measures pavement
roughness in terms of the number of mm per m (inches per mile) that a
laser, mounted in a specialized van, jumps as it is driven across the road
system. The lower the IRI number, the smoother the ride.

A measure of a pavement's longitudinal surface profile as measured in the

wheel path by a vehicle travelling at typical operating speeds. It is
calculated as the ratio of the accumulated suspension motion to the
distance travelled obtained from a mathematical model of a standard
quarter car traversing a measured profile at a speed of 80 km/h (50
mph). The IRI is expressed in units of meters per kilometer (inches per mile)
Response Type Road Roughness Meters (RTRRMs) and is a representation of pavement roughness.
RTRRMs measure the vertical movements of an automobile or the axle of a trailer relative to the vehicle
frame. The meters are installed in vehicles with a displacement transducer on the body located between the
middle of the axle and the body of a passenger car or trailer. The transducer detects small increments of
axle movement relative to the vehicle body. The output data consists of a strip chart plot of the actual axle
body movement versus the time of travel.

ROUGHNESS - IRI
The international roughness index (IRI)
was developed by the World Bank in the
1980s. IRI is used to define a
characteristic of the longitudinal profile
of a travelled wheel-track and constitutes
a standardized roughness measurement.

The commonly recommended units are

meters per kilometer (m/km) or
millimeters per meter (mm/m).

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CONTINUOUS SCANNING

ROAD SURFACE TESTER (RST)

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RST - WHAT IS MEASURED

Three longitudinal profiles (0.1 meter)
Transverse profile (1 meter)
Rut depth, max, left and right (20 meter)
IRI, left and right (20 meter)
Macrotexture, MPD in three tracks (1 meter)
Megatexture, two tracks (1 meter)
Curvature, Hilliness (20 meter),
Crossfall (1 meter)
Digital images (20 meter)

DIGITAL IMAGES
20 m interval between the frames

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INSTRUMENTED TEST ROADS - APT TESTING

The HVS Nordic is a mobile APT test Technical Specifications

facility. Test wheel: Dual or single wheel
Load range: 30 – 110 kN
Capacity: 150 000 passages/week
Loading direction: single or bi-directional
Max speed: 12 km/h
Lateral wander: 0 – 0.7 m
Pavement temp: 0 – 30°C
Power: Diesel or electricity

APT = Accelerated Pavement Testing

HVS = Heavy Vehicle Simulator

INSTRUMENTATION - RESPONSE MEASUREMENTS

0.0
Asphalt Concrete
4.8
Bituminous Base
10.1
Granular Base Course
20.9
Granular Subbase

35.1
Subgrade, sand

Instrumentation

Pressure cell
Horizontal strain, longitudinal
Horizontal strain, transversal
Vertical strain
Depth [cm] Vertical deflection

800 800
ASG 107 - X ASG 107 - X
600 ASG 108 - Y 600 ASG 108 - Y
strain, et [me]
strain, et [me]

400 400

200 200

0 0

-200 -200
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time, t [ms] Time, t [ms]

0.004 0.004
Z-35 d = 10.1/20.7
Z-35 d = 10.1/20.7 cm
cm
0.003 0.003
strain, ev [-]
strain, ev [-]

0.002 0.002

0.001 0.001

0 0

-0.001
1500 2000 2500 3000
-0.001
1500 2000 2500 3000
28
 6/12/2018

INSTRUMENTATION - STRESS MEASUREMENTS

Base course Subbase Subgrade

700 300 100
SPC27
600 250
SPC69 SPCB 80 FEM
500 SPC67 SPC30
200
SPC65 FEM
Stress [kPa]

Stress [kPa]

Stress [kPa]
400 60
FEM 150
300
40
100
200

50 20
100

0 0 0
1,9 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,0 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,0
Time [sec] Time [sec] Time [sec]

29