Seah, W. T., & Bishop, A. J. (2000, April 24-28).

Values in mathematics textbooks: A

view through two Australasian regions. Paper presented at the 81st Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Note: This paper represents a work-in-progress. Please do not cite without prior
communication and permission from the authors.

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Values in mathematics textbooks:

A view through two Australasian regions
Paper presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association

Wee Tiong Seah, Monash University, Victoria, Australia

Alan J. Bishop, Monash University, Victoria, Australia

This paper outlines a preliminary investigation into the kinds of mathematical and mathematics
educational values conveyed in representative lower secondary mathematics textbooks in
Singapore and Victoria, Australia. Mathematical and mathematics educational values are viewed
as being influenced by --- and acting on --- different socio-cultural levels of values. Data compiled
from the content analysis exercise reveal an unbalanced portrayal for each of the eight selected
pairs of complementary values. The relationship between some of the commonly-adopted value
signals and the nature of mathematical genre is explored. Differences in the way values are
portrayed in the two culturally different regions are also discussed.

“Education socializes people to … official values” (Neuman, 1997, p. 403).

“Education, the process of continued socialization, is aimed at specific socio-politico-
economic goals far beyond acquisition of the ‘Three Rs’ “ (Eckermann, 1994, p. 39),
specifically to inculcate the individual and the citizen in each pupil. Such values are often
taught through school subjects and through interpersonal interactions in school, explicitly
or implicitly. It is probably evident that the value of teamwork is often portrayed to ---
and inculcated in --- pupils in physical education classes, that of national pride through
history lessons, and environmental care through the context of a particular language class.
The perception that mathematics is the same objective knowledge everywhere in the
world, and the fact that mathematical knowledge is essentially context-free (despite the
inclusion of context in mathematics pedagogy) both lead to the commonly-held view that
mathematics is culture-and value-free.

Relatively recent studies in ethnomathematics (see, for examples, Ascher & Ascher,
1994; Bishop, 1994; Borba, 1997; D'Ambrosio, 1985; D'Ambrosio, 1995; Gerdes, 1994;
Gerdes, 1996; Knijnik, 1993; Pinxten, 1994) have shown that different mathematical
practices are conceptualized and practised in different cultures, some of which can be
very efficient (Borba, 1997). The development of multicultural mathematics education
(see, for examples, Banks, 1997; Erickson, 1997; Fasheh, 1982; Joseph, 1993) is also an
acknowledgement that pupils from different socio-cultural backgrounds bring with them
different perspectives and knowledge of mathematical practices.

1
 Thus, "every people, every culture and every subculture, including every social group
… and every individual, constructs and develops its own, in a certain way particular,
mathematics" (Gerdes, 1998, p. 47). In fact, "[one] of the greatest ironies … is that
several different cultures and societies have contributed to the development of what is
called western mathematics: the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Indians, the Arabs, the
Greeks, as well as the Western Europeans" (Bishop, 1990, p. 61). In other words, “school
mathematics is mathematics as it is conceptualised, represented, structured, and
sequenced to share with the next generation through the formal schooling experience”
(Schmidt, McKnight, Valverde, Houang, & Wiley, 1997, p. 4).
In this context, this paper reports the results of a preliminary investigation into the
kinds of values portrayed in representative lower secondary mathematics textbooks in two
Australasian regions, i.e. Singapore and Victoria, Australia.

Significance of study
Although cognitive objectives have affective components, and vice versa (Krathwohl,
Bloom, & Masia, 1964), cognitive educational objectives appear to have received a
greater emphasis in curriculum statements, in textbooks, and in teachers’ conscious
teaching practices. A possible reason is that since we are better at handling the cognitive
domain, we often focus on cognitive objectives as a means to achieving affective goals.
Another related reason may be that the extent of attainment of cognitive reasons is easier
to measure. A failure to place a greater emphasis directly on the affective aspect of
education, however, can be dangerous especially in an age of lifelong learning and
continual retraining, and when increasingly high premium is being placed on the quality
of citizens. As Hill (1991) notes,
apart from anything else they might learn, students get the message that, in the things
which it includes and excludes, the curriculum mirrors the priorities which the
community sets on things …. Values education goes on, therefore, even when we are
not consciously planning for it. But when its effect is not acknowledged or controlled,
the result is often that wrong values for life are propagated by default. (p.3)

Moreover, affective objectives do facilitate the achievement of cognitive goals

(Bloom, 1976; Eckermann, 1994; Turney, Eltis, Towler, & Wright, 1986). For example,
teachers and textbook writers may aim to increase pupil interest and motivation in
mathematics by presenting content in a fun, easy-to-understand way. The confidence
possessed by a pupil is likely to provide him/her with a special energy when he/she
approaches a problem, an internal boost which will increase his/her productivity and
creativity. Afterall, values involve a greater level of cognitive involvement compared to
other less internalized affective qualities like beliefs and attitudes (Krathwohl et al.,
1964).

Mathematics curriculum statements in Singapore and Victoria do refer to the

communication of different values to pupils. In Singapore, for example, the lower
secondary mathematics syllabus expresses an aim that pupils are to be able to “recognise
the relationships between topics …. [and to] become aware of the application of
mathematics in other subjects” (Singapore Ministry of Education, 1990, p. 5). Thus, there
is a promotion of relational understanding (Skemp, 1979) among topics within
mathematics, and between mathematics and other subjects. The Victoria mathematics
‘Curriculum and Standards Framework II’ (CSF) states that students “should learn simple

2
ways of … justifying their work” (Board of Studies, 1999, p. 214), thereby
communicating the message that working mathematically involves a level of being open
to peer scrutiny, being accountable, and acting transparently.

However, “from a single set of curriculum guidelines an infinite number of textbooks

could be built, each with its own interpretation of the intent of the guidelines” (Venezky,
1992). In Australia, Shield’s (1998) analysis of local mathematics textbooks shows that
they “do not convey the intent of recent reports and syllabuses, even though they were
written in response to these documents” (p. 521).

From a wider perspective, not all values may be relevant, suitable or desirable in
different societies. For example, in the Confucian-heritage culture of Taiwan where the
mathematics curriculum is very much influenced by American educational ideas,
questions are being asked about the possible consequences of unquestioned acceptance of
values underpinning these foreign ethos (Chin & Lin, 1999).

However, mathematics has not enjoyed as much academic/research attention in

affective issues as some other subjects, such as the languages, literature studies, history,
physical education (e.g. Aplin & Saunders, 1996; Lee & Cockman, 1995; Murray, 1977),
and the sciences (e.g. Allchin, 1999; Proctor, 1991; Tan, 1997). It may be that these other
subjects deal with aspects of life experiences more directly and more explicitly, so that
values can be easily associated and/or discussed with them. Mathematics, on the other
hand, often deals with abstract entities and ideas, and with how these are applied to real-
life situations (and indeed to many of the other school subjects mentioned above!).

