An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

• Mapping involves the determining the

geographic location of features on the
earth, transforming these locations into
positions on the flat map through the
use of Map Projection, and graphically
symbolizing these features. Geographic
locations are specified by geographic
co-ordinates called ----------- and -------------.
To establish a system of geographic
coordinates for the earth, we must first
know its shape and size.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• The earth is very smooth geometrical
figure. To us earth looks like a rugged
surface with it high mountains, deep
valley and ocean trenches. However, from
the satellite images these features are
barely noticeable to us. Both the highest
peak Mount Everest and the deepest
trench Mariana trench are the extreme
relief features. But the earths’ average
altitude and depth are much less from
these extremes. In this context it is quite
safe to say that when the earth is reduced
to a small ball these irregularities will
altogether disappear.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• Spherical Earth: for the last about 2000
years most of the educated people knew
that the earth is spherical in shape. This
understanding was the results of the
teachings of Pythagoras (6th century B.C.)
that human must live on a body of the
“perfect shape” – a perfect sphere. More
convincing were the arguments of Aristotle
around 4th century B.C. in favour of spherical
earth.
• An other very important event with respect
to the measurement of the dimension of the
earth. It was, for the first time, done by a
Greek scholar Eratosthenes around 250 B.C.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• He successfully calculated the
circumference of the earth. However,
later on it became clear that the earth is
not a perfect sphere, but rather slightly
ellipsoidal in shape.
• Ellipsoidal Earth: as late as 1600 A.D.
the earth was thought to be a perfect
spherical in shape. The change came
around 1670, when Isaac Newton
proposed that as a result of his theory of
gravity, there would be a slight bulging of
the earth at the equator due to the
greater centrifugal force generated by the
earths’ rotation.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• This equator bulging would produce a
slight flattening at the poles. It was
predicted by Newton that 1/300th of the
equatorial radius. Measurements made by
the expeditions sent to Ecuador and
Finland in 1735 to 1743 confirmed
Newtons’ prediction.
• From 1800 to the present, at least 20
determinations of the earths’ radii and
flattening have been made from
measurements taken at widely different
locations. Values for 11 different
ellipsoids used as the basis in various
parts of the world.
 North Pole

Polar Axis (b)

Equator
Equatorial axis (a)
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
Official Ellipsoids (after Robinson Et al. 1995: 45)
Name Date Radius a Radius b Polar
meters meters Flattening
WGS 84 1984 6,378,137 6,356,752.3 1/298.257
WGS 72 1972 6,378,135 6,356,750.5 1/298.26
Australian 1965 6.378,160 6,356,774.7 1/298.25
Krasovsky 1940 6,378,245 6,356,863 1/298.3
Internatio 1924 6,378,388 6,356,911.9 1/297
Clarke 1880 6,378,249.1 6,356,514.9 1/293.46
Clarke 1866 6,378,206.4 6,356,583.8 1/294.98
Bessel 1841 6,378,397.2 6,356,079.0 1/299.15
Airy 1830 6,378, 563.4 6,356,256.9 1/299.32
Everest 1830 6,377,276.3 6,356,075.4 1/300.8
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• Slight differences observed in the in the
values of length of radii and polar
flattening in the table are the result of
varying accuracy in the measurements
made, and of slight variations in curvature
from continent to continent due to
irregularities in the earths’ gravity field.
• The World Geodetic System (WGS 72 & 84),
determined from satellite orbital data, are
considered more accurate than the earlier
ground measurements determinations, but
not give the best fit for the particular parts
of the earth. The Clarke 1866 ellipsoid,
based on the measurements taken in
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
Europe, India, Peru, Russia, and south
Africa, is of special interest in the US,
because it had been used for mapping in
the US until recently. Now the North
American cartographers are rapidly
switching to WGS 84 ellipsoid, which is
intended to be global standard.
• Geoidal Earth: An even more faithful
figure of the earth, called Geoid (meaning
earth like), deviates ever so slightly from
the ellipsoid in an irregular manner. The
geoid is a three dimensional shape that
would be approximated by mean sea level
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
in the oceans and the surface of a series of
hypothetical sea level canals criss-
crossing the continents. In more technical
terms, it is a sea level equipotential
surface – the surface on which gravity is
everywhere equal to its strength at mean
sea level.
• Why there are differences between geoid
and ellipsoid?
• The earth is composed of differential
geological composition, including
mountains, oceans, basins and other
vertical irregularities.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• Otherwise if the earth would have been a
featureless plain without oceans then
there would have been no differences
between the geoid and ellipsoid. Due to
variation in rock density and topographic
relief, the geoid surface deviate from the
ellipsoid by up to 300 feet or 100 meter in
certain locations.
• The minute undulation on the geoid are
very clear in the contour map of its
surface and that of the WGS 84 ellipsoid.
These lines of equal deviation were
modelled from millions of gravity
observations taken throughout the world.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• On this map you can easily note that the
hills and valley on the geoid do not
correspond with continents and oceans
on the land surface. The highest point on
the geoid can be located in New Guinea
and that is 75 meters above the ellipsoid
and the lowest point is in the tip of
southern India, which is 104 meter below
the ellipsoid value. The most detailed
geodal model has been constructed for
the united states and surrounding areas.
it is showing deviation relative to the WGS
84 ellipsoids. This map was
BASIC GEODESY