Furthermore, research in the affective component of school mathematics has mainly

focussed on gender, and attitudes and beliefs (e.g. Anderson, 1998; Bleicher, Cooper,
Nisbet, & Warren, 1995; Bobis & Cusworth, 1995; Callingham, Watson, Collis, &
Moritz, 1995; Carroll, 1995; Galbraith & Haines, 1998; Gervasoni, 1995; Kaleva, 1998;
Perry & Howard, 1999; Perry, Howard, & Tracey, 1999; Philippou & Christou, 1998;
Raymond, 1997; Thompson, 1984; Tirta Gondoseputro, 1999; Wang, 1999).

In fact, educational research in values has been both relatively recent and scarce. This
is partly due to a rather fuzzy understanding of, agreement to, and distinction among the
various affective variables such as attitudes, beliefs and values (Krathwohl et al., 1964;
McLeod, 1992). Also, related terminology have been used interchangeably, as in religious
faith/beliefs/values, leading many to conclude wrongly that the terms are synonymous.
The word ‘value’ itself has several different usage in the language too, such as in the
‘value’ of an unknown in an equation, the ‘value’ of listening to a speech, and the (moral)
‘value’ of an individual. All these have contributed to some uncertainties with peers and
teachers we have encountered in a current research project (Clarkson, Bishop,
FitzSimons, & Seah, 2000, in press). Another contributing factor is that reliability of
affective studies has generally been questionable in the academic field (Southwell, 1995).

Thus, the relative lack of research interest in values in mathematics education does
not mean either that the entire subject of values is irrelevant to optimizing mathematics
education in schools, or that the current state of knowledge about values education is
sufficient enough to facilitate effective teaching and learning. As Southwell (1995) notes,
the failure of recent and current educational initiatives to show any tangible

3
improvements has fuelled the current renewed interest in affective factors in mathematics
education.

Values
What exactly, then, are values in general and in the context of the mathematics
classroom? Kluckhohn (1962) defines a value as "a conception, explicit or implicit,
distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences
the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action". There is thus an
ownership of values by the individual and by the community to which the individual
belongs. In the same way, Raths, Harmin and Simon (1987) refer to values as "general
guides to behavior" (p. 198) arising from one's experience in --- and relationships with ---
the world. However, Swadener and Soedjadi (1988) appear to avoid situating values in
any context, merely defining a value as "an idea or concept about the worth of something"
(p. 197).

Three definitions in the early- and mid-1990s appear to situate values either as a
personal characteristic or as a community-defined quality. Considering the former first,
McConatha and Schnell (1995) see values as
primary constructs which affect an individual's interpretative schema and his or her
sense of self, thereby exerting a direct or indirect influence on attitudes, beliefs,
feelings, and the perception of the social and political world. In other words, values
provide abstract frames of references for perceiving and organizing experience and for
choosing among alternative courses of action. (p. 80)

Similarly, Hill (1991) refers to values as "those beliefs held by individuals to which
they attach special priority or worth, and by which they tend to order their lives" (p. 4).
He identifies three elements in the conception, i.e. cognitive, affective and volitional,
stressing the importance to distinguish the volitional aspect from the other two because it
needs not follow from knowing and feeling, and because of a possible infringement of
personal rights to demand conformity to certain actions.

On the other hand, Nixon's (1995) definition is clearly community-referenced:

Values are important not because they provide logical explanations, but because they
are asserted and require assent. They affect action by satisfying our sense of what
feels right or awakening our sense of what is morally offensive. The affective nature
of values --- the way they cling to feelings and associations --- accounts for their
resilience and for the continuing influence they exert across generations. Values take
us, as individuals and groups, back to our roots for the purpose of reclaiming what is
morally alive in our communal pasts; they trace old loyalties but point also to new
possibilities for realising our own moral agency and for supporting that of others.
They can, and do, lead to the exclusivity of tribal and ethnic nationalisms, but they are
also expressed in innumerable acts of altruism and self-sacrifice. (p. 220)

Similarly, Tan's (1997) definition in the late-1990s signals a return to Kluckhohn's

(1962) opinion that values reflect an interaction between the individual and the
community:
Values thus appear to be a form of conceptual and emotional goggles, a means to
allow us to evaluate/see the worth of something, some action or goal. They tend to
have a moral aspect involved and are concerned with human actions or behaviour and

4
 to do with good and bad. They are part of the culture of a community, and help to
guide the actions of its members toward each other and the community as a whole and
toward other communities that may have different values. In some communities, the
values extend to define the community or its members' relationship with nature, both
living and nonliving. Values form the basis of a person's choice of action and attitudes
toward others and toward the world at large. (p. 559)

Specific to mathematics learning and teaching, Bishop's (1996) definition of values

also makes a comparison with associated forms of knowledge:
Values in mathematics education are the deep affective qualities which education
aims to foster through the school subject of mathematics. They appear to survive
longer in people's memories than does conceptual and procedural knowledge, which
unless it is regularly used tends to fade. (p. 19)
Inherent in this definition is the influence educational institutions and systems --- and
indirectly the socio-cultural and political entities as well--- exert in the formation of value
systems in pupils. Also, there is the implicit reference to an active intention to teach
values in schools, a point acknowledged at the beginning of this paper. There is also a
subconscious aspect to values education --- such as in teacher portrayal of personally-held
values through his/her interactions with pupils in the (mathematics) class --- of which
those involved may not be acutely aware of at the moment of occurrence.

Theoretical framework
The conduct of this preliminary study has been informed by a theoretical research
framework made up of the following three aspects:
--- development of personal values,
--- values in the mathematics classroom,
--- mathematics textbooks as a source and medium of values portrayal.

Development of personal values

In their second taxonomy of educational objectives, which focuses on the affective
domain, Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1964) conceive affective objectives as being
located along a multidimensional internalization continuum (Chap. 3). These objectives
are arbitrarily organized into the following five stages: (1) receiving (attending), (2)
responding, (3) valuing, (4) organization, (5) characterization by value or value complex.
Each of these five stages are subdivided into sub-stages.

Progressing from the receiving (attending) stage to the valuing stage, there is a
greater level of internal control over the ownership of affective variables. Accompanying
this greater individual control is the increasing complexity and abstraction of the affective
variables.

Raths, Harmin and Simon (1987) introduce the idea of value indicators, which
include attitudes, beliefs and interests. According to them, value indicators undergo
through valuing processes to become values. The satisfaction of all seven criteria must
take place for a successful valuing process:
--- choosing --- freely
--- from alternatives
--- after thoughtful consideration of the consequences of each element

5
 --- prizing --- cherishing
--- affirming to others
--- acting --- with the choice
--- repeatedly, in some pattern of life.

The relevance of some of these seven criteria are certainly debatable (see Seah,
1999; Stewart, 1987). For example, certain life experiences may create such deep
impressions and strong impact on the individual that they shape or alter his/her outlook
and attitudes to life, and indeed personal values forever, so that the criteria of values
being the outcome of choosing after thoughtful consideration of the relevant
consequences may not apply. In terms of Krathwohl et al’s (1964) ‘Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives (affective domain)’, this valuing process corresponds to the mid-
level of the Taxonomy, i.e. the valuing level. It is at this and the two higher levels of the
Taxonomy too that cognitive involvement of the individual becomes significant with the
corresponding decrease in affective response.

Beyond the valuing stage, where individual values are organized as part of a person’s
value system, these individual values are not likely able to explain for the person’s
subsequent decisions and actions. Rather, it is a person’s entire value system which
guides his/her responses to different situations. Second-hand values (Tripp, 1993) and
competing values often come into play in a person’s process of responding to different
life situations. This relates to Hill’s (1991) emphasis to consider the volitional aspect
differently from the cognitive and affective aspects when examining values. Thus,
observed inconsistencies between beliefs and actions (Sosniak, Ethington, & Varelas,
1991; Thompson, 1992; Tirta Gondoseputro, 1999) may be explained from a perspective
of personal value systems, taking into consideration the interaction among competing
values and the influence of second-hand values.

Values in the mathematics classroom

In view of the common misconception of the nature of values in the mathematics
classroom (which was discussed earlier in this paper), this second theoretical framework
will be explained in greater detail.

In exploring these values, Bishop (1996) has identified three categories of values of
interest --- general educational, mathematical, and specifically mathematics educational:
For example, when a teacher admonishes a child for cheating in a test, the values of
'honesty' and 'good behaviour' derive from the general educational [emphasis added]
and socialising demands of society. Then when a teacher proposes and discusses a
task such as the following: "Describe and compare three different proofs of the
Pythagorean theorem" the mathematical [emphasis added] values of 'rationalism' and
'openness' are being conveyed. However there are other values being transmitted
which are specifically associated with the norms of the institutions within which
mathematics education [emphasis added] is formally conducted. For example,
consider the following instructions from the teacher: "Make sure you show all your
working in your answers", "Don't just rely on your calculator when doing
calculations, try estimating, and then checking your answers", the values implied are
all about 'examination-wisdom' and 'efficient mathematical behaviour'. (Bishop, 1998,
p. 34)

6
 Mathematical values.
In particular, Bishop (1988) suggests that mathematical values may be considered in
terms of three pairs of complementary values, i.e. rationalism and objectism, control and
progress, openness and mystery. Each pair corresponds to White’s (1959) three
components of culture --- ideology, sentiment, sociology --- respectively.

Rationalism involves the separation of an idea from any associated ‘object’, and
focuses on utilizing “deductive reasoning as the only true way of achieving explanations
and conclusions” (Bishop, 1988, p.62). Complementary to this is the value of objectism,
which illustrates the power of mathematics as one which deals with abstract ideas
efficiently by concretizing them, treating these ideas as if they are objects. Both these two
values, “more than any other qualities, are what have enabled Western mathematics to
‘conquer’ the world of mathematics, and to be valued above others” (Bishop, 1991, p.
202).

In the sentimental dimension, the value of control reflects the feeling of security
offered by the subject over not just natural phenomenon, but also when mathematics is
applied to solve problems in the social environment. Whereas this value has the flavor of
stability, mathematics is at the same time about change and progress.

Mathematics exemplifies the value of openness, through which the subject achieves
transparency in its ideas and conclusions, and arguments are critically analyzed and
discussed. Mathematical truths are expected to pass the test of critical examinations and
analysis, and in many ways this has been extended to other truths and theories as well.
Another aspect of openness, however, is that instead of establishing the validity of
arguments and propositions, weaknesses, deficiencies and errors are exposed of other
such arguments and ideas.

In any case, mathematics as a subject has not lost its mystery. Even mathematicians
are lured to the subject and attracted to the challenge it offers in virtue to the mystery it
represents. Its link to computer programming and technology, coupled with the vast
advances in information technology, has only made mathematics more mysterious.

That these mathematical values are complementary pairs suggest that balanced pupil
exposure to all of them is necessary for the internalization of a positive outlook towards
mathematics. However, are the complementary pairs portrayed with equal emphasis in the
real-life mathematics classroom? In particular, for this study, what is the contribution
towards this by the mathematics textbooks?

Mathematics educational values.

The professional teaching practice of mathematics teachers and the role of textbooks
as ‘invisible teachers’ portray values which are mathematics educational in nature.
Although ‘Western’ mathematics may be taught in different countries (and so we expect
the same mathematical values to be represented and transmitted in different places),
socio-cultural, pedagogical and individual factors inherent among different classrooms
and different school systems lead to differences in agreement as to what constitute
desirable values (e.g. freedom in choosing problem-solving strategies) within the context
of mathematics education.

7
 Amongst the large number of mathematics educational values, this study focuses on
five complementary pairs. Their being chosen reflects what we feel are the more recurrent
examples of mathematics educational values which are represented and transmitted in
mathematics classrooms today.

In the formalistic-activist view continuum (Dormolen, 1986), the formalistic end sees
mathematics learning as involving deductive reasoning and receptive learning.
Mathematics is considered as a cultural heritage worth preserving. The activist, however,
views mathematics learning as involving intuitive reasoning and discovery learning.
Mathematics is thus a human activity which is very much alive and relevant. A
comparable model may be Cobb’s (1988) imposition/transmission --- negotiation/active
construction continuum.
The next continuum to be examined is derived from Skemp’s (1979) notion of
instrumental vs relational understanding/learning. The former is related to learning
rules, procedures and formulae; the latter emphasizes pupil relating a task to appropriate
schema.

The two pairs of values discussed above are derived from pedagogical considerations.
Culturally, how is mathematics perceived? Here, three pairs of values can be broadly
conceived, answering the questions of what, who and why.

What is the nature of mathematics learning and teaching? The relevance of

mathematical knowledge and skills allows us to solve daily problems and create more
ingenious ways through which the society progresses. Foreign mathematical systems may
be different from the ‘Western’ model because mathematics provide solutions to specific
and particular cultural needs and demands. On the other hand, mathematics may be taught
and learnt as theoretical knowledge, often without any familiar everyday context.