From James R. Smith, page 34

 Authalic Sphere or Reference Ellipsoid

• Authalic Sphere is a sphere representing the

Earth that has the same surface area as a
Reference ellipsoid. Authalic means equal
area or area-preserving. Because the earth is
slightly elliptical, spherical representations
must be modified to maintain accurate
representations of area.
• In Geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a
mathematically-defined surface that
approximates the Geoid, the truer figure of
the earth, or other planetary body. Because
of their relative simplicity, reference
ellipsoids are used as a preferred surface on
which Geodetic network computations are
performed and point coordinates such as
Latitude, Longitude and Elevation are
defined.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
created by combining more than one million
observations with raster digital elevation
data. A number of significant differences
can be easily seen on this map between
the geoid and ellipsoids.
• What is the significance of Sphere,
Ellipsoid and Geoid for cartographers?
• Cartographic use of the Sphere, Ellipsoid
and Geoid: Cartographers are using these
three approximations to the earths’ true
shape in different ways. The authalic
sphere is the reference surface for small-
scale maps of countries, continents and
large areas.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• This is because of the fact that the
difference between sphere and ellipsoid is
negligible when mapping large areas in a
in a general manner on page-size maps.
There is also a significant increase in the
complexity of map projection equations
for the ellipsoid. In addition the spherical
spheroidal equations for a particular map
projection give essentially the same
results for small-scale maps.
• With large-scale maps, however, it is a
different story. In the large-scale maps
the difference between locations on the
spherical and ellipsoidal approximations
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
can be significant, therefore, there is a need to
take the earth oblateness into account.
Otherwise, distances, directions and areas
measured on these detailed maps would be
incorrect at particular locations. Therefore
cartographers usually use ellipsoid as the
reference surface for these large-scale
maps.
• The geoid is the reference surface for ground
surveyed horizontal and vertical positions.
These positions are adjusted to the ellipsoid
surface, since the irregularities on the geoid
would make map projection and other
mathematical computations extremely
complex.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• On the other hand elevations are
determined relative to the mean sea level
geoid.
• Geographical Coordinates: The geographical
coordinate system (latitude and longitude)
can be traced back to the 2nd century B.C.
The famous astronomer/geographer
Hipparchus of Rodes was the person who
introduced the geographical coordinates for
the first time. It is the primary location
system of the earth surface. It has always
been used in cartography for location and
surveying. It was devised to adopt a unique
system of location for the earth features.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• The north south axis of earth rotation are
the main reference point for starting this
location system. Specifying any location
on the earth surface requires determining
latitude, the north south angular distance
from the equator, and longitude, the east
west angular distance from the prime
meridian. All points on the earth having
the same latitude from a line called a
parallel; all points of the same longitude
from a meridian line.
• Latitude north south 90˚ each starting
from equator. Relationship with the -----------
---------.
Latitude and Longitude
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