Who can be involved in mathematical activities? In the accessibility --- specialism

continuum, we can identify with mathematics teaching which either advocates
mathematics for all or mathematics for the selected, elite group of gifted mathematicians.

Why is mathematics taught and learnt? The performance expectations listed in

Robitaille (1993) range from knowing, using routine procedure, investigating and
problem-solving, reasoning, to communicating. Within the parameter of applying
mathematical knowledge, these can be broadly conceptualized as being located at two
ends of an evaluating --- reasoning continuum. The first three performance expectations
deal with using mathematical knowledge to evaluate unknown answers; the last two, on
the other hand, have to do more with using mathematical knowledge to supplement our
capability to reason and to communicate ideas.

Mathematical and mathematics educational complementary value pairs may not be

exhibited at any one decision point. For example, there are situations when the teacher or
the textbook recognizes that the best pedagogical approach is to teach particular
algorithms for pupil substitution of known values. Are we to conclude from this incident
alone that the teacher embraces instrumental understanding per se? Perhaps this provides
a third explanation for observed inconsistencies between actions, and beliefs and attitudes
(as discussed earlier)?

8
 Since culture and values are closely related, the nature of any given value in the
mathematics classroom is relative to the socio-cultural setting. How are these values
related to one another, and to other values in the wider context? Figure 1 illustrates a
proposal for the relationship existing between and amongst values.

In Figure 1, general educational, mathematical and specifically mathematics

educational values do not exist mutually exclusive of one another. Afterall, some values
fit into two or all three of the categories. For example, progress and its associated value of
creativity is as much a mathematical and mathematics educational value as a general

Figure 1
Relationship of values

societal values

epistemological values

institutional values

personal value system

values in the
mathematics mathcal
classroom values

g.e. m.e.
values values
peripheral
values

Note. mathcal values --- mathematical values

m.e. values --- mathematics educational values
g.e. values --- general educational values

educational value. Together, these values are portrayed through the operating functions of
teachers, textbooks, syllabi, etc. These are usually accompanied by a range of (more
implicit) peripheral values, which include the implicit message portrayed by teacher
dressing (Neuman, 1997, Chap. 14), textbooks’ physical designs, for examples.

Beyond the mathematics classroom, values are situated in increasingly larger contexts
of personal, institutional, epistemological, and societal values. It may be recognized that
the layers in this tentative model reflect the influence of Billett’s (1998) five levels of
knowledge genesis. Eckermann (1994, Figure 2.1) has also attributed similar factors to
influences on the nature of teachers’ teaching philosophies. Note the set of
epistemological values as are continually being constructed and modified by
mathematicians and mathematics education scholars. This highlights another aspect of
human contribution to the nature of mathematics in any cultural context. Similar
categories have been discussed with reference to science education variously as
‘epistemological and supporting values’ (Tan, 1997) and ‘values of science and research
ethics’ (Allchin, 1999).

9
 The 'soft' boundaries separating the different value categories challenge the notion of
interaction among values as 'top-down'; rather, there is a sense of two-way permeability.
For example, institutional values shape values in the mathematics classroom as much as
values in the mathematics classroom influence the development of institutional values.

Neither is any value category situated wholly within a ‘larger’ set of values.
Values which do not lie within the boundaries of the larger contextual value categories
represent 'minority' values arising from an increasingly multicultural classroom and
societal contexts.

Mathematics textbooks as source and medium of values portrayal.

The textbook writer, editor, publisher, together with their country's political and
educational authorities, determine what gets published, how the content is portrayed, the
tone adopted, etc. Like mathematical knowledge itself, they are all value-laden in their
own ways. Thus, textbooks have been shown to propagate officially sanctioned
worldviews of political and educational bodies (Anyon, 1983; Apple & Christian-Smith,
1991; Brummelen, 1991).

In the area of mathematics, Fauvel 's (1991) analysis of three 'old' mathematics
textbooks published between the mid 1500s and early 1900s reveals that values were
consciously and actively built into the text through the skilful incorporation of such
techniques as teaching through dialogue, adopting a didactic catechism style, and
reflecting on the links between historical past and current methods and instruments.

That present-day textbooks adopt a more direct exposition teaching approach and
incorporate a greater number of drills and practice questions (McGinty et al, 1986) do not
imply that mathematics textbooks have become value-free. Fauvel (1991) and Shield
(1998) show how non-subject specific messages are still being presented to readers.
McBride’s (1994) examination of two American mathematics textbooks demonstrates the
representation of political values, and argues that reader-environment issues transmitted
in these books are out-of-focus. Afterall, “whenever an utterance is made, the
speaker/writer makes choices (not necessarily consciously) between alternative structures
and contents” (p.3). Dowling's (1991) analysis of the British SMP 11-16 textbook series
demonstrates that the different books intended for different pupil ability actually transmit
strong values along the academic/mundane and intellectual/manual lines, and thus act as a
sort of social class gatekeeper. Dowling’s (1996) analysis of the similar textbook series
also notes that values are transmitted through the recruitment of different reader voices.

Values representation through textbooks may perhaps be part of the entire education
process afterall. As Brummelen (1991) notes
while it is understandable that authors do not wish to present children with unduly
depressing views of life, burying or glossing over basic problems and key value
conflicts in society is untruthful and fails to help students even sense the need for
social transformation, let alone prepare them for social and economic empowerment.
(p.216)

As "teachers at a distance" (Fauvel, 1991, p. 116), textbooks often define the facts to
be learnt within the school's curriculum (Dorfler & McLone, 1986). They set "the style
and order in which the material is covered in the course" (Mestre, 1988, p. 204).

10
"Teachers rely on them to organise lessons and structure subject matter" (Tyson-
Bernstein, 1988, p. viii). Although teachers in Beijing, Hong Kong and London in
Leung's (1992) study did not perceive textbooks as highly influential on their own
teaching practices, his data conclude that nearly "all the lessons in the three places were
very much influenced by the textbooks in use" (p. 197). Likewise, textbook usage in
Singapore and Victorian (Lokan, Ford, & Greenwood, 1996) secondary mathematics
classrooms is high.

Values in mathematics education: An operational definition

Values in mathematics education, then, represent one's internalization and
'cognitization' of affective variables (such as beliefs and attitudes) related to the discipline
of mathematics, to one's community, and to the wider world through one's experience
with the learning or teaching of mathematics. These values form part of one’s ongoing
developing personal value system, which equips one with a pair of cognitive and affective
lenses to shape and modify one’s way of perceiving and interpreting mathematics and the
world, and to guide one’s choice of course of action.

It is not any individual value --- but rather, one's value system --- which influences
one's decisions and actions in life. Even then, this influence is in the form of guidance,
not control. This can be understood in terms of competing values, second-hand values and
the nature of some values to exist in complementary pairs. Thus, although personally-held
values are deeply internalized, one's value system is not a static entity. They are
constantly being challenged and modified as part of one’s life experience.

Research questions
In the light of the discussion thus far, this preliminary analysis of text in
representative Years 7 and 8 (the first two years of secondary schooling) mathematics
textbooks in Singapore and Victoria attempts to answer the following research questions:
(a) How are the mathematical and mathematics educational values emphasized relative to
their complementary values in Singapore and Victoria textbooks?
(b) What accounts for any difference in the ways mathematical and mathematics
educational values are portrayed in Singapore and Victoria textbooks?
A short discussion of the consequences and implications of such differences follows.

Methodology
The analysis of textbooks belongs to a class of nonreactive research technique called
content analysis. This technique is useful for this study as it "can reveal messages in a text
that are difficult to see with casual observation" (Neuman, 1997, p. 274).

The first two years of secondary education in Singapore (Secondary 1 and 2) and
Victoria (Years 7 and 8) are selected to help define the population and sampling frame.
These years also correspond to the early impressionable teenage years. Furthermore, the
Secondary 3 and 4 mathematics syllabi in Singapore is produced in collaboration with the
University of Cambridge in Britain; thus, the mathematics curriculum in those higher
grade levels may not totally reflect Singapore's own intentions.

11
 The extent to which particular textbooks are representative was informed by random
surveys of government, Catholic and independent schools in Singapore and Victoria. The
two series adopted by the most number of schools in each region were identified for this
study. Over two grade levels, then, a total of eight books were selected for analysis, coded
as A1-7, A1-8, A2-7, A2-8, S1-7, S1-8, S2-7, and S2-8.

Without the luxury of time, only certain topics of each textbook were analyzed. The
112 chapters in the 8 textbooks were grouped into 24 topics according to strands of
algebra, chance and data, mathematical tools, measurement, number, and space. From
these 24 topics, the 2 most emphasized topics (by percentage space) were identified,
namely, ‘rate, ratio and percentage’ (number) and ‘area, perimeter, volume’
(measurement), accounting for a total of 680 pages, and ranging from 15.88% (S1) to
23.36% (A1) among the textbook series.

Only text was analyzed, which includes expository writing, worked examples,
practice questions, and peripheral writing (introductory remarks, meta-expositions,
summaries, etc). Cover designs, illustrations, figures, charts and physical properties of
text (e.g. font type, font size, text length) were excluded in this preliminary study. Latent
coding (Neuman, 1997) was used to analyze the often implicit meanings in text content at
various levels ranging from the lexical to the contextual. While validity of such semantic
analysis is very high (Neuman, 1997), reliability needs to be taken care of. This was
achieved through practice rounds with other text in the same textbooks, construction and
use of written rules, and piloting these rules with peers.

A checklist was complied to facilitate the identification and coding of text features
which act as value signals. Some of these value signals had been acknowledged before
(Bishop, 1988; Dowling, 1996), whereas the rest were constructed through random trial
coding with other text in the same textbooks. To ensure consistency, new specific coding
situations which arose after coding began were all recorded, followed by repeated
perusals of text which had been analyzed.

The assumption here is that a mathematical or mathematics educational value may be

portrayed by one or more of the value signals. On the other hand, a value signal may
communicate more than one value. Another assumption made was that the strengths of
the messages portrayed by the value signals are mutually similar. Thus, the effect of each
value signal is not weighted. The extensive range of value signals representing particular
values may, however, neutralize any effect (if any) somewhat arising from this
assumption.

Symbolization of ideas and quantities using numbers, letters, symbols, equations and
inequalities is heavily utilized. A limitation of this study is that counts of symbolization
were estimated from ten randomly chosen pages among the chosen topics in the four
textbook series. A precise count is not only not feasible given the time constraint, but it
would distract one from the identification of other value signals in the text. As it turned
out, the use of symbolization is so high (see Table 1 in the next section) that either the
estimated or actual number would emphasize the value of objectism anyway.

12
 Results
19 856 value signals were identified from the 680 pages analyzed, 12 433 of which
are featured within the 444 pages of Victoria textbooks. Furthermore, 28 937 counts of
symbolization were estimated to have been featured among the chapters analyzed.

Portrayal of mathematical values

The number of value signals for each mathematical value, and the relative proportions
between complementary pairs, coded in Singapore’s and Victoria’s textbook series are
shown in Table 1:

Table 1
Distribution of mathematical value signals
Rationalism Objectism
A1 486 (0.05=) 41 + 8 602= (0.95=)
A2 384 (0.05=) 44 + 7 682= (0.95=)
=
S1 340 (0.05 ) 49 + 6 083= (0.95=)
=
S2 464 (0.07 ) 63 + 6 570= (0.93=)
=
A1 + A2 870 (0.05 ) 85 + 16 284= (0.95=)
=
S1 + S2 804 (0.06 ) 112 + 12 653= (0.94=)
=
All 1 674 (0.05 ) 197 + 28 937 (0.95=)

Control Progress
A1 980 (0.97) 30 (0.03)
A2 1 212 (0.98) 30 (0.02)
S1 476 (0.98) 9 (0.02)
S2 561 (0.99) 4 (0.01)
A1 + A2 2 192 (0.97) 60 (0.03)
S1 + S2 1 037 (0.99) 13 (0.01)
All 3 229 (0.98) 73 (0.02)

Openness Mystery
A1 469 (0.16) 2 431 (0.84)
A2 403 (0.13) 2 749 (0.87)
S1 193 (0.10) 1 744 (0.90)
S2 205 (0.08) 2 214 (0.92)
A1 + A2 872 (0.14) 5 180 (0.86)
S1 + S2 398 (0.09) 3 958 (0.91)
All 1 270 (0.12) 9 138 (0.88)
Note. = estimated frequencies of symbolization.

In general, then, both Singapore and Victoria mathematics textbooks emphasize the
mathematical values of objectism, control and mystery.

The capability and flexibility with which mathematics manages the abstract through
concretizing it with symbols is clearly portrayed in both regions. On the other hand, the
message of rationalism --- of separating object from idea --- is mainly achieved through
the absence of context (e.g. Case 1 below). In Singapore textbooks, rationalism is also
strongly communicated through the use of logic connectors such as 'thus', 'so', 'therefore'
and 'hence', all of which imply cause-and-effect and deductive reasoning.