• Authalic latitude: for small scale maps

based on the spherical earth authalic
latitude is usually used. It can be
defined as the angle formed by a pair of
lines extending from the equator to the
centre of the earth and then from the
centre to our required position. It
ranges from pole to pole from 90˚N to
90˚S or from + 90˚ to - 90˚ when digital
databases and map projection
equations. It is normally given in
degrees, minutes, and seconds, using
the sexagesimal (60) number system
developed by ancient Babylonian
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
mathematicians. Computer calculation
system often require the decimal degree
system, with which, 45˚ 30’ N is expressed
as 45.5˚.
• The north south distance of the sphere
between each degree of authalic latitude
is identical, and only depends on the
circumference of the sphere. For the WGS
84 authalic sphere of circumference
40,030.2 km. (24875 miles), the distance
between each degree of latitude is 111.20
km (69.11 mile). Whereas, on the Clark
1866 authalic sphere, the circumference is
also 40,030.2 km, meaning that these two
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
and most other authalic spheres can be
used interchangeably for small-scale
mapping.
• Geodetic Latitude: latitude on the ellipsoid
is called Geodetic latitude. It is defined as
the angle formed by a line from the
equator toward the centre of the earth,
and a second line perpendicular to the
ellipsoid surface at ones’ location.
• The north south difference between
degrees of geodetic latitude is nearly the
same with slight variation.
• Longitude: Longitudes are our east and
west positions on the earth surface, is
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

• associated with an infinite set of

meridians, arranged perpendicularly to the
parallels. Unlike the equator in the latitude
system no meridian has the natural basis
for being the starting line from which to
count east west positions. The choice of
the starting line called the prime meridian
has always been a matter of international
importance. In 1884 it was universally
agreed to adopt the Royal Greenwich
observatory as a starting point of prime
meridian at an international meridian
conference in Washington D.C.
• The universal choice of Greenwich as a
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
prime meridian established the (0˚ 0˚)
point of origin of the geographical
coordinate system as being a point in
the Gulf of Guinea. It also became the
starting point for the international time
zones. The position of the 180˚ meridian
in the pacific ocean opposite the prime
meridian provides a convenient place for
the international date line. This meridian
has not been followed as such but the
actual line is zigzag to avoid the division
of small islands into different zones of
the day.
• Actually longitude is the angle formed
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

by a line from the intersection of the prime

meridian and the equator to the centre of
the earth and then back to the
intersection of the equator and the local
meridian passing through the position.
Longitudes ranges from 180˚ W and 180˚ E
of the prime meridian, from - 180˚ to + 180˚
for the digital database and map
projection computations.
• Length of a Degree of Longitude: it can be
easily seen on the globe that the
meridians converge on the poles. As a
result, the east west distance along a
parallel between two meridians one
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
degree apart becomes progressively less as
the pole is approached. The network of
parallels and meridians on a plane sheet
of paper is known as graticule.
• Properties of the Graticule: the imaginary
network of parallels and meridians on the
earth is called the Graticule as is their
projection onto a flat map. The graticule
has certain geometric properties, some of
which cartographers try to preserve when
making a map projection for part or all of
the earth. These properties deals with
distance, direction, and area. All these
properties are discussed assuming the
earth to be spherical. Later in map
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