Case 1
Absence/removal of context (A1-7-7-227P)

13
The length of one pair of opposite sides of a square is reduced by 10% and the other pair of sides is
increased by 10%. What is the area of the new rectangle compared with the original square? (Is it the
same, a certain percentage greater, or smaller?)

The value of control is presented mainly through the use of imperatives. For example,
in Case 2, the reader is to

Case 2
Use of imperatives and portraying personal empowerment (S1-7-8-222Q)
Calculate in each shop the difference between the hire purchase price and the cash price. State which shop
is offering the better deal.

Incidentally, the portrayal of personal empowerment through mathematics as is illustrated

in Case 2 is also substantially used by textbooks in both regions to communicate the value
of control.

Worked solutions in textbook series A2 are also accompanied by step-by-step

instructions which spell out clearly what is to be carried out:

Case 3
Use of imperatives and detailed instructions (A2-8-4-155E)
Worked Example 4.7
Express the first amount as a percentage of the second in each case
(a) 42, 70
Steps Solution
(a) 1. Write a fraction with the first amount as the numerator ….
and the second as the denominator.
100
2. Multiply the fraction by and add a % sign.
1
3. Cancel down. Here we have divided ….
4. Multiply.

Although mathematics is not highly conveyed as facilitating progress, this value is

signaled differently in the two regions. In Singapore, progress is conceptualized
somewhat more theoretically as in the generation of new mathematical knowledge, such
as in using the formula for the area of rectangles to derive the formulae of areas of
triangles, parallelograms and trapeziums (S1-7-12-333P, S2-7-9-162E). In Victoria, there
is a promotion of mathematical knowledge contributing to societal progress, like the
anthropologist’s estimation of human or animal heights from excavated skeleton parts
(A1-8-8-294P), the use of scale drawings in the precise descriptions in maps and building
plans (A2-8-10-451E), and the use of pantographs in the pre-photocopier era (A1-8-7-
241P).

The pre-eminence of the value of mathematics being mysterious over that of

mathematics being open to scrutiny is attributed in both Singapore and Victoria to the use
of imperatives and of specialist vocabulary. The use of the passive voice (thus removing
the subject in the sentence) is a third major factor in Singapore text, although this is not as
significantly used in Victoria textbooks. Imperatives instruct the reader and suggest ‘one
best way’ to do mathematics. Specialist vocabulary classifies readers into in- and out-
groups. Case 4 illustrates:

Case 4
Use of imperatives and specialist vocabulary (A1-7-9-300P)

14
Then draw a graph as shown: plotting length and area. Join the points to make a curve. From the graph,
find which length gives the greatest value for area.

The most frequently adopted value signal for openness in Victoria textbooks is the use
of pronouns ‘we’ and ‘you’, and their related forms (e.g. ‘us’, ‘your’). The use of ‘you’
and its related form in these books --- often to refer to the operation of some menial tasks
--- reminds that ‘we’ refers to the textbooks writers only. In other words, openness is
conveyed through a sense of second person participation, but not through the
establishment of peer relationship between writer and reader (e.g. Case 5).

Case 5
Use of ‘we’ and ‘you’ (A2-8-4-147E)
So, to convert 95% to a decimal, we may simply divide by 100. You may recall from decimals in Year 7
that to divide by 100, we place a decimal point after the units digit. … …

In Singapore textbooks, however, openness is most often conveyed through inviting

reader question posing, a value signal which was not employed in any of the Victoria text
analyzed in this study (e.g.: Case 6).

Case 6
Inviting reader question posing (S2-7-11-211P)
Understand the problem by asking the questions:
1. How far can a car travel on 1 litre of petrol?
2. How much petrol is needed to travel 1 km?
3. How many litres of petrol are required to travel 260 km?

Portrayal of mathematics educational values

Table 2 shows the distribution of mathematics educational value signals in the
Singapore and Victoria textbooks analyzed.

Table 2
Distribution of mathematics educational values
Formalistic view Activist view
A1 3 330 (0.93) 237 (0.07)
A2 3 398 (0.94) 229 (0.06)
A1 + A2 6 728 (0.94) 466 (0.06)
S1 1 618 (0.89) 207 (0.11)
S2 2 193 (0.91) 225 (0.09)
S1 + S2 3 811 (0.90) 432 (0.10)
All 10 539 (0.92) 898 (0.08)

Relational understanding Instrumental understanding

A1 39 (0.02) 2 010 (0.98)
A2 55 (0.03) 2 119 (0.97)
A1 + A2 94 (0.02) 4 129 (0.98)
S1 23 (0.04) 523 (0.96)
S2 25 (0.03) 789 (0.97)
S1 + S2 48 (0.04) 1 312 (0.96)
All 142 (0.03) 5 441 (0.97)

Relevance Theoretical
A1 230 (0.41) 330 (0.59)

15
 A2 194 (0.38) 315 (0.62)
A1 + A2 424 (0.40) 645 (0.60)
S1 85 (0.35) 159 (0.65)
S2 116 (0.37) 195 (0.63)
S1 + S2 201 (0.36) 354 (0.64)
All 625 (0.38) 999 (0.62)

Accessibility Specialism
A1 57 (0.05) 1 206 (0.95)
A2 40 (0.03) 1 216 (0.97)
A1 + A2 97 (0.04) 2 422 (0.96)
S1 15 (0.01) 1 032 (0.99)
S2 19 (0.01) 1 302 (0.99)
S1 + S2 34 (0.01) 2 334 (0.99)
All 131 (0.03) 4 756 (0.97)

Evaluation Reasoning
A1 2 062 (0.90) 223 (0.10)
A2 2 157 (0.93) 154 (0.07)
A1 + A2 4 219 (0.92) 377 (0.08)
S1 630 (0.93) 50 (0.07)
S2 830 (0.97) 22 (0.03)
S1 + S2 1 460 (0.95) 72 (0.05)
All 5 679 (0.93) 449 (0.07)

The text in both Singapore and Victoria has been found to convey the mathematics
educational values of formalistic view, instrumental understanding, theoretical
knowledge, specialism, and evaluating with greater emphases than their respective
complementary values.

Through the predominant use of specialist vocabulary and inclusion of routine drills
questions in textbooks, the two regions emphasize the formalistic view of mathematics.
Singapore is likely to use more specialist vocabulary than to include individual drills
questions, whereas the reverse is true in Victoria. Case 7 is an example communicating
implicitly the messages of both deductive reasoning and receptive learning.

Case 7
Use of specialist vocabulary in a drills question (A2-8-5-198Q)
Use the formula C = D to calculate the circumference of the following circles.

Practice questions which appear to be of the investigative/problem-solving nature in

Singapore textbooks are likely to have been introduced in the worked examples given
earlier in the respective sections. Problem-solving strategies are also explicitly taught in
the worked examples. These presentation styles reinforce the formalistic view of
mathematics learning in Singapore.

16
 The remaining truly investigative/problem-solving type of practice questions in
Singapore textbooks do portray an activist component to mathematics learning. This is the
predominant value signal in Victoria text too. In addition, the Victoria textbooks are more
likely to portray this value through relating mathematical knowledge to its historical
development, thus exposing the range of intuition, trails and errors, and estimation
experienced by mathematicians. Case 8 is an example.

Case 8
Relating current mathematical knowledge to historical development (A1-8-8-270E)
Archimedes, about 250BC, stated the following: ’The area of a circle is the same as the area of a triangle
which has a base equal to the circumference of the circle and an altitude equal to the radius of the circle’.
This is how he argued it!
Divided [sic] the circle into concentric rings.
Cut the circle along a radius and open out the rings into straight sections and you have a step triangle.
If you make the rings as thin as possible, it will become exactly equal to the triangle!
……

Among the text analyzed, questions testing for reader mathematical reasoning are only
found in the Victoria textbooks. The activities involved in such questions (e.g.
generalizing, justifying) also exemplify the activist view (e.g. Case 9).

Case 9
Performance expectation --- mathematical reasoning (A1-8-6-198Q)
Tennis balls can be bought in a can of 3 for $8.88 or a can of 4 for $10.64.
(a) Find the cost of 1 ball in each case. Which is cheaper?
(b) Consider that you are only going to play one afternoon of tennis on one count. Which can will you
buy?

Both Singapore and Victoria promote mathematics learning as involving instrumental

understanding. This message is most frequently conveyed through the inclusion of a
large number of drills questions (as opposed to problem-solving sums). Interestingly,
there is a larger number of drills questions (by percentage space) in Victoria textbooks
than in Singapore textbooks. Textbook S2 even ‘prepares’ the student reader for different
possible problem scenarios by including relevant worked examples, which also promotes
the formalistic view.

The relevance of mathematics learning is mainly signaled through the inclusion of

local context, as well as through demonstrating human control over his/her environment.
In Case 10, the value of relevance is especially obvious in the summer season!

Case 10
Power of mathematics to control in a local context (A1-8-8-273Q)
A fire spotter can see from his tower a distance of 53km in all directions. How many sq.
kilometres of forest can he supervise?

17
Local context in Victoria textbooks are largely achieved through the use of authentic,
local documents or data; in Singapore, local context comes through most often as a result
of labeling people and objectives with local names (e.g. Cases 11 and 12).

Case 11
Use of local context in Victoria textbook (A1-8-6-179Q)
The numbers of telephone services in operation in Australia were as follows:
Year 1985 1986 1987
Services in operation 6 186 835 6 501 468 6 816301
Find the percentage increases from 1985 to 1986 and from 1986 to 1987. (Express each answer correct to
the second decimal point.)

Case 12
Use of local context in Singapore textbook (S2-8-1-11/12E)
EXAMPLE 10
In 1995, Mr Tan received a 10% pay rise. The following year his pay was cut by the same percentage
when his company turned in a poor performance. After the pay cut, did Mr Tan take home more or less
than before the pay increase?

……
Strategy 1: … …
Suppose that Mr Tan’s original pay was made up of 10 parts. … …

Strategy 2: … …
Suppose Mr Tan’s pay was $100 before the pay increase.

Strategy 3: … …
Let Mr Tan’s pay before the pay increase in 1995 be $x.
……

Although both Singapore and Victoria are multicultural societies, it is only in Victoria
textbooks that readers are likely to be invited to contribute their own cultural
experiences/knowledge, another value signal for relevance:

Case 13
Inviting readers to contribute cultural experience/knowledge (A2-7-7-307P)
We have given the history of the calendar we use today. Find out something about the calendar used by the
Mayas of Central America and the Chinese calendar.

The theoretical nature of mathematics education is often achieved through the

removal of context. There are also instances in both Singapore and Victoria when
impractical context are introduced. Case 14 is an example of the latter:

Case 14
Impractical context (i.e. subscription fee is not usually determined this way) (S1-7-7-182Q)
The subscriptions to a club for men and women are in the ratio 4:3. Two men and five women pay a total
sum of $460. What is the subscription fee for each man?

A sense of specialism of mathematics learning is also emphasized in Singapore and

Victoria textbooks, mainly conveyed through the use of specialist vocabulary. For
example, in Case 15, the definition of a right prism may not be easily understood without

18
possibly referring to other text. Does this imply that readers who are already familiar with
the specialist vocabulary used are further privileged to acquire another new mathematical
concept faster or sooner?

Case 15
Use of specialist vocabulary (S2-7-10-182P)
In general, a right prism is a solid which has two parallel ends of the same shape and size. Also, its lateral
surfaces are perpendicular to its parallel ends.

In the last value category, the practice questions in the Singapore and Victoria text
analyzed have been found to test predominantly for reader performance on knowledge,
using routine procedures, and investigations/problem-solving. There are little
opportunities for readers to use their mathematical knowledge to reason and to
communicate ideas and opinions (e.g. Case 9). As in Case 16 below, potential exists for
practice questions to be phrased differently so as to stimulate more context-specific
reasoning exercises:

Case 16
A drills question (S2-8-1-7Q)
The rice consumption in a certain city was 80 000 tonnes in 1985. By 1990, the rice consumption had
increased by 24%. If the consumption of rice in the city continued to increase at the same rate, i.e., 24%
every 5 years, find the consumption of rice in the city in 1995.

Discussion
In the Singapore and Victoria textbooks analyzed, there is a predominant emphasis of
the mathematical values of
objectism over rationalism,
control over progress,
mystery over openness,
and the mathematics educational values of:
formalistic view over activist view of mathematics learning,
instrumental understanding over relational understanding in mathematics learning,
theoretical over relevant nature of mathematical knowledge,
specialism over accessibility of mathematics learning, and
evaluating over reasoning aspect in mathematics learning.

The way mathematical and mathematics educational values are portrayed in

Singapore and Victoria textbooks, school mathematics involves the receptive learning of
concepts, formulae, structure and theorems (formalistic view of mathematics learning),
the schemas of which are fixed and stable (control). The mathematical situation is more
often theoretical, and the learner is expected to demonstrate the ability to concretize and
objectivize any abstract idea (objectism), so as to match the given task to particular and
appropriate formulae or theorems (instrumental understanding). Thus, school
mathematics is learnt to help us find numerical answers to unknowns (the evaluating
aspect of mathematics learning). Nevertheless, the nature of mathematics remains a
mystery to all (mystery), and as such the knowledge is not readily accessible to everyone
(specialism).