projection these properties are also

discussed with reference to the qualities
and shortcomings of the individual map
projections.
• Distance on the Sphere and the Great
Circle: the shortest distance between two
points is usually a straight line. However,
on the curving three dimensional spherical
surface it is obviously impossible to follow
such a straight line. Therefore, the
shortest straight line course over the
surface between any two points on a
sphere is the arc on the surface directly
above the true straight line.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
This arc is formed by the intersection of the
spherical surface with the plane passing
through the two points and the centre of
the earth. The circle established by the
intersection of such a plane with the
surface divides the earth into hemisphere
and is called a great circle.
• The equator is the only complete great
circle in the graticule. Since all the
meridians are one half a great circle in
length, pairs of meridians also make up a
great circles. All parallels other than the
equator are small circles.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• Direction: directions on the earth are
entirely arbitrary. Since a spherical
surface has no edges, beginning, or end.
By convention north south is defined as
directions along any meridian and east
west is defined along any parallel.
Because of the arrangement of the
graticule, these two directions are
always perpendicular except at the
poles. The direction determined by the
orientation of the graticule are called
geographic or true directions as
distinguished from two other kinds of
directions such as magnetic and grid.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• The needle of the compass align itself
towards the magnetic field of the earth
and is not always points towards the
pole.
• The magnetic pole changes its position
slowly with the passage of time.
Currently it is located at approximately
(78˚N and 103˚W) about 800 miles (1300
km) south of the geographical pole.
• The direction of the line on the earth (or
drawn on the map as the case may be)
is called many things: bearing, course,
heading flight line, or azimuth. Their
meanings are essentially the same,
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
differing largely in the context it is used.
Two direction specifications are of
special importance in cartography are
true azimuth and constant azimuth.
• True Azimuth: As it is apparent from
observing the globe, directions on the
earth, established by the graticules, are
likely to change constantly as we move
along the arc of the great circle. Only
along a meridian, or along the equator
does direction remains constant.
• Arcs of great circles are the shortest
course between points, movement
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
along them is of major commercial
importance. Therefore, cartographers
construct special map projections which
maintain these directional relations as
much as possible.
• Constant Azimuth: A constant azimuth
(also called a rhumb line or loxodrome) is
a line that intersects each meridian at the
same angle. All meridians have a constant
azimuth of 0˚ (North) or 180˚ (South),
depending on the direction of travel. The
equator and all other parallels have
constant azimuth of 90˚ (east) or 270˚
(west).
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
• Area: the surface area of Square is
bounded by pairs of parallels and
meridians on the sphere, varies on
predictable manner. Looking at the
globe we see that all quadrilaterals in
an east-west band bound by two
parallels, such as 30˚ and 40˚ north and
equally spaced meridians have the
same surface area. It is also clear from
the globe that the areas of
quadrilaterals in bands of equal width,
such as 0˚-10˚N, 10˚ to 20˚N, and so on.
Thus there is a systematic decrease in
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

the area of the quadrilaterals according to

various location on the globe.
• Determination of Geodetic Position: Maps
showing individual earth features cannot
be made without knowing the latitude,
longitude, and often the elevation of depth
of each. Before mapping can begin, a
network of accurately measured geodetic
control points must be defined on the
ground. Geodetic control points influence
the accuracy of all further mapping in
their vicinity. Consequently these are the
fixed starting points which surveyors,
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

photogrammetrists, and others use to

determine the two or three dimensional
position of the natural and cultural
features that appear on the map.
• Determination of Geodetic Latitude and
Longitude: Surveyors can use many
methods for the determination of geodetic
latitude. The oldest method and the one
still wisely used is to observe the altitude
(angle above the horizon) of Polaris, the
North Star. This is an ancient method and
its popularity lies in the one-to-one
relationship between altitude angle and
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
latitude – that is the altitude angle equals
the geodetic latitude.
• This method can be extended to the sun,
by measuring the suns’ altitude at noon,
when it is highest in the sky. If the sun
was directly above the equator, geodetic
latitude would simply equal 90˚ minus the
noon altitude. However, this only occurs
only in spring and fall equinoxes. On all
other days the suns’ declination must be
taken into account by using the equation,
i.e. 90˚ - altitude + declination. Solar
declination is the latitude at which the
sun is directly overhead on a particular
day.
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy

• Determination of longitude: it is basically

a time difference problem. Since the
earth revolves 360˚ of longitude every 24
hours, or 15˚ per hour. That is an easy
calculation and we have to know the time
at Greenwich.
• Horizontal Control Networks: to maintain
accuracy in the ground survey every
country has a network of points where
the geodetic latitude and longitudes are
precisely known. For example there are
more than 200,000 such points in the
united states of America. These points
 An Introduction to Basic Geodesy
are generally spaced from three to eight
kilometres in the urban areas, and three to
five times apart in the rural and
mountainous areas. The physical location
of each control point is also marked.
These points also vary in accuracy.
• Vertical Control: A network of vertical
control points with latitude, longitude, and
elevation are marked on the ground after
proper measurement with high accuracy
as a reference point for drawing contour
lines on topographical maps. On the
ground these points are marked and
known as Bench Marks.
 BASIC GEODESY

Cartographic use of sphere, ellipsoid, geoid:

Þ Authalic sphere used for small scale maps of countries,

continents, larger areas

Þ Ellipsoid used for large scale maps such as topographic

maps and nautical charts; GPS systems use ellipsoid

Þ Geoid used as reference surface for ground surveyed

horizontal and vertical positions; elevations determined
relative to mean sea level geoid