19
 What are the implications of such a portrayal of mathematical knowledge and
mathematics learning on pupils? By the very nature of content analysis, the impact and
effects of these subtle messages on pupil readers cannot be inferred without carrying out a
further study on their perceptions (Neuman, 1997; Sommer & Sommer, 1997). However,
the potential remains for young pupil readers to be influenced by the way textbooks
perceive mathematics and mathematics learning. If such a relation between textbook
portrayal and reader perception exists, the effects on pupil attainment of cognitive
objectives can be very real. For example, mathematics is portrayed in these textbooks as
involving more of concretizing and objectivizing abstract ideas than abstracting ideas for
rational and reasonal processing. Yet we are more familiar with the latter operation in our
lives (Bishop, 1988). Hence we hear pupils complain that mathematics is ‘too abstract to
understand’. From a wider perspective, the implications for a nation like Singapore whose
citizens is her only natural resource can be disturbing indeed. In fact, this would possibly
jeopardize Singapore’s realization of the current ‘Thinking Schools, Learning Nation’
initiative in the knowledge-based economy of today.

The more commonly adopted value signals for mathematical values --- i.e.
symbolization, imperatives, specialist vocabulary, and the passive voice --- have
somehow become an accepted feature of the nature of mathematical writing. These value
signals also enjoy a relative ease of deployment and of being repeatedly used in
mathematical text.

As for mathematics educational values, the fact that they are attributed to teaching
practice suggests that their portrayal are mostly within the control of textbook writers. An
exception may be the amount of specialist vocabulary used. Specialist vocabulary
communicates the values of mathematics being mysterious as well as of mathematics
learning as formalistic and open to certain people only. Although there have been efforts
made by textbook writers and teachers alike to reduce technical jargon in their
text/teaching, there is often a limit to which this can be maintained without sounding too
general and vague. This situation is certainly true of mathematics topics at the secondary
level.

However, the form of genre specific to any discipline is continually evolving and
developing as a response to the environment to which it is applied. There is certainly an
element of human participation and intervention in this process. Thus, while the
realization of a balanced emphasis on affective values in mathematics education may rest
on the prevailing nature of mathematical writing, opportunities exist for value signals to
be deployed in different ways so as to bring about this desired portrayal of relevant
mathematical and mathematics educational values.

Victoria’s greater likelihood to integrate (rather than include) local context, to relate
mathematical situations to their respective historical developments, and to invite readers
to contribute cultural mathematical knowledge, provide the Victoria textbook reader with
more opportunities to encounter mathematical situations involving subjective or debatable
interpretations and different possible solutions. For example, different pupils may justify
their different answers to a question involving an authentic, local train time-table, citing
real-world or personal experiences. Even though problem posing provides opportunities
for a more open-ended learning experience (Silver, 1994), the way it is introduced
(uniquely) in the Singapore text analyzed (e.g. Case 6) suggests its use as a focussed
problem-solving strategy only. In fact, the variety of such strategies are explicitly taught

20
in the Singapore textbooks analyzed. The inclusion of worked examples to teach question
posing is unique to Singapore textbooks only. Opportunities for different interpretations
and possible solutions in mathematics are also extended to practice questions in Victoria;
Singapore textbooks do not feature questions testing for mathematical reasoning and
communication. This is despite an aim of the Singapore mathematics education being for
pupils to “use mathematics as a means of communication” (Singapore Ministry of
Education, 1990, p. 2). On the other hand, there is an inclusion of a mathematical project
component in Victoria’s tertiary entrance examinations.

Comparing practice questions alone, it is thus not surprising to find a majority of

questions in Singapore and Victoria textbooks testing for pupil knowledge and drills.
However, this proportion is smaller among Singapore practice questions than Victoria
practice questions. Possible reasons are Singapore’s more explicit official emphasis on
problem-solving (Singapore Ministry of Education, 1990, p. 3), and the relative ease and
affordability with which supplementary question assessment material is available in
bookshops around Singapore.

Singapore textbooks’ apparent cautiousness against assessment involving subjective

or multiple solutions may reflect the writers’ internalization of some time-tested, more
traditional mathematics educational values, to the extent that even problem-solving
questions appear in the form of drills! This may well explain why Australia traditionally
outperforms Singapore in International Mathematical Olympiads, but Singapore’s lower
secondary pupils top the Third International Mathematics and Science Studies.

Education remains the key to national survival and individual social mobility in many
countries. Intellectual capital is also increasingly a defining factor for a nation’s
competitiveness. The nurturing of the different domains of educational objectives and
learning more about how they work with one another provide a perspective towards the
creation of knowledge in the 21st century. This preliminary study, hopefully, makes a
contribution in this regard.

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Textbooks analyzed
Ganderton, G. D., & McLeod, J. K. (1996a). Mathematics for Australian schools: Year 7. (3rd ed.).
Melbourne, Australia: MacMillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.
Ganderton, G. D., & McLeod, J. K. (1996b). Mathematics for Australian schools: Year 8. (3rd ed.).
Melbourne, Australia: MacMillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.
Phillips, G., Strasser, D., & Nolan, J. (1995). Heinemann mathematics 8. Melbourne, Australia: Rigby
Heinemann.
Sin, K. M. (1996). New elementary mathematics syllabus D: Book 1. (2nd ed.). Singapore: Pan Pacific
Publications (S) Pte Ltd.
Sin, K. M. (1997). New elementary mathematics syllabus D: Book 2. (2nd ed.). Singapore: Pan Pacific
Publications (S) Pte Ltd.
Strasser, D., Phillips, G., & Nolan, J. (1995). Heinemann mathematics 7. Melbourne, Australia: Rigby
Heinemann.
Teh, K. S., & Looi, C. K. (1997). New syllabus D mathematics 1. (4th ed.). Singapore: Shinglee Publishers
Pte Ltd.

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Teh, K. S., & Looi, C. K. (1998). New syllabus D mathematics 2. (4th ed.). Singapore: Shinglee Publishers
Pte Ltd.

Authors
Wee Tiong Seah, Faculty of Education, PO Box 6, Monash University, Victoria 3800, AUSTRALIA;
[email protected]
Alan J. Bishop, Faculty of Education, PO Box 6, Monash University, Victoria 3800, AUSTRALIA;
[email protected]

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